3
The OD Consultant
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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
•
Define consultants and clients.
•
Identify the competencies of consultants.
•
•
Describe the types, roles, and styles of OD consultants.
Outline the elements of a good consulting contract.
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The employees of the QuickCo shipping department are at each other’s throats. The department’s 10 employees have always worked long hours striving to fill customer orders on time.
But over the past year or so, the workload has increased and the pressure to keep up has become
incessant. The employees have strong personalities, and as multiple orders start backing up,
their stress levels rise, their tempers flare, and they say disrespectful things. People are on edge,
interpersonal conflicts have developed, and no one seems very happy.
The supervisor of the department, Ned, is an
easygoing guy who has taken a laid-back
approach to the mounting stress levels and
conflicts. His mantra is “Let’s not get emotional here. We’ve got work to do, so let’s get
back to it.” Ned’s avoidance strategy is not
helpful. The festering discontent and conflicts are reducing the department’s ability
to ship accurate orders on time. Absenteeism
is up, morale is down, and people do not
communicate with or help each other as they
used to. When problems arise, no one speaks
up because of the bad feelings that have
developed and the resignation that Ned will
not do anything about it anyway. So resentment builds.
Cameron Whitman/iStock/Thinkstock
Work on the QuickCo shipping dock was
disrupted by interpersonal conflicts.
Ned is feeling pressure from other departments as customers’ complaints about inaccurate and
late orders mount. The manufacturing manager, Sarah, calls the shipping department supervisor into a meeting.
“Ned, your department’s performance for accurate, on-time delivery is plummeting,” Sarah says.
“I looked back at the order procurement for the past year, and your trend has been steadily
downward. The past quarter is even worse. Customer complaints are rising, and other department heads are complaining. What is going on here?”
Ned replies, “We work like crazy, Sarah, but no one is working together. We are busier than
normal but should have the staff to get the work done. There are long-simmering interpersonal
conflicts, and we aren’t working together like we used to. I keep telling everyone to get over it
and get the job done, but no one seems to be listening.”
“It sounds like you need some help to get to the bottom of this problem,” says Sarah. “Let’s go see
Jack in OD.”
Ned and Sarah set up a meeting with Jack. Although he has heard about the conflicts in the
department, during their first meeting, Jack asks a lot of questions until he has a good idea of
what is going on. Jack asks Ned point-blank, “What are you doing or not doing that might be
contributing to the problem?”
Ned acknowledges, “I don’t have the patience or time for conflict and just want everyone to get
along and do the work.”
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Jack then asks, “Are you willing to do the work to fix this, even if it means that you might have to
change or be more hands-on with conflict resolution?”
Ned replies, “I won’t like it, but we have to do something. I’m in.”
Jack also asks Sarah if she will back Ned up on addressing this change. Once the two of them
agree, Jack emphasizes, “I can work with you, providing we have an equal partnership. We all
need to share the responsibility for diagnosing the problem and taking the necessary action to
solve it.”
The three agree to work together on finding a solution to the interpersonal conflicts and productivity issues in the shipping department. Before making an intervention, Jack wants to gather
data, so he reviews the performance trends and customer complaints and interviews the members of the department individually. Once Jack has completed his data collection and analysis, he
sets up another meeting with Ned and Sarah.
“Ned and Sarah, you have a dysfunctional team on your hands,” Jack says. “They have no ground
rules, collaboration, or means of handling conflict. Everyone needs to be more understanding
and respectful toward each other. It would also be helpful to create some guidelines for how the
team wants to operate and manage conflict. Ned, you also need to take a more active role in
resolving issues.”
Jack presents a few options to Ned and Sarah, and they settle on taking the group through a
facilitated process to address communication and team effectiveness. They also agree that Ned
could use some individualized executive coaching to help him learn behaviors that would be
more productive for dealing with conflict. They set up a time to make the intervention. To prepare, they have all of the department members take a behavioral-styles inventory so the team
has data on individual differences. They then schedule a meeting at which they will share the
inventory results and their interpretation.
As the meeting begins, everyone is tentative, their arms crossed. Ned kicks off the meeting by
thanking everyone for their hard work and acknowledging that there are problems. He emphasizes that everyone has participated in creating the problems and that everyone must help solve
them. He also admits his own role in the problems and reveals that he is working on improving
his managerial skills to be more effective. Ned has everyone’s attention. Then Jack delves into
presenting and interpreting the results of the inventory everyone has taken. The group becomes
animated and even seems to enjoy sharing the differences among one another. The ice is broken,
and people start to let their guards down a bit.
The group takes a break, and next the agenda shifts to more serious issues. The group spends
some time identifying strengths and weaknesses of the team and lists things that would make
the team more effective. By the end of the session, the team has come up with a tangible plan
about how to be more effective and what specific actions team members will take with each
other. People are talking again and have agreed not to suffer in silence when they become upset.
Everyone goes back to work and tries to apply the new standards for team interaction. Jack
works with Ned to make sure the agreements from the meeting are upheld. Ned also continues
to work with his coach to change his behavior and becomes more proactive and sensitive to
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Section 3.1
Defining Consultants and Clients
conflicts when they arise. Jack also keeps in touch with Sarah to make sure she is supporting
Ned’s efforts and getting the results she needs for departmental improvement.
The intervention has a dramatic effect: The percentage of orders shipped on time increases
quickly, and customer complaints plummet. Why? Because all of the stakeholders were involved
in a process that
1.
2.
3.
4.
created mutual understanding and insight about member differences and similarities,
jointly articulated the problems,
collectively devised a plan for dealing with them, and
was visibly supported by management.
As discussed in Chapter 1, participative activities usually result in buy-in because people want
a say in things that affect their work lives. Although there will still be challenges as the group
relearns how to function together, Ned, Sarah, and Jack facilitated an OD intervention that was
collaborative, data based, and problem focused. The ability of Ned and the shipping department
employees to resolve future conflicts will be the true test of whether the intervention was successful and helped the department build new capacity for dealing with problems.
The success realized by the QuickCo shipping department was due in part to the work of the OD
consultant, Jack, who helped Ned and his team identify and address their problems in a way that
was relevant, timely, and respectful. This chapter is about OD consultants: the different types,
roles, and styles of consultants; their competencies and skills; and the contracting process consultants engage in when working with clients.
3.1 Defining Consultants and Clients
Chapters 1 and 2 introduced organization development and change. This chapter focuses on
the people who practice OD, generally known as consultants. In Chapter 1, we defined an
OD consultant as a person who practices OD. This person may be an internal employee or
external to the organization. We defined an OD consultant as a practitioner of OD who has
specialized knowledge of the action research process and facilitation skills to lead organizations through planned change. In reality, the terms practitioner and consultant are used synonymously in OD.
See Who Invented That? Management Consulting.
Who Invented That? Management Consulting
Arthur D. Little created the first management consulting firm in 1886 at the same time
management was also emerging as a field of study. At the time, Little focused on technical
research and later shifted to management consulting. Frederick Winslow Taylor started an
independent consulting practice in Philadelphia in 1893; however, he is better known as the
creator of scientific management, or Taylorism (a method of analyzing and synthesizing production work for efficiency). The consulting industry did not factor prominently as a resource
(continued on next page)
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Defining Consultants and Clients
Section 3.1
Who Invented That? Management Consulting (continued)
organizations turned to for help until the late 20th century with the rise of major, global consulting firms in the 1980s and 1990s.
You can learn more about these firms and their services at http://www.stormscape.com/
inspiration/website-lists/consulting-firms, which lists the 50 major consulting firms and
links to their websites. Forbes also has compiled a listing of the most prestigious consulting firms at the following link: https://www.forbes.com/sites/vickyvalet/2019/03/19/
americas-best-management-consulting-firms-2019/#1a22845b3d00.
