Rubric Detail Select Grid View or List View to change the rubric's layout. Name: EDDD_8900_ Module_8_Assignment_Rubric Exit • • Grid View List View Show Descriptions Adherence to Assignment Expectations The extent to which work meets the assigned criteria.-Novice 2.4 (24%) - 2.76 (27.6%) Fulfills minimal expectations of the assignment. Some components are not included. Assignment demonstrates minimal understanding of the course or module’s criteria. Emerging 2.8 (28%) - 3.16 (31.6%) Most parts of assignment are completed. Topics are not fully developed. Assignment demonstrates some understanding of the course or module’s criteria. Proficient 3.2 (32%) - 3.56 (35.6%) All parts of the assignment are completed, with fully developed topics. Assignment demonstrates a clear understanding of the course or module’s criteria. Advanced 3.6 (36%) - 4 (40%) Assignment exceeds expectations, integrating additional material, information, or both. Assignment demonstrates an exceptional understanding of the course or module’s criteria. Assimilation and Synthesis of Ideas The extent to which the work reflects the student’s ability to: 1. Understand the assignment’s purpose; 2. Understand and analyze material in the course resources and particularly the Prospectus Guide; and 3. Apply resources.-Novice 2.4 (24%) - 2.76 (27.6%) Shows a minimal understanding of the assignment’s purpose. Does not include specific information from course materials. Does not apply concepts and strategies. Emerging 2.8 (28%) - 3.16 (31.6%) Shows some degree of understanding of the assignment’s purpose. Minimally includes specific information from course materials. Generally applies concepts and strategies correctly, but the ideas are unclear or underdeveloped. Proficient 3.2 (32%) - 3.56 (35.6%) Demonstrates a clear understanding of the assignment’s purpose. Includes specific information from course materials to support major points. Provides careful consideration of key instructional concepts and strategies. Advanced 3.6 (36%) - 4 (40%) Demonstrates a clear understanding of the assignment’s purpose as well as the intellectual ability to move beyond the assignment. Demonstrates exceptional inclusion of major points, using creditable sources, in addition to course materials. Demonstrates insightful critical thinking of key instructional concepts and strategies. Written Expression and Formatting The extent to which scholarly, critical, analytical writing is presented in APA format; Standard Edited English (i.e. correct grammar, mechanics).-Novice 1.2 (12%) - 1.38 (13.8%) The quality of writing, APA formatting, or both are minimally acceptable for advanced graduate level work. The writing includes some attempt to convey ideas, but they need to be expressed more clearly and concisely. Major points are minimally represented but do not reflect appropriate elements of communication. The writing has many grammatical or mechanical errors. Emerging 1.4 (14%) - 1.58 (15.8%) Somewhat represents scholarly, advanced graduate-level writing. Generally, follows APA style, but the elements of effective communication, such as an introduction and conclusion, are not included. Ideas are somewhat clearly and concisely expressed. The writing shows more than a few grammatical or mechanical errors. Proficient 1.6 (16%) - 1.78 (17.8%) Work is well organized and uses mostly correct APA formatting throughout. The elements of effective communication, such as an introduction and conclusion, are included. Ideas are clearly and concisely expressed with few, if any, grammatical or mechanical errors. Advanced 1.8 (18%) - 2 (20%) Work represents scholarly writing in correct APA format; effective sentence variety; and clear, concise, powerful expression. The entire piece is well organized and includes an introduction and conclusion. Work is unified around a central purpose with well-developed ideas, logically organized in paragraph structures with clear transitions and proper grammar. Name: EDDD_8900_ Module_8_Assignment_Rubric IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON TEACHING AND TRAINING: A QUALITATIVE SYSTEMATIC REVIEW A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Ziad I. Akir June 2006 This dissertation entitled IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON TEACHING AND TRAINING: A QUALITATIVE SYSTEMATIC REVIEW by ZIAD I. AKIR has been approved for the School of Telecommunications and the College of Communication by Don Flournoy Professor of Telecommunication Gregory J. Shepherd Dean, College of Communication AKIR, ZIAD I., PH.D., June 2006, Mass Communication IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON TEACHING AND TRAINING: A QUALITATIVE SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (233 pp.) Director of Dissertation: Don Flournoy This dissertation investigates information and communication technology (ICT) systems and their applications and use in teaching and training in universities and corporations. The aim is to identify and map studies that might shed light on the impact of ICT systems on teaching and training, and to undertake an in-depth analysis of the identified literature. The context of the study is the growing prevalence of information and communication technology (ICT) use in academic and corporate training. Although there has been considerable research in this area, several issues still require further investigation. A closer look reveals that corporations have been focusing on technology without giving much attention to pedagogical issues of learning. This is in contrast to universities where attention is usually given to learning pedagogy without realizing the full power of ICT in enhancing and even re-creating teaching and learning practices. Moreover, managing technological change in organizations is a challenging issue that requires further research in both academic and corporate settings. A qualitative systematic review has been conducted to develop a framework for the integration of ICTs into teaching and training in universities and corporations. Understanding technological innovations, coupled with understanding of educational principles and organizational challenges, should lead to new applications of technology that will transform the process of teaching and training. The research method used is replicable as times goes by so the study is scalable as new technologies appear and pedagogical principles adopted. Approved: Don Flournoy Professor of Telecommunication ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Above all, I would like to thank God Almighty, Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful, for the guidance, compassion, and mercy which He has bestowed upon me throughout my entire life and in particular while working on this dissertation. My journey in life brought me to Ohio University as a young engineering student in 1984. Since then, Athens and Ohio University have become part of my life. Not only that Ohio University gave me all my academic higher education, but it also gave me my beloved Indonesian wife, Rinalda. My greatest debt goes to Dr. Don Flournoy, my dissertation advisor and my warm hearted father. He, and his wife Mary Ann, have been our parents as we were away from our parents, and their house and lovely farm have been our home away from home. Don and Mary Ann are the most fabulous educators and mentors I have ever met. I also would like to extend my appreciation to my mentor Dr. Ann Kovalchick who despite her difficult times after Hurricane Katrina, remained committed and enthusiastic about my work and stayed with me till the end. Dr. Anita James and Dr. Thom Luce were also two unique educators who coached me and always believed in me and my abilities to achieve my goals. I really can not find words to thank the main force behind me and behind all my achievements: my lovely wife Rinalda whose endless support, help, and encouragement brings me to the level I have reached today. The support and encouragement of our families in Palestine and Indonesia have been also a main fuel that kept me going and determined to reach my goals and always make them proud of me. Special thanks goes to my friends Munjed Kara-Hamoud, Abdul Majeed AlGhamidi, Jameel Al-Humaid, Bassem Majali, Faisal Abdul Fattah, Ali Al-Shomrani, Nadim Ayche, Mansour Al-Odwan, Talal Al-Odwan, Ahmad Al-Ahmadi, Adel AlAhmadi, and all my beloved brothers and sisters in the Athens Muslim community who have always showered me and my wife with their companionship, and provided us with the comfort of an extended family atmosphere. 7 TABLE OF CONTENT ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................ 5 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... 