Consultants Are Helpers, Influencers, and Persuaders
Consultants are often described as helpers (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986; Schein, 2011). Schein
(2011) commented,
Helping is a basic relationship that moves things forward. We take helping so
much for granted in our ordinary daily life that the word itself often comes
up only when someone is said to have “not been helpful” in a situation where
help was taken for granted. (p. ix)
Consulting is about helping—specifically about providing “helpful help,” rather than “unhelpful help” (Schein, 2011, p. 1). Simply, consultants specialize in creating understanding and
trust with their clients via relationships.
Consultants also need to influence the OD process as they do not have positional power to
delegate the activity that has to occur to implement change. They also need to be persuasive about what routes of action might work more effectively in the organization. Peter Block
(2011), considered a master of OD consulting, explained:
A consultant is a person in a position to have some influence over an individual, group, or organization but [who] has no direct power to make changes
or implement programs. A manager is someone who has direct responsibility
over the action. The moment you take direct responsibility, you are acting as
a manager. (p. 2)
Jack, the consultant in the QuickCo vignette, had little power over the shipping department
and could not simply march in and give orders. But Jack and Ned were able to collaboratively
intervene in a way that addressed the problems, and they developed new insights and skills to
help the department handle future issues. Cockman, Evans, and Reynolds (1996) noted that
consultants are
people who find themselves having to influence other people, or advise them
about possible courses of action to improve the effectiveness of any aspect of
their operations, without any formal authority over them or choosing not to
use what authority they have. (p. 3)
Consultants are also persuaders. Although they have little power to implement change, they
compensate by developing persuasive skills to promote change with their clients. These skills
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Defining Consultants and Clients
Section 3.1
include prevailing on a person or organization to adopt a course of action through advising, urging, or providing compelling evidence. One example of persuading the client might
be using the organization’s own performance data to show information that would motivate
change, such as retention statistics, quality performance, or product rankings. A consultant
might also persuade a leader to examine and perhaps change his or her leadership style using
feedback from employees.
“A consultant is one who provides help, counsel, advice, and support, which implies that such
a person is wiser than most people” (Burke, 1992, p. 173). OD wisdom is developed through
learning OD theory and process and having the ability to explain it to the client and persuade
the organization to change its course.
Consider This
Think about people who have helped you. What about them made you seek or accept their
help? They are likely people who made you feel that they understood you and you could trust
them (Schein, 2011). Now think about people who are “unhelpful.” How are they different
from helpers?
Think about the helping, influencing, and persuading behaviors you have either used yourself
or observed in your work and life. How can you use them more often in your own practice?
Consultants Work With Clients
Consultants work for a person, team, or department, any of which can be a client. Block (2011)
defined a client as anyone who
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
attends the initial OD planning meeting,
sets objectives for the project,
approves any actions to be taken,
receives the report on the results of the consultant’s work, and
is significantly affected by the OD effort.
Consultants seek to accomplish at least three things when working with clients, according to
Block (2011): establishing a collaborative relationship, solving problems so they stay solved,
and ensuring that both the business problem and the relationship with the client are given
adequate attention. The QuickCo vignette highlights how these goals can be achieved.
Schein (1997) took a broader view and distinguished six types of clients:
1. Contact clients: Individual(s) who make the initial contact with the consultant to
request services, ask a question, or raise an issue
2. Intermediate clients: Individuals or groups participating in data collection, meetings,
and activities related to the OD project
3. Primary clients: Individual(s) who ultimately “own” the issue subject to OD consulting. They are also usually the ones who pay the bills or budget for the project.
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Section 3.1
Defining Consultants and Clients
4. Unwitting clients: Members of the
organization or system who are
affected by the intervention but are
not aware of it
5. Indirect clients: Members of the
organization who know about and
are affected by the OD intervention
but are unknown to the consultant
6. Ultimate clients: The community,
wider organization, and other stakeholders affected by the intervention
Mediaphotos/E+/Getty Images Plus
When beginning a relationship with a client, A consultant works with clients to agree on
a consultant must first determine the iden- parameters for the consulting agreement.
tity of the primary client. That is why
Schein’s (1997) typology is helpful. Novice
consultants often mistake contact clients for primary clients. Let us say you are a consultant
who is called by a department manager to help the organization do strategic planning. The
manager was tasked with making the first contact because she recommended you as a potential consultant during a management team meeting. Her recommendation was based on some
consulting you provided to a nonprofit organization she belongs to. The person making contact was the contact client because she requested services. The primary client in this case
would be the top executive of the organization whose job is to set strategy.
The primary client worked with you to create a strategic planning process that was inclusive
and involved a cross-section of representatives from the business who attended meetings
and developed surveys to share with a randomized segment of the organization. These were
intermediate clients, who participated in the process in some way, possibly from business
units across the organization that were affected by the problem. During the strategic planning
process, the employees who were not aware of and did not participate in the process were the
unwitting clients. The employees who were aware of the process but did not participate in any
way were the indirect clients. Finally, the stakeholders of the organization—such as the community, other company divisions, or suppliers—were the ultimate clients because they were
affected in some way by the strategies created.
Burke (2017) defined the ultimate client differently. He held that the ultimate client is the
behavior in organizations represented by people’s interactions, relationships, and interfaces.
He argued that these interactions are representative of the realities of organization life, and
thus they were the focus of his consultancy. He focused his OD practice on how the organization manages subordinate relationships: managing up, managing laterally, and managing
unit interfaces. Change happens through these relationships, and understanding their related
issues and challenges ultimately helps the OD process.
Regardless of the type of client a consultant encounters, it is important to build a trusting
relationship. If a client does not trust a consultant, it will be difficult for meaningful, impactful OD to occur. Think of someone you trust and note the reasons. Chances are you identified
interpersonal attributes such as honesty, dependability, responsibility, respectfulness, and
believability. You also might have listed competencies such as expertise, experience, or being
a recognized authority. These elements help build trust with the client.
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Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Section 3.2
3.2 Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Steele (1969) likened OD consultants to detectives, noting the following shared attributes
of each:
•
•
•
•
•
•
They have temporary involvement in a system.
They focus on data gathering and problem solving.
They offer the potential for “dramatics.”
They are oriented toward action and excitement.
They rely on experts.
Their work involves juggling several stimulating cases simultaneously.
Today, Steele’s comparison still rings true as we consider the challenging, exciting work of
implementing planned change in organizations. This section begins by distinguishing the two
types of consultants—internal and external—introduced in Chapter 1. It then identifies a
variety of roles of consultants and explores various consultant styles.
Internal and External Consulting Types
OD consultants can be classified by type according to
their relationship with the organization. People act as
an internal consultant if they are a permanent member of the organization who facilitates OD, whether or
not that is their sole or primary responsibility. For
example, an internal consultant might work for the
organization as a full-time, permanent employee with a
client base of organization members and departments.
Some internal OD consultants might have responsibilities that are broader than just OD, such as managing the
human resource function or designing and delivering
training. Others will be dedicated to providing OD services full time.
If, in contrast, someone has a temporary relationship
with the organization and is not an insider or permanent employee, he or she is an external consultant.
A consultant may be self-employed or work for a conGoodshoot/Thinkstock
sulting firm that provides services to a number of organizations and industries. Organizations usually con- Some companies choose to retain
tact external consultants when the needed consulting internal consultants, whereas
expertise is not available in-house. An example would others hire external consultants
be an organization that hires an external diversity on an as-needed basis.
expert to develop an inclusive recruitment and retention plan in the event that no one inside the organization has such expertise.
Advantages of Internal and External Consulting
Advantages for the internal consultant include possessing privileged historical and contextual
organization knowledge that usually provides deep insight into its problems and challenges.
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Section 3.2
Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Internal consultants typically have built long-standing, trusting relationships with other
organization members.
External consultants also have advantages. Their temporary status gives them more leeway to
take risks than internal consultants, and they enjoy higher prestige and ready credibility due
to their unique peripheral status.
Disadvantages of Internal and External Consulting
Internal consultants may be more vulnerable to organization politics; for example, if they
are working on an unpopular change initiative, there may be backlash or undermining of
them and future projects. They could also be pressured to divulge confidential information or
take sides when individuals involved in the OD process disagree. Internal consultants are also
more likely to be taken for granted because their skill set is readily available for the organization to use. Internal consultants have to live with the OD interventions they create, including
maintaining relationships with other organization members who may not like the changes
they have helped implement. These realities might cause internal consultants to be more personally invested in an intervention’s success but also more timid about taking necessary risks.