10 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 11 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 12 1.1 Statement of Problem .........................................................................................................................12 1.2 Objectives and Significance of the Study ...........................................................................................13 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................15 1.4 Basic Assumptions .............................................................................................................................16 1.5 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................................17 1.6 Limitations..........................................................................................................................................18 1.8 Organization of the Dissertation.........................................................................................................19 CHAPTER TWO: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK....................................................... 21 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................21 2.2 Theories of Media Use .......................................................................................................................23 2.3 Approaches to ICT-Based Education .................................................................................................26 2.4 Diffusion of Innovations.....................................................................................................................34 2.5 Learning in Organizations ..................................................................................................................45 2.6 Technology and Organizational Culture.............................................................................................47 2.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................................51 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................. 53 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................53 3.2 Systematic Reviews............................................................................................................................54 3.3 Document Analysis ............................................................................................................................60 3.4 The Researcher ...................................................................................................................................61 3.5 Data Collection...................................................................................................................................62 3.6 Procedures of Data Collection............................................................................................................63 3.7 Data Extraction and Analysis .............................................................................................................66 8 3.8 Summary ............................................................................................................................................67 CHAPTER FOUR: PRILIMINARY FINDINGS........................................................ 68 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................68 4.2 Analysis of the Qualitative Data.........................................................................................................70 4.3 Data Classification Framework ..........................................................................................................76 4.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................................80 CHAPTER FIVE: TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS ......................................................... 81 5.1 Hypermedia Systems ..........................................................................................................................81 5.1.1 The World Wide Web.........................................................................................................82 5.1.2 Uses of the WWW in Teaching ..........................................................................................83 5.1.3 Learning and Content Management Systems (LMS) and Standards ..................................86 5.1.4 Issues and Considerations in WWW-Based Courses..........................................................88 5.1.5 Other Hypermedia Tools for Teaching...............................................................................94 5.2 Communication and Computer Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW)..........................................95 5.2.1 Electronic Mail ...................................................................................................................95 5.2.2 Computer-Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW)...........................................................96 5.2.3 Issues with CSCW Systems in Teaching............................................................................98 5.3 Digital Video Systems and Technology ...........................................................................................100 5.3.1 Digital Video for Teaching...............................................................................................101 5.3.2 Challenges in Using Digital Video for Teaching..............................................................103 5.4 Mobile and Wireless Systems...........................................................................................................105 5.4.1 Laptops and Tablet PC .....................................................................................................106 5.4.2 E-Books and Personal Digital Assistants..........................................................................107 5.4.3 Issues in Mobile Wireless Teaching .................................................................................108 5.5 Java Technology...............................................................................................................................109 5.6 Other Systems for Teaching .............................................................................................................110 5.7 Technology-Rich Classrooms...........................................................................................................116 5.7.1 Classroom Presentation Tools ..........................................................................................118 5.7.2 Technology-Rich Classrooms Implementations...............................................................119 5.7.3 Student Response and Voting Systems.............................................................................122 5.7.4 Issues with Technology-Rich Classrooms........................................................................124 5.8 Summary ..........................................................................................................................................124 9 CHAPTER SIX: ORGANIZATIONAL ISSUES ...................................................... 126 6.1 Diffusion Theories and Instructional Technology ............................................................................126 6.1.1 Diffusion Theories and Technology Adoption .................................................................127 6.1.2 Barriers to Technology Adoption .....................................................................................130 6.2 Faculty Development and Organizational Support...........................................................................134 6.2.1 Approaches to Faculty Development................................................................................135 6.2.2 Copyright and Intellectual Property..................................................................................140 6.3 Summary ..........................................................................................................................................142 CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS.................................... 143 7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................143 7.2 Evaluating the Systematic Review ...................................................................................................144 7.3 Developing a Standard Review System............................................................................................147 7.4 Classification Model for Integrating ICTs in Teaching and Training...............................................150 7.5 Limitations of the Method ................................................................................................................151 7.5 Summary and Conclusion.................................................................................................................153 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 154 APPENDIX A Initial List of Journals and Number of Articles in Each Journal ……………………161 APPENDIX B Final List of Journals and Number of Articles in Each Journal……………………...163 APPENDIX C First List of Identified Articles Based on Journal/Database………………..………..164 APPENDIX D Second Iteration List of Articles Based on Journal/Database (All Articles Labled)...180 APPENDIX E Third and Final Iteration List of Articles (All Articles Labled)……………………..192 APPENDIX F Final List of Articles According to Themes…………………………………………203 APPENDIX G Data Extraction Sheet………………………………………………………………..215 APPENDIX H Sample Data Case Studies and Examples……………………………………………218 APPENDIX I Links to Companies,Universities, and other Organizations……………………...…. 233 10 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Initial categorization of journals and digital libraries………………………... 64 Table 3.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria for articles …………………………………66 Table 4.1 List of technologies identified in the review………………………………..... 70 Table 4.2 Classification of technologies identified in the review …………………….…77 Table 4.3 List of pedagogical/educational uses identified in the review ………………..78 Table 4.4 Mapping of ICT systems and pedagogical uses ………………………………79 Table 4.5 Organizational issues identified in the review ………………………………..80 11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Tabulation, indexing, and archiving of all articles used in the review …...….65 Figure 4.1 Mapping research perspectives to intended audiences ………………………77 Figure 7.1 Components of a systematic review system…………….…………….…… 147 Figure 7.2 Filtering process for articles and databases….…………………………...... 148 Figure 7.3 Research evidence in an educational technology library……………….......150 Figure 7.4 General ICT classification frame work for teaching and training…………. 152 12 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION The growth in number and variety of information and computer technologies (ICT) has signaled a major transformation in teaching and training processes (Duggan, et al., 2001; Wood, 1995). Corporations and institutions of higher learning are increasingly adopting ICT as tools for learning, collaboration, communication, curriculum development, and staff development. Issues of ICT for education and training are more critical today than ever before since new means of improving instructional methods are triggering a change in the delivery of education (Pajo & Wallace, 2001). This development influences university and corporate practices and policies and changes our conceptualization of teaching and training. Many reasons have been suggested as to why ICT-based instruction is an ideal complement to established methods of education and training. ICT makes access to education more flexible and reduces barriers of time and place. Asynchronous webbased technologies, for example, can advance the effectiveness of learning by bringing learners into contact with learning peers from around the world (Lea, Rogers, & Postmes, 2002). Communication technologies can also enhance the quality of university teaching and research as well as corporate training systems. 1.1 Statement of Problem Many approaches to technology-integration are based on personal experiences that reflect the faculty member’s or trainer’s own preference and exposure. During the past ten years, a large number of studies and reports have addressed the issue of ICT- 13 integration into teaching, and many have examined and reported the impact of such technology on the teaching process from the faculty and/or trainers perspective. This research has focused on various aspects of the problem: some technological, some pedagogical, and some organizational. Within the overwhelming number of research studies are contradictory results and radically different approaches. This can cause confusion to instructors as well as decision and policy makers in academic and corporate settings. This dissertation tackles the problem of user management of the vast research on technology and teaching by conducting a qualitative systematic review of the available literature. The goal is to produce a one-point reference of the major technologies, educational techniques, and organizational issues that have to be addressed when organizations and institutions of higher learning embark on initiatives to integrate ICT in teaching and training. Such a reference will be for educators, trainers, and policy makers. The produced systematic review system can be used to replicate this study in the future for other time periods. 1.2 Objectives and Significance of the Study The need for scientific evidence to support the process of teaching with technology has never been greater given the vast array of available technologies and educational systems. In addition, the body of knowledge on which educational technology systems and practices are based changes rapidly as technology advances. Educators and trainers must decide which pedagogical approaches, products, and 14 technologies should be invested in and implemented when there is often no standard or basis for comparison. To deal with the emerging challenges and changes in the way we teach and train, and to cope with the massive growth in educational technology information, academic decision-makers and training executives need to know how to evaluate the impact of ICT on instruction, its cost and effectiveness, how it delivers information, and its accessibility. For example, corporations and universities alike recognize the power of e-learning to transform people, performance, knowledge and skills (Henry, 2002). Students expect to come to universities to learn about and learn with Internet technology. Corporations can say who they are and what kind of employees they want on the WWW, and students can easily find the information. Employers look for graduates with such skills as creativity, adaptability, flexibility, problem solving, scenario analysis, networking, and time management, skills that can be acquired and demonstrated with the help of technology. While there is greater interest in the ICT use in teaching, there is more to be known about how ICT can be integrated and applied for best effect. The need to know what is happening with technology-enhanced teaching is now imperative. This includes, among other things, understanding what technologies to use in specific teaching/training situations, how the various teaching and instructional practices are being impacted, how instructors’ perception and thought about teaching is being modified, and how the role and culture of the organization/institution is changing with the introduction of new technology. Systematic reviews have become an increasingly important means by which research results are investigated, collected, sorted, appraised, and summarized. 15 Systematic reviews are the compiling of core information and results of a large number of studies, articles, and reports. Such reviews have become an important resource for educators and policy-makers wishing to evaluate certain products or assess particular teaching approaches. The objective of this dissertation is to produce an open and scalable classification framework of the use of information and communication technology systems in teaching and training. This framework is generic in the sense that it will not deal exclusively with a particular product, platform, or environment. Instead, the dissertation will classify ICT systems based on their educational/pedagogical uses in teaching and training as well as the organizational issues surrounding the adoption and deployment of such systems in organizations. As new technologies are developed, they can be added into this classification framework to expand it. It is the intention of the researcher to make this study dynamic as time goes by to keep benefiting organizations and their faculty members, trainers, and decision-makers. 1.3 Research Questions The main objective of this research was to develop an overall framework for understanding various computer-based systems and their impact on teaching and training. The aim was to identify and map selected studies that might shed light on the impact of ICT systems on universities and corporate environments, and to undertake an in-depth review of that literature. In addition, the research looked at the technological, educational, managerial, and organizational challenges that have to be considered when deploying 16 ICT systems. Such issues as instructional design that take into consideration technology and pedagogy were considered. The research was guided by three main themes: (1) technological development of tools and applications, (2) pedagogical issues, and (3) organizational issues. The theoretical framework of the study was drawn from media uses theory, diffusion of innovations, and learning theory. The result is a framework for better assessing potential uses of ICT for teaching and training. The systematic review was guided by these main questions: Question 1 (Technological): What are the various ICT systems and their characteristics being used for teaching and training? Question 2 (Pedagogical): How are faculty members and trainers integrating the various ICT systems and tools to enrich and change the way they deliver instruction? Question 3 (Organizational): What are the organizational and institutional challenges in managing the adoption and implementation of ICT for teaching and training? 