External consultants, on the other hand, have less insight into the organization and are rarely
able to see the long-term impact of their efforts. Table 3.1 provides a more exhaustive list of
the pros and cons of internal and external consulting. There are more pros and cons associated with internal consultants.
Table 3.1: Pros and cons of internal and external consulting
Internal consultant pros
• They have knowledge of the client and
organizational problems.
• They have insight into the organization’s
history, politics, and culture.
• They likely share similar values with the client.
• They know where to find information and
resources.
• They understand the client and can predict
reactions and behaviors.
• They have an established reputation.
• They have other colleagues internally who may
be helpful.
• They can monitor and evaluate the
effectiveness of OD intervention.
Internal consultant cons
• They belong to the culture they are trying to
change (this could also be a pro).
• Their department’s image may follow them (it
helps if it is a good one).
• Their image may be a liability.
• Their services may be mandated by the
organization.
• They may have insights they must keep
confidential.
• They may be challenged by confidentiality
issues.
• They may be part of the problem.
• They may not be comfortable consulting
outside their rank.
• They may have to confront people with whom
they work.
• They may be discounted as a prophet in their
own land.
• They may fear that giving bad news could
adversely affect their advancement prospects.
(continued on next page)
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Section 3.2
Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Table 3.1: Pros and cons of internal and external consulting (continued)
External consultant pros
• Their entry timeline is usually short.
• They are viewed as novel.
• Their outsider status allows them immediate
prestige and credibility.
• Their capacity to take risks is high.
• They have a neutral, objective viewpoint on the
organization.
• They do not need to fear repercussions of
addressing difficult issues or people.
External consultant cons
• They do not receive ready trust.
• They have limited knowledge of the client or
organization history, culture, and politics.
Block’s Consultant Roles
Block (2011) identified three roles played by consultants: expert, pair-of-hands, and collaborator. They apply whether the consultant is internal or external.
Expert Role
When clients have a problem and lack the time and interest to deal with it, they often turn
to a knowledgeable consultant who serves in an expert role by telling them what to do. For
example, if two employees are on the warpath with each other, the client might hire a consultant who has expertise in conflict mediation. Or if an organization wants to administer a
survey, it might contract with an expert to conduct it. When consultants play the expert role,
clients expect them to provide answers and usually give them authority to fix the issue.
Pair-of-Hands Role
When clients have a task that needs to be completed and want someone else to do it, they
are seeking a consultant to play the pair-of-hands role. Usually, clients seeking this type of
consulting devote little time to or take little interest in the problem at hand. Instead, they hire
a consult and tell him or her what to do, such as facilitate a meeting or implement a process.
Neither the expert nor the pair-of-hands role is ideal. A collaborative approach is generally
preferred for its mutuality and effectiveness.
Collaborator
When the client and consultant mutually engage in and share responsibility for the OD effort,
they are involved in collaborative consulting. The clear benefit of collaborative consulting is
that it helps clients diagnose their own problems and build capacity to become independent
of the consultant. When a consultant helps clients learn the OD action research process and
build capacity to solve problems and implement change in the future, the consultant has successfully completed a sustainable intervention. In the QuickCo vignette, Jack functioned in
this role. See Table 3.2 for additional descriptions of these three types of consulting.
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Section 3.2
Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Table 3.2: Comparison of Block’s consulting roles
Expert role
Pair-of-hands role
Collaborator role
Consultant plays an active role,
while manager is inactive.
Consultant assumes passive role.
Consultant and manager are
interdependent.
Consultant controls information
and intervention.
Manager selects procedures for
data collection and analysis.
Data collection and analysis are
joint efforts.
Collaboration is not required.
Collaboration is not really
necessary.
Collaboration is considered
essential and permeates project.
Communication is from the consultant to the manager.
Consultant makes recommendations to manager.
Consultant makes decisions
about how to proceed.
Technical control rests with the
consultant.
Two-way communication is
limited.
Consultant plans and implements main events.
Manager judges after the fact.
Consultant’s goal is solving
immediate problem.
Manager decides how to proceed
and consultant follows manager’s direction.
Control rests with the manager.
Two-way communication is
limited.
Manager specifies change
procedures for consultant to
implement.
Manager evaluates results and
judges from a distance.
Consultant’s goal is to make
the system more effective by
the application of specialized
knowledge.
Decision making is bilateral.
Control issues become matters
for discussion and negotiation.
Communication is two-way.
Consultant and manager share
a give-and-take role in an equal
partnership, facilitated by
consultant.
Implementation responsibilities
are determined by discussion
and agreement.
Manager participates in a joint
evaluation with consultant.
Goal is long-term problem solving—ensuring problems stay
solved.
Source: Adapted from Flawless Consulting: A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used (2nd ed.), by P. Block, 1999, New York, NY:
Pfeiffer.
Lippitt and Lippitt’s Continuum of Consulting Roles
In their 1986 book The Consulting Process in Action, Lippitt and Lippitt observed that consultant behaviors could be characterized as occurring along a continuum from nondirective
to directive. To illustrate these ideas, consider a consultant named Miranda. When Miranda
sits back and observes the client grappling with and solving a problem without much help,
she is being nondirective. Nondirective consulting promotes client buy-in because the client
is involved in identifying a problem’s root cause and proposing a solution. The consultant’s
nondirective behavior would be to ask the client questions that promote reflection and problem solving. Consultants in this mode are patient and will wait before taking a more active,
forceful role with the client.
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Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Section 3.2
When Miranda is more assertive about telling the client what to do or providing answers, her
behavior is considered directive. This consulting behavior is appropriate when the client
lacks expertise to solve the problem. Whereas nondirective consulting merely provides information to the client and leaves it to the client to act, directive consulting assumes a leadership
stance and initiates activities.
Lippitt and Lippitt (1986) identified eight roles of consultants, which they placed along their
nondirective–directive continuum as shown in Figure 3.1. They stressed that all of the eight
roles can be appropriate to address a range of OD issues, as long as they are negotiated with
and agreed on by the client. There is no one-size-fits-all role for OD consultants. The eight
roles are described in the next sections, using the example of Miranda to illustrate their specific functions and approaches.
Figure 3.1: Continuum of consulting roles
The eight consulting roles identified by Lippitt and Lippitt are effective across a range of OD issues,
but clients and consultants should determine the consultant’s role early in the process.
Nondirective consultant
Client more engaged
Objective observer
Raises questions for reflection
Process counselor
Observes problem-solving process and raises issues mirroring feedback
Fact finder
Gathers data and stimulates thinking interpretively
Alternative identifier
Identifies alternatives and resources for client and helps assess
consequences
Joint problem solver
Offers alternatives and participates in decisions
Trainer or educator
Trains client
Information specialist
Regards, links, and provides policy or practice decisions
Advocate
Proposes guidelines, persuades, or directs in the problem solving
Directive consultant
Client less engaged
Source: Gordon L. Lippitt and Ronald Lippitt, from The Consulting Process in Action. Copyright © 1994 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Reproduced by permission.
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Section 3.2
Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Objective Observer
When Miranda patiently waits for clients to discover the answer to their issue independently
by creating the time, space, and right questions to bring it to the surface, she takes the role
of an objective observer. This is the most nondirective, client-centered role she can take as a
consultant.
To assume this role, Miranda must be highly effective at asking questions that help the client
reflect, clarify what is important, and make decisions. She keeps her opinions and ideas to
herself and coaches the client toward the right answer. Although she shares feedback with
the client based on her observations, she gives the client full responsibility for coming up
with actions and implementing them. When being an objective observer works, the client will
build confidence, mastery of the change process, and independence from the consultant.
For example, Miranda might be working with a client named Larry on becoming a more participative leader. She might ask him, “What have you done in the past week to be more participative?” She could also ask follow-up questions that push him to reflect on the situation and
identify possible actions to try in the future, such as “How is it working for you?” or “What is
one thing you can do to be more participative next week?”