1.4 Basic Assumptions This study is concerned with the use and impact of information and communication technologies for teaching and training. The investigation is addressed from the point view of educators and trainers, but not students or learners. Although the education process in an interconnection between teaching and learning, this dissertation only addresses the needs of educators. It is assumed that faculty members and trainers are working with instructional designers and education experts to assess the learning 17 needs and accordingly are designing instructions to achieve certain learning goals. This study, however, addresses some of these issues by relating technology systems to pedagogy to see how the implementation of such systems leads to the realization of certain learning objectives. For example, how ICTs can facilitate a student-centered approach to learning. All the pedagogical discussion is within the framework of technology and its applications in certain teaching and training contexts. 1.5 Definition of Terms Information and Communication Technology (ICT): A term that refers to stand-alone computers, networked devices and telecommunication technologies with multimodal interface, mobile phones/devices with capability to perform data communication, and other technologies that allow multimodal and interactive communication. Impact: What happens to faculty users and trainers in terms of improving (or changing) their teaching and training strategies. The use of the term “impact” is chosen rather than “effect” because the research is looking at the broader influences of ICT on teaching and training rather than just measuring specific effects. Systematic Review: Systematic review is a research methodology for summarizing past research on a topic of interest. Unlike the traditional approach to reviewing literature, a systematic review utilizes the same principles and rigor that is expected in primary research (Albanese & Nrocini, 2002). Pedagogy: Pedagogy is defined as the art or science of teaching (Webster’s Dictionary). Education literature uses pedagogy to refer to teaching children, and andragogy to 18 teaching adults. In this dissertation, the term pedagogy will be used without distinction between children or adults. 1.6 Limitations The study reviews the 1995-2005 literature on the impact and use of ICTs in teaching and training. It is well known that educational technology has been around much longer than the past decade. However, this study considers the advent of Internet (particularly the web) as a technology that has changed the way teaching and training are delivered. The web was developed in the early 1990’s, but it was not until the Internet became more of a commercial entity that Internet technologies began to penetrate the educational sector. Only recently has the Internet been used for teaching. The development of tools to enhance or replicate pedagogical approaches in the classroom is not an old phenomenon. The researcher participated in the development of computing technology from the early days of the personal computer in the 1980’s (the Apple II, IBM PC) up until the emergence of high-performance multi-processor computer systems in our present time. He utilized extensively the Internet when it was a pure by text-based academic network using tools such as TELENT, Gopher, FTP, and IRC, and participated in the transformation of the Internet from an academic environment to a dynamic and sophisticated commercial meta-network in the mid 90’s. It is difficult to determine when the Internet was first used in teaching. However, the objective of this study is to review how ICT is being used now. This is not a historical study so no attempt is being made to trace history to see when the first web 19 page was developed to teach a class, or when the first asynchronous collaborative environment was made available using the Internet to support teaching and training. Another limitation is that such a systematic review may not pick up every research report or include every conceivably relevant article. What will be included are those studies reviewed and published/disseminated in well-known and reputable sources such as academic journals and databases. Many other data sources exist in the form of academic theses, dissertations, web sites, and position papers. Care must be taken in choosing the types of data sources that might inform the teaching and training process not just in theory, but also in proven practical applications. 1.8 Organization of the Dissertation This dissertation is organized into seven chapters. Chapter One (this chapter) includes an overview and introduction to the topic, a statement of the problem that will be addressed, the research questions, the significance or rationale of the study, basic assumptions made, definitions of some terminology, and the limitations of the study. Chapter Two presents represents the research framework that will set the stage for the study. It presents a discussion and critique of topics related to the research questions, including a review of media use theories, approaches to ICT-based education, pedagogical issues related to the use of technology in teaching, diffusion of innovations theories and adoption issues, learning in organizations, and organizational culture. These topics are framed in the context of higher education and corporate cultures and they are directly related to the research questions. 20 Chapter Three reviews in detail the methodology used in this study, including a description of qualitative systematic review and document analysis methods, the researcher’s background and his experience in this area, the approach taken to data collection, data extraction and analysis. Chapter Four presents preliminary results obtained from the systematic review of the literature. The chapter begins with an interpretation of the findings by providing concise answers to the research questions asked in the study. This is followed by a classification framework of the overall results obtained from this systematic review. The classification maps ICT systems into pedagogical principles that are used in teaching and training. Based on this mapping approach, Chapters Five and Six present detailed results of the research. Chapter Five presents and discusses technological systems and innovations used for teaching and training, and related their use to educational principles. Chapter Six presents the organizational issues uncovered in the literature reviewed. Chapter Seven presents an overall model and recommends a framework for the implementation and support of ICTs in the teaching and training process. The chapter ends with closing remarks and suggestions for further research in this area. 21 CHAPTER TWO: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction Over the last two decades, a great deal of research has been done examining the effects of computer-supported learning (Steeples & Chris, 2002). The rapid growth in computer-based ICTs is creating new opportunities for universities and corporations to manage teaching and training differently. In order for societies to be economically and socially successful in the new knowledge-based world, a highly skilled and well-trained population is required. The advances in digital technologies that are faster, more capable, and easier to use have made it possible for university educators to rethink the pedagogical assumptions related to teaching strategies (Li, 1998). Information technologies offer new opportunities for educators to enhance the quality and accessibility of their instructional material. Tools such as electronic mail, computer conferencing, and the World Wide Web are assumed to strengthen communication and collaboration between students and faculty members. Trainers in such industries as finance, insurance, and travel have made strategic use of ICT systems for product development, marketing, and distribution, and are using ICTs for professional development and training. Telecommunication systems allow international airlines to track passengers and luggage around the world. Because corporations have made ICT investments for business reasons, they now find that staff training and human resource development are easier by drawing upon the various technological tools used in their businesses (Landen, 22 1997). These same telecommunication networks are being used to carry out distributed training programs for airport security and customer care. Modern communication technologies provide increased opportunities for interaction that are useful for problem solving, sharing resources, and enhancing face-toface contact (Clickering & Ehrmann, 1997). Teaching and learning also benefits in illustration of difficult concepts with animation or video and providing simulations