Process Counselor
When Miranda observes a client engaging in
problem-solving processes and offers suggestions for improvement, she is serving as
a process counselor. To assume this role,
Miranda collaborates with the client to
jointly diagnose issues, and the client takes
the lead in resolving problems. Her concern
here is with the client’s interpersonal and
intergroup dynamics that affect the problem-solving process. She would observe the
client, collect data on the issue, and provide
feedback to help improve client relationships and processes.
Skynesher/E+/Getty Images Plus
A nondirective consultant lets the client solve
the problem. In this scene, the businessman
in the forefront of the photo allows his four
clients to discuss issues and solve problems
while he takes notes.
Returning to the example of the manager
who seeks to become more participative, in
this role Miranda would sit with the manager during a staff meeting and observe his
behavior. After the meeting ends, she would
offer comments on what she saw, such as when she saw him interrupt others, tell people what
to do, or too quickly offer solutions without seeking input.
Fact Finder
Serving the client as a researcher who collects, analyzes, synthesizes, and interprets relevant
information is a fact-finder role. Data collection typically occurs in one of five ways: (a) interviews, (b) surveys, (c) observations, (d) analysis of records and documents, and (e) tests.
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Section 3.2
Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Through fact finding, a consultant learns about the client’s procedures and challenges and
then uses the evidence to propose appropriate interventions.
Continuing with the example of the manager who seeks to become participative, as a
researcher, Miranda might decide to conduct a 360-degree evaluation (discussed in detail
in Chapter 7) that seeks input from direct reports, peers, supervisors, and other designated
organization members. This data would be shared with the client, and steps to address problems would be identified.
Alternative Identifier
When Miranda helps the client generate alternative solutions to a problem and establish criteria for evaluating the alternatives, her role is to identify alternatives and link to resources.
She leaves the final decision about the course of action to the client.
Once the manager has data on his participative behavior (or lack thereof), Miranda would
identify several resources for continued learning. These might include books, seminars, other
individuals the manager might want to emulate or seek mentoring from, or executive coaching. The client then decides on what will work best for him.
Joint Problem Solver
When Miranda works in conjunction with the client to diagnose and solve the problem, taking a major role in defining the results, she is a joint problem solver. This function consists
of offering multiple interpretations of the problem, helping the client maintain objectivity,
isolating problem causes, generating alternative solutions, evaluating alternatives, choosing a
solution, and developing an action plan. She may also function as a third-party mediator when
conflict arises during the problem-solving process.
Let us suppose Miranda is consulting with a production team working furiously to meet a
deadline to introduce a new product line. There is a lot of conflict in the group over roles, decision making, and best practices. Miranda
has been brought in to help the team meet
its goal within the time frame, quality specifications, and budget. Her actions as a consultant might be to mediate conflict between
warring members. She might also help them
identify key problems in their process and
possible ways to solve them.
Trainer or Educator
When Miranda organizes learning and
development activities to address the client’s problem, she serves in the trainer–
educator role. Most OD consultants have
formal training and experience in learning
Ridofranz/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Directive consultants actively engage in the
OD process, using a more hands-on, assertive
approach.
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Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Section 3.2
and development. A caution with this role is that training is often not the most effective intervention to prescribe. It can be costly and time consuming. Additionally, when training is incorrectly prescribed, the organization’s problems will persist, and both organization morale and
a consultant’s credibility will suffer.
Continuing Miranda’s work with the production team, it becomes obvious that the team
would benefit from more formalized learning around conflict management and project management. She organizes a daylong seminar to help the team learn about these issues.
Information Specialist
When Miranda provides expert knowledge, information, or answers to the client’s dilemmas, she is serving as an information specialist. Although there are times when a consultant’s
expertise is needed, functioning primarily in this role can create client dependency and foster
an inability to independently problem solve. Serving in this role also makes it more difficult
to strike a collaborative relationship with the client.
For example, Miranda might decide to give the team some handouts she developed to provide
shortcuts to conflict mediation and project planning. However, she continues to allow team
members to problem solve independently.
Advocate
When Miranda pushes the client in a direction of her preference, she is being an advocate.
She uses her power and influence to promote certain ideas and values in the decision-making
process. This is the most directive consulting role and is considered to be consultant centered.
As an advocate, Miranda might start to push the team toward a certain meeting structure. Or
she might promote certain specific procedures for facilitating the team’s meetings.
Blake and Mouton’s Intervention Styles
In addition to assuming different roles, consultants also embody different intervention styles
when they deal with clients. So far, this chapter has covered several roles consultants can
play. They are all potentially useful, depending on the client and the situation. Most consultants develop a unique style that capitalizes on their skills, interests, and comfort. Blake and
Mouton (1976, 1983) identified four roles that were later summarized by Cockman and colleagues (1996) in their book Client-Centered Consulting. These are discussed in the following
section using a hypothetical consultant named Benjamin.
Acceptant Style
When Benjamin helps clients by listening with empathy and providing emotional support,
he is employing an acceptant style. The acceptant style offers neutral, nonjudgmental support that helps clients relax their defenses, confront disabling emotional reactions, and solve
problems independently.
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Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Section 3.2
For example, Benjamin might help a client distinguish an issue from a person. If the client
is having an emotional reaction to a person that evokes anger, frustration, or confusion, the
issue at hand may be clouded. Although the client may hate the CEO, that matter is separate
from the need to implement the organization’s strategic plan created by the CEO. Helping the
client see this distinction can be cathartic and get him or her focused on problem solving. By
providing an atmosphere of acceptance in which a client feels safe and not threatened, an
acceptant style helps the client clear whatever is blocking him or her from dealing logically
and rationally with the problem.
Catalytic Style
If Benjamin is skilled at helping clients gather data about the problem, analyze it, and decide
its relative importance, he is using a catalytic style. Working from this style, Benjamin would
help the client make an evidence-based diagnosis to identify intervention options and choose
solutions. He would help the client focus on the who, what, why, when, where, and how related
to the problem. In short, when Benjamin uses a catalytic style, he pushes the client to generate
solutions based on the data. Results from an organization-wide attitude survey could provide
an impetus for management to make changes.
Confrontational Style
When Benjamin calls attention to discrepancies between the client’s professed values and
how the client puts them into practice, he is using a confrontational style. You can probably
think of examples in which someone claims he or she values one thing, like being a good listener or seeking input in decision making, yet does the complete opposite when interacting
with other people by interrupting or failing to get input. Consultants using a confrontational
style point out these contradictions so clients can see the discrepancies and decide if they
want to change.
For example, Benjamin might say to a client, “You told me you were a good listener, yet you
constantly interrupted and talked over people during the meeting. What’s up with that?” This
particular style can be highly effective at targeting and changing dysfunctional behaviors of
individuals and groups during the OD process.
Prescriptive Style
When Benjamin listens to the client’s problem, collects the data the client requires, makes
sense of the data from his own experience, and presents the client with a solution or recommendation, he is using a prescriptive style. This style is commonly used in OD, although it is
not the most effective, because it tends to cast the consultant in the expert or pair-of-hands
role. Consultants working from this style may assume that clients lack the skill, knowledge, or
objectivity to effectively diagnose and solve problems. In reality, this is rarely the case. Consultants can be “experts” without driving the process and knowing when expertise is needed.
This style is similar to the information specialist and advocate roles specified by Lippitt and
Lippitt (1986).
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Competencies of OD Consultants
Section 3.3
3.3 Competencies of OD Consultants
What does it take to do OD consulting well? In addition to following a change model (such as
one introduced in Chapter 2) and an action research process (to be discussed in Chapter 4), a
consultant must master certain competencies. This section profiles these competencies using
the example of a hypothetical consultant named Bridget.
Block’s Competencies
Recall Peter Block, one of the most influential scholars of consulting. In his classic book Flawless Consulting, first published in 1981, Block (2011) identified two competencies essential
for consulting: being authentic and completing the business of each consulting phase.