and gaming in carrying out training and scientific experiments. These technologies allow new information search methods, new teaching configurations, and just-in-time academic interchange (Guttormsen & Krueger, 2000). With Internet technologies, learners and educators can work collaboratively anytime, almost anywhere. The classroom experience is no longer limited to a physical space. It can now be extended through virtual private networks to include online classrooms characterized by an open and collaborative learning environment (Schank, 2001). Both collaborative work and e-learning have gained momentum in corporations all over the world due to the availability of web-enabling technologies and services. In many ways, technology-supported collaborative learning has preserved, and in some cases added to, the advantages of traditional face-to-face collaborative learning (Collins & Berge, 1996). Teachers and trainers have the opportunity to provide their students and clients with more detailed feedback through creative and interactive presentations that allow for more learner input. Web-based teaching can accommodate varying rates of individual progression and provide a degree of flexibility not possible with the delivery of information through mass lectures. In addition, educational technologies have a positive role to play in providing flexible opportunities for continuing and life-long 23 learning (Lueddeke, 1997). ICT can benefit active learners in balancing work and family commitments and in gaining remote access to educational resources. 2.2 Theories of Media Use To understand the tendency of organizations and individuals to use or not use certain technologies as a medium for instruction and communicating knowledge, it is necessary to examine the various media use theories on communication and learning within organizations. People vary in the degree to which they embrace new technology. Understanding why people accept or reject certain technologies has proven to be one of the most challenging issues in organizational research (Davis, et al, 1989). More than one model has been used to explain the process through which new communication technologies come to be adopted. Daft and Lengel (1986) proposed the media richness model as a framework for explaining the choices organizational members make about communication media use. According to this model, every organizational communication task can be characterized in terms of its level of ambiguity. For example, a university instructor informing his/her students about an upcoming seminar is faced with a relatively unambiguous task because multiple interpretations about a simple announcement are unlikely. In contrast, an instructor who must explain a difficult theoretical concept or coordinate a discussion in a psychology session is faced with a communicative situation that has a great potential for misunderstanding and emergent meanings. In such cases, the communicative interaction would be characterized as much more ambiguous. 24 Another model is the social information-processing model that suggests that the adoption of organizational technologies and communication media can be more fully explained by looking at the social environment of the institution or the organization. In adopting this model, Fulk, et al (1990) argued that behavior occurs in a social world that is far from neutral in its effects. Communicative interaction can directly influence “attitude towards the communication media” and “media use behavior” (Miller, 1999). For example, an organization’s decision to use a certain technology might be influenced by the experiences of other organizations. An instructor in a university may have heard about how tedious and time-consuming it is to review and respond to the many threads the students post on an electronic discussion board. Similarly, he/she might have talked with another instructor who hates class-related online classroom discussions because of experiences at another institution. This social information influences the instructor’s perception of the medium’s characteristics and may influence his/her attitude towards other new media. In addition to the social information-processing model, Sitkin, et al. (1992) proposed a dual-capacity model of media choice in organizations. According to this model, any communication medium conveys two kinds of messages. One message involves “data” and the other involves “meaning.” The model suggests that every organizational medium has a data-carrying capacity, defined as “the degree to which a medium is able to effectively and efficiently convey task-relevant data.” In addition, the medium has symbol-carrying capacity that represents the medium’s ability to convey the core values and assumptions that constitute the organization’s culture, and attain the status of a symbol apart from the actual message being transmitted. For example, a 25 training session presentation delivered with PowerPoint can carry symbolic messages about the innovativeness, preparedness, and technological sophistication of the trainer. The three models presented above help to clarify the process through which members of an organization may approach new communication technologies. It is possible that organizational media choices are determined by a complex combination of all three models or none of the above. In a university environment, there may be additional factors that shape attitudes toward new technologies. Technology can potentially influence changes in both the organizational and practice patterns of organizations. Since organizations are composed of groups with diverse and generally competing interests on the rational, organizational and symbolic levels, adoption and implementation of technology are two very different matters. One theory that has been elaborated as a technology acceptance model is an adaptation of the theory of reasoned action proposed by Davis, et al. (1989). The premise of this theory is that people take the practical and social consequences of action into account in deciding what to do, building an overall behavioral intention as a complex function of value-bearing beliefs about the outcome of the behavior. Intentions are formed as weighted combinations of attitude and subjective norms, and behavior depends most directly on intentions. In the context of a technology acceptance model, both technology acceptance and technology resistance are forms of reasoned action, and both are rational for users. The theoretical assumption here is that resistance to technology depends on faculty perception. These theories suggest that any change in behavior must be associated with reasoning. This can help us to target beliefs and perceptions that make a difference in 26 what faculty members do. Incentives, training, and activity reporting are some of the strategies that can be used to affect the behavior of faculty members. Change also may not be easy for senior faculty members who have been teaching the traditional way for many years. To change at any time is cognitively not easy, and the understanding of and level of comfort with technology can be very limited among senior faculty. 2.3 Approaches to ICT-Based Education The integration of information and communication technologies into the educational process has been linked to and/or based on a variety of learning paradigms and teaching methods. This section outlines the basics of these learning paradigms and details how they relate to technology-enhanced teaching and learning. Learning Paradigms A number of learning modes characterize how teaching is orchestrated and how learning takes place. In the objectivist mode, knowledge is seen as part of a reality that is out there. The goal of learning is to uncover this reality and understand it. The traditional way of instructor-led education (in some cultures called spoon-feeding) fits this mode of learning. The teacher is the know-it-all, and he/she is the sole source of knowledge through which the learner can uncover facts and pieces of knowledge and digest it. The second mode is the constructivist mode, in which learners are seen as makers of their own reality. Learning and knowledge is a process that is constructed by the learners through exploration and problem solving. This mode emphasizes a student- 27 centered approach to learning and the instructor in mostly seen as a facilitator and coordinator of the learning process. Collaborative mode is an extension of the constructivist mode in which knowledge is acquired and learned through group interaction with others. Social interaction allows learners to share their ideas and experiences with other learners, so the overall learning experience of the group is enriched. A popular approach in education that utilizes this mode is referred to as cooperative learning, usually implemented through group projects and group case studies. An additional mode is the cognitive information-processing mode, which is a different version of the constructivist mode of learning. Cognitive information processing is based on the idea that learning is a function of the cognitive characteristics of the learner. Students/trainees will learn things that match their learning style. Some are visual learners and learn much better by seeing. Others can best learn by doing, and so on. In cognitive information processing, knowledge has to be organized and delivered in a way that matches the individual’s learning style for learning to be effective. Another extension to the constructivist approach is the socio-cultural mode. In this mode, learners tend to construct their reality based on the social setting they are in. However, constructed reality depends on the learner’s cultural background. Culture and social values of the learner tend to dictate how he/she acquires and processes knowledge. The learning process is facilitated when learners tend to reflect on their own social experiences and cultural background. 28 Electronic Delivery of Content With the above-mentioned learning paradigms and styles in mind, it is easier to think wholistically about the multiple approaches that have been used in ICT-based education, and try to map them to maximize their educational value for learners. The classical approach that many instructors tend to adopt in online education, for example, is to deliver online reading material in the form of handouts or course notes for students to download. This is an extension to what is being practiced in traditional classrooms, where faculty members and trainers make photocopies of handouts to distribute to students in class. In online mode, the process saves the instructor’s time and effort. Students will access these documents and print them for themselves or not. Such an approach is a direct realization of the objectivist mode of learning where the instructor is still at the center of the learning process. Instructors do in electronic communication what was done in face-to-face class environment but through a different medium. Beyond the fact that the online computer acts as storage for such material, and the files can be easily exchanged and saved for future use, not much in the way of added value educational is seen in this approach over traditional campus education. Nevertheless, this approach is valuable in distance education mode because it saves time and cost. Online communication makes material instantly available to distant learners wherever they are, and there can be cost savings. Large amounts of material, if printed, will take a huge amount of paper and the cost of shipping will be high. One negative aspect of the ease and speed of electronic delivery of documents online can be a lack of caution concerning the size (quantity) of transmitted course material. An electronic thesis or book chapter in Adobe Acrobat PDF format can have a 29 size of 880KB (less than 1MB). However, the number of actual pages of text can be more than 300. Some instructors do not have the feel for this number of pages and they just keep posting additional documents for their students to read. Reading material can be posted on the web in various format. Many instructors simply post word processing files or portable documents (PDF or Postscript). Others may design notes in HTML to be viewed with a web browser. No matter what delivery format, instructors need to keep in mind that not all learners have the same learning style. Adult learners, for example, tend to be more practical and they may not like to read many things at once. Young learners may be visual, so inclusion of diagrams, illustrations, and pictures can be more suitable for them. Instructors delivering electronic material in this mode also must make sure that documents are clear and readable. There is a tendency at many universities nowadays to use a method called electronic reserves. In this mode, printed documents are scanned into a portable document format (likely Acrobat PDF), and made available online via the library. The problem is often that these documents are not scanned properly due to lack of technical knowledge or in an attempt to save disk space by making the file smaller. Either way, the resulting documents are not always readable or the graphics in many cases are distorted. Educators who would like to use such a mode of online delivery will wish to make sure they can reproduce materials at high quality. Faculty members should be familiar with the technologies involved to be certain the documents are optimized for online delivery and are manageable to transfer and download by the students. 30 An extension to document delivery that is richer but more involved is multimedia content delivery. Increasingly, multimedia is being integrated into online education due to its power in illustrating many educational concepts. Images, graphics, audio, video, animation, and simulations are being used in academic online learning as well as for corporate training and e-learning systems. Examples include diagrams to illustrate certain design processes or methodologies, photos of pieces of art from museum displays, audio and video clips transferred to online music, film, and media courses, and graphical simulations that allow students to change input parameters in science and engineering experiments and observe the changes and the reaction of a system. These are only some of the many applications of multimedia in online education. Multimedia can be mapped into the objectivist mode of learning, but can also address other modes. For example, simulations and audio/video experiences enable learners to think for themselves and can prompt participants to solve certain problems either individually or through collaboration with peers. So, simulations can be mapped into the constructivist approach. Moreover, the use of visual multimedia supported by audio and animation caters to learners less able to learn by reading. Some students need to see, hear, and experiment in order to understand and digest complex concepts. Multimedia usage in online education may better suite all types of learners from the young to adults. It is obvious that young learners will be more attracted to learning material that is enhanced by sound, music, and animation since this makes learning more fun. For adults who have a habit of learning on their own, video documentaries, simulations, and animations can help communicate and reinforce concepts. In a work 31 environment, seeing an illustration or watching a video clip may be more effective than learning from text-based materials. Educators who choose to deliver content through multimedia have to keep certain issues in mind. Multimedia content is usually larger (more media-rich) than textual documents. As such, bandwidth can become a problem. They have to keep in mind that not all at home or on-the-road learners have access to the high-speed infrastructures typically found in corporations or on university campuses. For distance education, this is particularly crucial when learners have limited access and less sophisticated equipment. In online education being delivered to developing countries, for example, the 56Kbps dial-up modem is the only available mean to access online course content and large multimedia content poses a participation problem for learners. Educators need to know how to optimize content so they can deliver their learning material and communicate concepts, but without overloading the learner and the learner’s receiving devices. Communication Tools Perhaps the most exciting feature about technology-enhanced education is the abundance of communication tools available. Learning is a communication process. Two-ways communication is vital for learning to occur. When students have questions, instructors need to provide feedback, and students need to discuss among themselves. Such interactivity is facilitated with the tools now available in classroom and online education applications. Through communication, learners can share their experiences, discuss with instructors and with peers asynchronously or in real time. This new flexibility fosters the 32 collaborative mode of learning and is in tune with the constructivist approach to learning. Collaboration among students in online education can be organized to solve problems and address case studies. Approaches such as problem-based learning and group projects depend on easy communication between students and instructors and among students themselves working on the same (or different) projects. Bi-directional communication using online technologies can be classified into two main categories: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous communication is realtime communication in which all parties must be online at the same time. It is like making a phone call. In order to speak to the other person, both persons have to be on the phone at the same time. Chat and MUD are examples of this type of communication. Instructors can utilize this mode of communication by establishing virtual office hours