Being Authentic
When Bridget frankly and respectfully communicates her experience with the client and
leverages commitment through communication and trust, she is being authentic. Authenticity means Bridget addresses issues directly with the client. When the client is defensive or
uncooperative, she confronts the behavior in a way that does not alienate the client. Being
authentic requires Bridget to give honest feedback, help the client save face in difficult situations, and provide coaching as needed. Clients will come to rely on her ability and willingness
to identify the “elephant in the room” if she can learn to do it tactfully and respectfully.
Building a trusting relationship with clients centers on a consultant’s ability to be authentic. This involves the consultant asking clients whether they trust his or her confidentiality,
addressing any doubts clients have about working with the consultant, and raising issues
related to distrust when they arise. Without trust, it will be difficult to appear authentic.
As a personal example of being authentic, I was working for a new leader and received feedback that, at speaking engagements, he was leaving a negative impression about our organization. I had to raise the issue in a respectful and helpful way. Sharing the feedback required
some risk, because the working relationship was new. The encounter went something like
this:
I said, “Part of my job is to make sure you’re successful. I’m hearing great things about you
in the halls. I’ve also received feedback from multiple sources that when you make public
speeches about our organization, your message is too gloomy. What do you think about
adjusting the tone in future speeches?”
He looked a bit surprised at first, and then we talked about what changes he might make. The
next speech he made was impeccable and reflected favorably on both him and our organization. Being direct and respectful of clients is almost always appreciated, because they want to
be effective. It also builds trust.
Completing the Business of Each Phase
The other requirement for flawless consulting, completing the business of each phase, means
a consultant follows the planned change process using the action research model. This model
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Section 3.3
Competencies of OD Consultants
was briefly introduced in Chapter 1 and is the subject of Chapter 4. It means approaching the
OD process by contracting with the client, collecting data on the problem, sharing feedback
from the data analysis, identifying and implementing an appropriate intervention, and evaluating the results.
Technical, Interpersonal, and Consulting Skills
Being authentic and completing the business of each phase are important steps but are not
enough to be an effective consultant. As Block (2011) observed, consultants also need technical, interpersonal, and consulting skills, all of which are discussed in the following section
using a consultant named Miguel.
Technical Skill
The discipline-specific knowledge Miguel brings to the consulting relationship is known as
technical skill. OD is a technical skill in itself, but each consultant has a unique blend of technical skills in other areas. Cummings and Worley (2009) suggested these include an understanding of organizational behavior, individual psychology, group dynamics, management
and organization theory, research methods, comparative cultural perspectives, and functional
knowledge of business.
For example, Miguel might have expertise in banking and financial organizations that will be
invaluable when consulting with clients in similar industries. Having appropriate technical
expertise is necessary if you are to help a client.
Consider This
What are your technical skills? In relation to your day-to-day activities, what skills do you possess to address change?
Interpersonal Skill
Miguel’s ability to engage, communicate,
and develop a mutual relationship with his
client is known as interpersonal skill. Consultants form relationships with a variety of
individuals and groups and need flexibility,
tolerance, respect, and adeptness to maintain these relationships. The role of a consultant is largely developmental: Miguel must
meet the clients where they are, not where
he thinks they should be. By demonstrating
personal charisma, presence, and integrity,
Miguel increases the likelihood that clients
will want to work with and please him.
Kupicoo/E+/Getty Images Plus
Honing interpersonal skills involves finding
ways to connect with the client and the client
system.
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Competencies of OD Consultants
Section 3.3
It is also helpful for Miguel to pay attention to his own reaction to the client. It is likely that
others in the organization experience the client similarly, whether negative or positive. Miguel
can identify important teachable moments for the client by being attuned to these subtle signals and acting on them.
The following interpersonal skills for effective consulting have been adapted from Burke
(1992):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tolerating ambiguity. Every organization and problem is unique and requires a customized solution.
Influencing the client. Consultant was defined in the beginning of this chapter as
typically having influence without power, making it essential that consultants be
effective persuaders and build trust with the client.
Confronting difficult issues a client is reluctant to face. This competency is aligned
with the importance of authenticity. Being direct and tackling difficult issues is never
easy work, although it is often pivotal when addressing challenges in the organization and helping it move toward a change.
Nurturing others, particularly during times of conflict or stress. This involves using
listening and empathy with clients.
Recognizing your feelings and intuitions quickly and using them when appropriate
and timely.
Educating the client throughout the process. This involves grasping teachable
moments and creating learning opportunities that help the client build capacity
to maintain the change and manage future change when the consultant exits the
picture.
Maintaining a sense of humor. Consulting work can be challenging and stressful, so
sustaining the ability to laugh and enjoy the process keeps both the consultant and
the client grounded.
Exuding self-confidence, interpersonal savvy, and a sense of mission. OD work
is worthwhile and potentially helpful to others, and consultants must own that
mission.
How would you rate yourself according to Burke’s list? What are your top three strengths?
What are your top three weaknesses? What would you add to the list?
Consulting Skill
OD practitioners take their clients through a multistep process—known as action research—
that begins the moment they meet. Consulting skill requires mastering each step of the action
research process. Developing consulting skill is a daunting goal, but this book is devoted to
helping you achieve it. Maintaining that skill is a lifelong endeavor that requires ongoing
learning and personal development.
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) identified four areas of consulting skill: interpersonal,
technical, consulting, and self-management. Table 3.3 offers brief descriptions of these
competencies.
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Section 3.3
Competencies of OD Consultants
Table 3.3: Consultant skills
Interpersonal
•
•
•
•
Confrontation
Risk-taking ability
Collaboration
Conflict
management
• Relationship
building
Technical—business
or function specific
• Engineering
• Project
management
• Planning
• Marketing
• Manufacturing
• Personnel
• Finance
• System analysis
Consulting
• Analysis and
diagnosis
• Strategic and
implementation
planning
• Change
management
• Evaluation
Self-management
• Core values
articulated
• Self-confidence
• Self-awareness
1. Control and
influence needs
2. Need for
personal
contact
3. Need to belong
4. Need for
prominence
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) cautioned that competence does not necessarily arise from
experience, but rather from one’s ability as a consultant to learn from that experience. They
recognize three types of consulting experience: experience dealing with similar issues, experience at a specific organization level, and experience with similar organizations or industries. Potential clients may ask about any one of these areas when assessing a consultant’s
skill and competence.
Balancing Responsibility in the Consultant–Client Relationship
Earlier, the collaborator role was identified as one of Block’s three key roles for consultants.
An ability to balance responsibility in the consultant–client relationship is a key competency
in this collaborator role. It begins with a mutual agreement that there is a 50–50 split in
responsibility between consultant and client.
As discussed, effective OD consultants have strong interpersonal skills, with a heavy dose of
emotional intelligence, patience, tact, and tenacity. Sometimes you have to trust your intuition about what your client is really committed to. Paying attention to your feelings—and
those of your client—will yield valuable insights. How is the client working on the problem?
Is there ownership? Accountability? Are there signs of resistance? Is the client getting appropriate support from upper management? If you sense that the client is reluctant to own the
problem and share responsibility for the solutions, you need to directly and quickly identify
and address the underlying issues.
Holding a client equally responsible for the change helps ensure that your own needs are
being met in the consulting relationship. Block (2011) noted that it is easy for consultants
to fall into a “service mentality” (p. 16) at the expense of their own needs. It is fair for you to
expect access to and support from the organization, as well as inclusion among the team and
validation that your work is having an impact.
Block (2011) recommended that you assess the balance of responsibility you and the client
are taking in the OD engagement by completing the checklist in Table 3.4. If you discover that
you are always required to take the lion’s share of responsibility or have very little responsibility, it is time for a frank conversation with the client and renegotiation of expectations. See
also Tips and Wisdom: Balancing Client and Consultant Responsibilities.
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Section 3.3
Competencies of OD Consultants
Table 3.4: Checklist to assess the balance of responsibility
Client has major
responsibility;
consultant has little
50–50 shared
responsibility
Consultant has
major responsibility;
client has little
Define the initial problem
Decide whether to proceed with the project
Select the dimensions to
be studied
Decide who will be
involved in the project
Select the method
Do discovery
Funnel the data and make
sense of it
Provide the results
Make recommendations
Decide on actions
Source: Adapted from Flawless Consulting: A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used (3rd ed., p. 36), by P. Block, 2011, San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Tips and Wisdom: Balancing Client and Consultant
Responsibilities
“Let’s hire a consultant so we have someone to blame.”
—David Bigelow, retired law enforcement officer who pursued art full time upon retiring in 2001.
His paintings, drawings, and etchings have a whimsical quality that reveals life’s truths.
This advice, although perhaps cynical, serves as a warning: Avoid clients who need a scapegoat or want to dump their problems in someone’s lap. For example, a consultant was invited
to a small manufacturing company to conduct a diversity workshop after the organization
received a sanction from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) mandating
diversity training due to complaints of discrimination on the basis of race. As she was making
her way to the organization’s entrance on the day of the training, she noticed a dummy hung
in effigy in a tree near the entrance. It was clear to her from that unfortunate display, and the
company’s reaction to it, that the organization was not serious about changing its history of
racial discrimination. Rather, the team members were fulfilling the required sanction only so
they could resume “business as usual.” She did not continue her association with the company
on ethical grounds. It is a good practice as an OD consultant to be particular about your clients.
It may be a best practice not to take on clients unless you are interested in the work, qualified
to meet their needs, comfortable with their ethics, and convinced that they will be a mutual
partner in the process.
(continued on next page)
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Section 3.4
Contracting
Tips and Wisdom: Balancing Client and Consultant
Responsibilities (continued)
OD consulting centers on building mutual, collaborative relationships with clients. It is most
effective when the client owns the problem and shares responsibility for authorizing, implementing, and maintaining the planned change. Thus, its success hinges on effectively balancing a consultant’s responsibilities with those of the client.
3.4 Contracting
An external consultant should develop a consulting contract that specifies the responsibilities
of the parties involved. Note that internal consultants may also draw up contracts, although
there may be an established practice within the organization and it may be more informal in
cases of internal consulting. Sample contracts are readily available via a Google search, or you
may want to develop a contract template that helps you easily draft one. This section offers
contracting guidance; however, it is not legal advice. You should follow the contract law for
your specific state and consult a lawyer if you have questions.
A contract is a legally enforceable agreement that is drawn when someone is hired to provide
an expert service, such as consulting. A consulting contract does several things:
1. Specifies an offer of services such as On this day [insert date] the Consulting Company
A is entering into a contract to conduct a climate survey for Company B (“Client”), and
Consultant C (“Consultant”) will administer the survey, facilitate feedback meetings
with all departments, and provide final recommendations to management by [insert
date] for [specify amount].
2. Represents mutual consideration and agreement of the terms
3. Signals agreement as both parties sign the document
4. Binds each party legally for fulfilling the terms
The contract also clearly identifies the parties entering the contract (e.g., “Client” and “Consultant”) and details the services being rendered, roles of each party, and completion dates.
As noted in the example, the compensation is also spelled out clearly. It might be a total dollar
amount, an hourly fee, a retainer, or a detailed budget. It is also a good idea to have a termination clause that allows either party to cease the agreement. Contracts also usually have
provisions that allow both parties to amend the document. The last page of the contract is a
signature page. Both parties should receive a copy of the contract and during the execution
phase will either accept the contract in full or negotiate terms until an agreement is reached
and the contract is signed.
When our hypothetical consultant Miguel meets with the client to learn about the problem
and define the parameters of their working relationship, he is contracting. Also known as
“gaining entry,” contracting can be initiated by the client contacting Miguel or vice versa, or a
third party can connect him and the client. Once Miguel and the client are in contact, he immediately begins negotiating the boundaries of the project and building a relationship based on
trust and openness.
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Section 3.4
Contracting
This initial process eventually culminates in a meeting to draw up the contract. Miguel’s sheer
presence at the first client meeting is an intervention (Schein, 1988b), meaning that Miguel’s
presence alone influences change, whether it is a change in behavior, attention to the problem, resistance, or readiness to commit to and implement change. This is true throughout the
consultation. Because of this, it is essential that Miguel conduct himself with integrity from
the instant he begins working with a client. He must be conscious of his every move and statement during this initial meeting.
Because the consulting relationship depends on trust, the ability to put a client at ease and
quickly establish an open relationship is critical to a consultant’s success. Clients may be initially suspicious or resentful of a consultant, especially if hiring someone like Miguel was not
their idea or if he was hired to address a problem that they have not been able to solve. The
image Miguel presents will have a direct impact on the outcome of the contracting, so he must
be prepared, poised, and positive.
Additionally, Miguel must be authentic. If a consultant is dishonest, exaggerates his skills,
or tries to manipulate clients, he can expect problems related to trust and satisfaction with
his work.
As discussed, each consultant develops a preferred style; it will be helpful to identify yours.
Are you good at small talk? Can you identify something the client is interested in and talk
about it? What can you ask about the business to show your concern and learn more about
the organization? What can you share about your previous projects? Even though you may
have a preferred style of consulting, you may have to adjust it to best accommodate the client
or the situation.
It is also a good idea for Miguel to make time for the client to ask him questions about his
background, style, and other issues of import to the client when he initiates a consulting relationship. Often, consultants provide a written biography or description of services that can
help the client understand what they offer. These considerations are important to keep in
mind so consultants can put their client at ease. Once that is accomplished, a consultant can
move to the next steps of contracting.
Key Elements of Contracting
When Miguel and his client have agreed to
engage in a consulting relationship, it is a
good idea to detail that agreement in writing in the form of a contract. Block (2011)
identified key elements of contracting that
can serve as a guideline for writing up a formal contract of engagement. Each aspect
will be considered and then an example
shared.
Boundaries of Analysis
During the initial entry or shortly thereafter,
Miguel should clarify the problem or issue
AndreyPopov/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Negotiating a written contract for OD
consulting protects both the client and the
consultant and keeps the process on track.
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Section 3.4
Contracting
to be addressed by creating a simple problem statement that describes what he intends to
do. In effect, this creates boundaries of analysis. For example, he might wind up with a simple
statement such as this one:
The purpose of this OD engagement is to address retention problems of diverse
employees at entry- and mid-level management.
The statement might also include information on what will not be addressed:
This project will not address nonmanagerial positions.
The consulting contract becomes an important record of what was agreed to initially. The
boundaries of analysis should be clear as in the example. There should be ongoing evaluation
of the project by the consultant and key manager to ensure the project is staying within scope.
If it starts drifting from the purpose, that is a moment for discussion between the consultant
and manager and renegotiation if the boundaries change. For example, a consultant is working on a mentoring program with a client and they decide to add an aspect to the program
that was not agreed on in advance, one that required the consultant to make an extra trip and
facilitate a half-day workshop. The contract and budget are amended to reflect that change. In
another example, when the author of this text engages in executive coaching, the contract is
clear that she will spend twelve 1-hour sessions with the client. If, at the end of that time, the
client wishes to continue working on issues, they re-up the contract for another six sessions.
Effective consultants plan for ceasing the consulting relationship, because if they have done
their job well, the consulting engagement ends with the client gaining the capacity to deal
with problems on their own.
See Tips and Wisdom: Establishing Clear Boundaries.
Tips and Wisdom: Establishing Clear Boundaries
Establishing boundaries of analysis requires correctly identifying the primary client (and it
may not be the person who initiated the consulting relationship). Here are some tips to help
ensure you have established clear boundaries:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Make sure you can identify the primary client. Ask questions until you are certain.
Understand who serves to benefit from the consulting: management, employees,
customers?
Establish clear expectations. Take time to discuss what you need and expect as a consultant and give the client a chance to do the same.
Know when to walk away from a project. Projects that hold little interest and do not
fall within your expertise are compromised from the start. Projects that have wavering
support and resources are also risky.