during which learners can ask questions and clarify issues. Synchronous communication is in many ways a replication of the classroom environment in which students and instructors are in the same place at the same time. Online synchronous instruction may be more suitable for those adult learners, who are working, have family responsibility, or are always on the move. The asynchronous mode of communication is an anytime any place type of interaction. It is a non-real-time mode that allows one person to send a message and the other person to read it/listen to it/view it whenever and wherever appropriate. The bestknown example of asynchronous communication is of course e-mail, the most widely used mode of communication in online education. E-mail has proven to be the best way for students to contact the instructor and ones peers and get fast responses (ideally!!). Relying on traditional mail for international delivery has come to be perceived as too 33 slow and too costly. Learners not only can send textual messages, they can attach assignments and incorporate hyperlinks to information. E-mail is good for questions and answers, feedback, and assessment. Intelligent and organized use of e-mail can add great value to the teaching and learning process. Through e-mail tutorials, instructors can stimulate students’ thinking abilities and negotiate complex concepts and set advanced learning goals that students can carry out on their own. E-mail has become the norm and online educators have put it to good and constructive use. Another popular mode of asynchronous communication is online discussion boards or threaded boards. These are electronic conferences where learners and educators can post messages that all members of a class/environment can read. They encourage learners to discuss certain issues together and to learn from each other. Discussion boards can serve as a collaborative mode of learning since they enable learners to work together, though not necessarily at the same time and place. Problembased learning using discussion boards and such online technologies for those separated by distance and time zone has proven to be a big step forward for distance education. Another type of communication approach in online education is the use of drop boxes. In this approach, students can submit assignments and papers to the instructor and receive graded work and feedback from the instructor. This too has been widely adopted in distance education to reduce response time and fear of lost assignments. Assessment Tools Online education, like any other form of education, needs mechanisms to evaluate and assess students’ work. In traditional education, tests, quizzes, and homework are 34 used for this purpose. In online education, similar approaches can be used but issues related to authenticity of students’ work, and whether a student gets help from other people need to be sorted out. Some online education programs rely on physical testing centers (as practiced in many internationally delivered distance-learning programs). However, instructors in adult learning programs have begun to develop methods of assessment that are not examdriven. This is because it may not be feasible to get learners into a physical place to take a test or an exam. Instead, such approaches as qualitative evaluation of class contribution in the form of opinions, discussion, and project performance, project-based approaches, and peer-evaluation have been used to assess individual and group work. Online education has also pioneered the concept of self-testing in which students can work on practice tests to check their understanding and their progress. In the future there will be opportunities for improvement in the area of assessment so that online systems can be used to evaluate student progress and achievement. 2.4 Diffusion of Innovations This section will review the basics of diffusion of innovations theory and relate that theory to educational technology. "Diffusion is the processes by which an innovation (a new idea) is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system." (Rogers 1995). Four factors interact to influence the diffusion of an innovation: (1) the innovation (e.g., educational technology); (2) the communication channel (e.g., media, word of mouth); (3) time; and (4) the social system (e.g., school, university). Everett M. Rogers has done the most to synthesize the 35 significant findings and theories related to diffusion. His book Diffusion of Innovations, first published in 1960 and now in its fourth edition (1995), has become the standard reference in this area. It provides a theoretical framework for models of diffusion and offers a critical examination of the research evidence. Diffusion theory is valuable to the field of educational technology for several reasons. First, the causes of educational technology's diffusion problems remain unclear; some blame the instructor while others blame the institutions. Second, educational technology is an innovation-based field in which the various products and methods used represent innovations for the delivery of instruction. Third, by studying diffusion theory, it is possible to come up with models for adoption and diffusion of educational technology. Diffusion theory provides important guidance for those interested in seeing educational technology being adopted at all levels of the educational system (Surry 1997). There are five concepts that are central to diffusion of innovations theory: (1) the innovation-decision process; (2) attributes of successful innovations; (3) adopter categories; (4) characteristics of successful change agents; and (5) consequences of innovations. Innovation-Decision Process The innovation-decision process may be considered from the perspective of an individual or an organization. Potential adopters have to first know about an innovation, be persuaded as to the merits of such an innovation, decide to adopt or reject the innovation, implement the new idea, and finally confirm their decision whether or not to continue with the original decision. 36 This process is predictable regardless of the innovation and provides a framework for those working toward diffusing educational technology in the classroom. The type of innovation-decision has an important influence on the rate of adoption of an innovation. Organizational adoption of innovations (e.g., school or university adoption) tends to fall into one of three categories: 1. Optional innovation-decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by an individual or an organization. A school or a university may choose to use a certain educational technology idea or teaching method, or teachers may have their own reasons for using certain educational technology techniques or methods. 2. Collective innovation-decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by consensus among members of an organization. A school board or a university committee may collectively decide to standardize certain educational technology tools and methods. Such a decision is normally made through agreement by the majority members of the organization. 3. Authority innovation-decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by one or more individuals in an organization who possess power, status, or technical expertise. An educational policy may require all employees to adopt and use certain educational technologies regardless of the opinion of the teachers (Febry & Higgs, 1997). Attributes of Successful Innovations For an innovation to be adopted, it is usually evaluated with respect to five attributes. 37 1. An innovation must have relative advantage to the potential adopter. For example, an instructor should clearly see the benefits of educational technology in enhancing the teaching process over traditional teaching methods. 2. The innovation must fit and be compatible with existing working patterns and experiences. Adopting an innovation should be consistent with an organization's existing values, past experiences, and needs. 3. An innovation such as educational technology should allow for experimentation (trialability) by potential adopters before they make their decision to adopt or reject the idea. 4. The positive results of an innovation should be visible to others. Instructors need to see the results of educational technology use by their colleagues and examine their effect on others' classes in order to decide whether to use it in their own classes. 5. An innovation that is perceived as difficult to use and complicated will be adopted more slowly. These attributes and many others have been found to play an important role in several technology-related adoption studies (Wilski & Jackson, 1999; Geroski, 2000). Adopter Categories Adopters of an innovation are usually categorized based on the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than the others (innovativeness). Typically, there are five main adopter categories: 38 1. Innovators: are individuals who are obsessed with new ideas and believe that there is always a better way to do things. For example, innovators in the field of educational technology are likely to be among the first to improve the methods by which already established tools are used. Innovators find ways of overcoming obstacles to their plans, love challenges, and usually never stop until they achieve their goals. 