Set an expectation for ongoing feedback to ensure the consulting stays on track and
meets expectations.
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Section 3.4
Contracting
Project Objectives
Once the boundaries of analysis are clear, Miguel is ready to generate project objectives.
These might include solving technical or business problems (business objectives), creating
new opportunities for the organization (business objectives), teaching clients how to solve a
problem for themselves the next time it arises (learning objectives), improving how the organization manages itself (business or learning objectives), changing the culture (business or
learning objectives), or other issues relevant to the client (Block, 2011).
Useful Information to Seek
Once the boundaries of analysis and project objectives are determined, Miguel should seek
out data relevant to solving the issue. Information sources will be fully discussed in Chapter
4, but generally there are at least three types of information that will be particularly useful to
consultants: technical data, people’s attitudes, and roles and responsibilities (Block, 2011).
During contracting, Miguel should identify the information he needs and how he intends to
retrieve it (e.g., surveys or interviews).
The Consultant’s Role
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the different types, roles, and styles of consultants. Usually, a consultant’s role is negotiated during the contracting process. In addition to determining if Miguel will serve in an expert, pair-of-hands, or collaborative role, he and the client also
need to agree on a mutual partnership in which the client is accountable for the process and
outcomes. As the consultant, Miguel is responsible for creating a process that allows the client to address problems. The client is accountable for providing the resources, support, and
incentives for the change. If the client does not want to assume responsibility for the process,
Miguel will want to carefully consider whether he should continue the project. This is also a
good time to explain that he may play different roles that range from nondirective to directive.
The Product to Be Delivered
Next, Miguel should specify the product or service the client can expect him to provide, for
example, a report, conflict mediation, or coaching. He should work to be very specific about
the deliverables to avoid problems later. Here is an example of specifics from a contract related
to recruitment and retention of technical employees:
•
•
•
•
Conduct a survey on retention issues.
Interview employees who have left the company.
Benchmark best recruitment and retention practices at competing companies.
Analyze collected data and provide recommendations in a report by a specific date.
The Support and Involvement a Consultant Needs From the Client
Block (2011) called support and involvement from the client “the heart of the contract for
the consultant” (p. 63). With this in mind, Miguel should describe in detail what he needs
from the client for the project to succeed. Examples might include one-on-one meetings with
certain employees, access to organization records, clerical services, or managerial support. A
budget for the project should also be developed at this stage. In addition, Miguel and the client
should agree on a process for requesting approval for additional funds if necessary.
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Section 3.4
Contracting
The Time Frame
Next, Miguel should specify the timeline of the project, including its start date, major milestones, and end date. This is another opportunity for Miguel to revisit the scope of the project and ensure that the plans fit within it. It can be useful to establish a Gantt chart (Clark,
Polakov, & Trabold, 1952) (see Figure 3.2 for an example), particularly for long, complicated
projects. Similar to the budget, the timeline should be reviewed regularly to make sure the
project is on track.
See also Who Invented That? The Gantt Chart.
Figure 3.2: Example of a Gantt chart
This is an example of a simple Gantt chart over a 7-month period detailing typical stakeholders and
activities of an OD intervention. A consultant could take each intervention and make a much more
specific chart by week and activity.
Function
Action
research
team
Dec
Jan
Phase 1:
data
collection
Consultant
Primary
client
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Phase 3: Phase 4:
Phase 5: Recognize
planning implementation evaluation and
celebrate
success
Phase 2: Phase 3: Phase 4:
Phase 5: Follow up
data
planning implementation evaluation
analysis
and
feedback
Pre-phase:
build
awareness
and
support
for OD
effort
Managers Pre-phase:
build
awareness
and
support
for OD
effort
CEO
Feb
Pre-phase:
build
awareness
and
support
for OD
effort
Phase 3:
planning
Recognize
and
celebrate
success
Phase 4:
implementation
Recognize
and
celebrate
success
Recognize
and
celebrate
success
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Section 3.4
Contracting
Who Invented That? The Gantt Chart
A Gantt chart was invented by Henry Gantt (1861–1919) to illustrate a project timeline or
schedule. The chart is constructed by listing the tasks on the vertical axis and the time intervals on the horizontal axis. The chart gives an at-a-glance view of the timeline of a project
with clear start and finish dates, as well as interim milestones. To apply this, you might create
a Gantt chart of your university study that could cover a single semester with course assignments, or your full academic program with major thresholds. Free Gantt chart templates are
readily available online, and Excel also has templates that allow you to plot your tasks.
The Confidentiality Expectations
Maintaining confidentiality and integrity promotes a strong collaborative relationship. External consultants may have more flexibility with confidentiality than internal consultants
because they can refuse to share information should higher management demand it. Internal
consultants are in a tougher position and might be pressured to share data collected on a
problem with someone higher up in the organization. Both internal and external consultants
should negotiate how data will be used up front. A consultant will lose trust quickly if organization members perceive that confidentiality has been breached. Writing confidentiality
expectations into the contract will help avoid misunderstandings and problems later.
The Agreement for the Client to Provide Postintervention Feedback
Asking the client to provide feedback on the project after the consultant leaves or once the
project is finished can be a powerful accountability motivator for the client. It also gives the
consultant a means of self-evaluation and providing evidence of his or her consulting skills
to future clients. Figure 3.3 demonstrates how these key elements might read in a contract.
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Section 3.4
Contracting
Figure 3.3: Example of a consulting contract on leadership development for
midlevel managers
This sample contract between a client and a consultant shows the level of detail required for each of
the key elements of contracting. A PDF version is available in your eBook.
CONSULTING CONTRACT
The Boundaries of Your Analysis
This project will entail the implementation of a leadership development process for the organization’s top
20 high-potential leaders who are currently in midlevel positions. We will not focus on entry-level leadership
development for this project.
Project Objectives
1. Begin developing a culture of leadership among midlevel managers.
2. Groom participants for the next level of leadership.
3. Strengthen managerial and leadership competencies of participants.
Key Information
• We plan to interview participants about their current leadership experience.
• We plan to conduct 360-degree evaluations.
• We plan to administer various leadership inventories to assess leadership behaviors and styles.
• We plan to review performance appraisals and meet with participants’ direct supervisors.
Consultant’s Role
My key role will be to help you devise a comprehensive development program for emerging leaders. I have
expertise in leadership development and adult learning and access to other individuals who can provide
some of the programming for the session. I will help provide the initial start-up. You will identify internal
people who can codevelop the program and will eventually take it over and run it in-house at the completion
of the pilot year.
Final Product
The outcome of our work will be a 1-year leadership development program for your midlevel managers. This
will include 10 retreats (approximately monthly except December and July). I will provide you with the
content in the form of workshop materials for both participants and facilitators. We will evaluate the program
on an ongoing basis, and I will summarize our evaluation with recommendations for future programs at the
end of the project.
Support and Involvement from the Client
You have agreed to support this program, publicize it, and assist in the identification of the top 20 midlevel
leaders. You will meet with me regularly to share in the development and oversight of this program. You have
also agreed to allow me access to individuals who can provide input for both interviews and surveys. You
will make one staff member available to plan and administer the retreats. You will handle all of the materials
production for the workshops. You will identify an internal consultant to shadow the project and take over
after the implementation year.
Time Frame
We will spend the rest of this year jointly planning the program. Our first planning meeting will be next week.
We will initiate the program in January with a graduation the following November and then repeat the cycle.
Major milestones will be each of the 10 workshop sessions, the midpoint, and the end.
Confidentiality
Evaluation data will be given to the person assigned to run the program after the initial start-up year. The
360-degree evaluation data will be shared with the participants, facilitators, and the person taking over for
next year.
Feedback
Approximately 6 months after the first program has completed, I will follow up with you to learn the status of
the 20 participants, plan for a sustained program, and other insights or benefits of the program.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Consultant Signature
Date
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Client Signature
Date
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Section 3.4
Contracting
Contracting Ethics
Ethics guide one’s activities as a consultant, including at the contract stage. Chapter 1 introduced OD’s code of ethics as put forth by the International Society for Organization Development and Change. The code emphasizes quality of life, health, justice, dignity, win–win
outcomes, holistic perspectives, and participative decision making. Gellerman, Frankel, and
Landenson (1990) recommended the following values to guide OD practice:
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Promote quality of life.
Enhance health, human potential, empowerment, growth, and excellence.
Provide freedom and responsibility and give people choice in the process.
Advocate justice.
Pursue dignity, integrity, worth, and fundamental rights of all stakeholders.
Seek all-win outcomes.
Conjure authenticity and openness in relationships.
Adopt a holistic, systemic perspective, mindful of all stakeholders.
Invite wide participation in the process.
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) distinguished between OD consultants and what they
termed “techspert consultants” (p. 179) who function in the expert role. These functions are
contrasted in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: OD consultants versus techspert consultants
OD consultants
Techspert consultants
Participative
Exploratory and experimental
Empower leaders and organization members
Work in isolation
Definitive, confident, and decisive about solutions
Maintain control
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) consulted the International Council of Management Consulting Institutes to develop their code of ethics. Notice how many of these values pertain to the
contracting stage:
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Preserving confidentiality
Creating realistic expectations
Avoiding any type of commissions, bribery, or kickbacks from third parties
Accepting only assignments that you have the skill and knowledge to perform
Creating contracts for services
Refraining from recruiting client employees for alternative employment without the
client’s knowledge
Holding other consultants accountable for meeting ethical standards (Freedman &
Zackrison, 2001)
Tucker (2006), in an article about forging successful consulting relationships between clients
and consultants, advocated a relationship that values integrity, communicates with openness
and completeness, holds the client’s objectives paramount, respects time and its constraints,
and uses contracts.
See Case Study: Ethical Scenarios for the OD Consultant to evaluate different scenarios.
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Summary and Resources
Case Study: Ethical Scenarios for the OD Consultant
Evaluate the following scenarios based on the ethics information presented in this chapter.
Scenario 1: You are contacted by a company that needs some help with implementing a process you have little familiarity with. Although you could probably learn it, you would not be up
to speed within their time frame. Still, you could really use the extra income right now. What
are the implications for deciding not to do it? What are the implications for deciding to do it?
Scenario 2: Another consultant contacts you and offers you a chance to take a consulting job
that she could not take because she is booked during the time the client needs a leadership
development program. You are very skilled at this type of consulting and have not worked
for this company before. At the close of your discussion, the consultant who has offered you
the gig asks for 10% of your fee for the consulting because she referred you. What is your
next step?
Scenario 3: You are working with a chemical company to reorganize its production process,
which currently releases significant greenhouse gas emissions into the environment. During
the initial planning with the client, you suggest that the action research team be expanded to
include some other stakeholders in the process, such as elected officials and community advocates. What competing interests and values might you expect to encounter from this diverse
stakeholder group?
Scenario 4: You have completed a consulting engagement with a company that conducted survey research and prioritized key actions needed to change the culture. Over the past year, the
company has worked to address its top four priorities from the survey research. You are now
at a point where organization members can continue the work without your regular involvement, and you are negotiating to maintain your consulting services only intermittently. You
were really impressed with one of the members of the action research team. He approaches
you after a meeting on-site and tells you how much he enjoyed working with you and learning
from you. He asks if you have any positions open in your consulting firm. Is it ethical for you to
consider hiring this person? Why or why not? If you were to proceed, what is your responsibility to the client organization?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
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OD consultants help, influence, and persuade their clients to change, although they
have no formal organization power.
There are several different types of clients during a typical OD process, including
contact, intermediate, primary, unwitting, indirect, and ultimate. It is imperative that
the consultant correctly identify the primary client.
Consultants can be internal to an organization (permanent, full-time employees) or
external (temporary and working for multiple organizations).
Consultants often play one of three roles: expert, pair of hands, or collaborator.
Functioning in a collaborative mode is considered most effective because it creates
mutuality and accountability with the client.
Consulting roles can also be understood along a continuum of nondirective to directive. The closer the consultant gets to directive roles, the more she or he will be
functioning as an expert.
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Summary and Resources
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Consultants have different ways of intervening that include acceptant, catalytic, and
prescriptive styles.
Peter Block held that being authentic and completing the business of each phase are
key to effective consulting.
Effective consulting competencies include technical, interpersonal, and consulting
skills.
Balancing responsibility in the consultant–client relationship helps ensure support
and accountability in the OD process.
Key elements of contracting include determining the boundaries of analysis, identifying project objectives, deciding on the kind of information you are seeking, articulating your role as a consultant, specifying the product you will deliver to the client,
identifying the support and involvement needed by the client, noting the time frame,
discussing confidentiality, and planning for postintervention feedback.
Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning
1. The chapter began with a vignette about problems in the shipping department of
QuickCo. Recall a situation from your experience that would have benefited from
having an OD consultant assist. What would you have done as a consultant?
2. Recount a time you or someone close to you participated in an OD intervention led
by a consultant. What were the outcomes and consequences? How well did the consultant do, based on the principles presented in this chapter?
3. This chapter has profiled different roles and styles consultants employ when
working with clients. What are some of the similarities and differences in these
approaches to working with clients?
Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life
1. Look up some job descriptions of consultants and identify the themes, salaries, and
competencies required.
2. Develop a biography and description of your technical, interpersonal, and consulting competencies (current or desired). Be sure to include a paragraph explaining the
role and style you use for consulting.
3. Prioritize the technical, interpersonal, and consulting competencies you need to learn.
4. Review the results of your consultant style inventory score. What insights did you
gain from this assessment?
5. Develop a consulting contract.
Additional Resources
Media
•
What Should Consultants Do?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vv3p6lMdC7c
Web Links
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International Council of Management Consulting Institutes, an international membership organization and a network of the management advisory and consultancy
associations and institutes worldwide:
http://www.icmci.org/
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Summary and Resources
•
Institute of Management Consultants USA, the certifying body and professional association for management consultants and firms in the United States:
http://www.imcusa.org
Key Terms
acceptant style A consulting style characterized by neutral, nonjudgmental support of clients that helps them relax and let
down their defenses so problems can be
solved more easily.
catalytic style A consulting style that uses
data and evidence to help clients diagnose
and solve problems. The data usually provides an impetus for action or change.
collaborative consulting The role a consultant assumes when the client wants a
mutual partnership in solving problems and
is willing to share responsibility from the
beginning to the end of the project.
confrontational style A consulting style
that challenges inconsistencies between
what a client professes to value and what he
or she actually does in practice.
consultants People who practice OD (or
another technical skill) and combine it
with technical, interpersonal, and consulting skills to help clients resolve issues and
problems.
consulting skill The skill a consultant
develops that requires mastering each step
of the action research process.
contracting The process of determining
the parameters of a working relationship
with a client. This is best put in writing
according to the guidelines offered in this
chapter.
directive A hands-on style of consulting
in which the consultant is assertive about
telling the client what to do or readily gives
the answer.
expert role The role a consultant plays
when clients want someone with expertise
who will tell them what to do. The client has
a low level of involvement in the OD consulting in these situations.
external consultant A consultant who has
a temporary relationship with the client or
organization and is an outsider.
internal consultant A consultant who is
employed by the client organization and is
an insider with a permanent relationship
with the organization.
interpersonal skill A consulting competency to engage, communicate, and develop
a mutual relationship with clients.
nondirective A hands-off style in consulting that involves patience, observation, and
asking questions to subtly guide clients to
find a solution on their own.
pair-of-hands role The role a consultant
plays when the client wants a task completed and seeks someone else to do it. The
client generally takes little interest in the
problem or the process and simply wants
the issue resolved.
prescriptive style A consulting style that
involves listening to the client’s problem,
collecting the data the client requires, making sense of the data from the consultant’s
own experience, and presenting the client
with a solution or recommendation.
technical skill Discipline-specific knowledge that consultants bring to the consultancy. OD is one of these types of skills.
Consultants are found in every field, from
medicine to technology to agriculture.
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