2. Early Adopters: are people who are the first to adopt an innovation in an organization. They tend to have a higher level of formal education and a higher social status. They are the individuals who are considered by many as "the individuals to check with before using a new idea. Such people serve as a role model for speeding the diffusion of an innovation since they are not too far ahead of the average individual in innovativeness. 3. Early Majority: are individuals whose innovation-decision period is relatively longer than that of the innovator and the early adopter. They are followers with the willingness to adopt an innovation, but they seldom lead. 4. Late Majority: are those who adopt new ideas just after the average member in an organization. The adoption for the late majority is mostly due to increasing network pressure from peers. For example, as more instructors adopt educational technology in their teaching activities, people in the late majority feel they are left behind, and realize the increasing pressure from their students and from the organization to catch up with the rest. 5. Laggards: are the last people in an organization to adopt an innovation. Their decisions are often made based on what was practiced in the past, and their 39 interaction is normally with those who have relatively traditional values. An example of this category would be traditional teachers who have served for a very long time and do not see a compelling reason to adopt new educational technologies. From their perspective, what they have been doing traditionally works just fine, and there is no need to learn new technologies and methods to change the teaching and learning processes. Individuals falling into these adopter categories for any given innovation tend to follow the normal curve with a few innovators (2.5 percent), early majority (13.5 percent), and laggards (16 percent), and many early and late majority categories (68 percent to 34 percent each) (Rogers 1995). Characteristics of Successful Change Agents A change agent is an individual who influences the innovation-decision of others. Change agents play a key role in the innovation-decision process and can be opinion leaders or peers of the potential adopter. Typically, change agents desire to secure the adoption of the innovation. However, change agents may assert their power of persuasion to slow or stop the diffusion of innovations they perceive as harmful to potential adopters (Rogers 1995). Instructors, students, and institutions are all seen to be effective change agents in the diffusion process of educational technology. Successful change agents have a strong client orientation as opposed to an orientation toward the innovation. They tend to understand their clients and have credibility, possibly because of similarities to the client. Instructors are ideal change agents because of their homophily with other instructors (Surry 1997). 40 Near-peer influence, institutional support, and co-learning with students are methods that can provide the channels for change agents to diffuse educational technology use in schools and universities. Students with technology skills can play an important role in assisting and persuading teachers to adopt technology in their instruction. Finally, institutional support is essential to creating an environment conducive to the use of educational technology use among teachers and students alike. Consequences of Innovations The adoption or rejection of an innovation leads to certain consequences that may affect individuals or organizations. There can be desirable or undesirable consequences and effects that are direct or indirect, and anticipated or unanticipated. It is hoped that an innovation will lead to desirable, direct, and anticipated consequences. However, results produced are not always those intended, leading to undesirable, indirect, and unanticipated consequences. Although it is possible to describe and establish categories for consequences of innovations, it is difficult to generalize or predict when and how consequences will happen. Diffusion Theories and Technology The field of educational technology tends to be guided by highly dedicated and motivated individuals. These individuals share a common vision and work to bring that vision into reality. Instructors, students, and administrators that are committed to the field usually work hard to make educational technology better understood, successful, and diffused faster in an institution. Rogers's 1995 work mostly analyzed distinct innovations whose characteristics were not changed by the adopters during the diffusion 41 process. However, educational technology cannot be described as a static or unchangeable innovation. Adopters of educational technology tend to reinvent and mold innovations in accordance with their needs and perceptions. This may cause the innovation to go in unpredictable directions or be unmanageable unless a centralized organizational structure is developed to maintain its stability. Surry (1997) discussed how the theories of diffusion have been incorporated into the field of instructional technology. Baskerville and Pries-Heje (2001) described multiple-theory analysis of diffusion of information technology by using three innovation diffusion models: the interactive model, the linked-chain model and the emergent model. From the perspective of information technology use in organizations, the diffusion of an innovation is conceived as the process by which knowledge of an innovation spreads throughout the population, eventually to be adopted or rejected by either an individual or a decision-making unit (Carter, et. al, 2001). Geroski (2000) explored alternative explanations of the diffusion of new technologies and argued that other models, such as the so-called epidemic model and probit model, give different perspectives regarding the diffusion process over time. The epidemic model considers information to be the key to diffusion. As more people adopt the technology, information of it spreads quickly, leading to a period of rapid adoption like a “contagious disease.” In the probit model, adopters are ranked according to their expected benefit from adopting the innovation. When acquisition costs fall over time, more and more adopters will find it attractive to adopt the technology as time goes by (Madlener & Wickart, 2003). There are also models that question whether adoptions are maintained by the adopters. Authoritative innovation decision models seek to show that the adoption of technologies subsequently 42 influences diffusion rate, for example in situations where organizations require certain technology causing fast spread adoption and use. Adoption Barriers Technology can potentially change the practice patterns of universities and other organizations. Since universities are composed of groups with diverse and generally competing interests, adoption and implementation of technology are two very different matters. In order to identify the barriers to effective use of ICTs by faculty members and/or trainers, feedback from early adopters about their attitudes toward this mode of teaching can be of great importance (Bonk, 2001). One of the interesting issues is the fact that many early adopters in universities believe that they own their online course content. They also perceive that improved access and learning are the main reasons universities adopt ICT-based teaching, rather than profit. Nevertheless, they would like to be rewarded in the form of additional salary, royalties, course development stipends, or some instructional design and technology support. Researchers have questioned why many academics do not appear to be integrating new technologies into their teaching. Surveys of faculty members in some UK universities highlighted a perceived lack of such resources as time, equipment, and funding as barriers to the adoption of new approaches (Spotts & Bowman, 1993). The picture emerging from other studies (Hansen & Perry, 1993; Herling, 1994) also pointed to lower than expected adoption of new practices because of such barriers as insufficient time, too few incentives, and the lack of support. 43 McNaught (2002) identified policy, culture and support as contributing factors to adoption of ICT at universities and pointed out that there is a considerable overlap within these themes. The policy theme looks at such institutional policies as equity and intellectual property. It also addresses the alignment of policy throughout the organization, the direction of policy change (bottom-up or top-down) and a number of strategic processes such as grant schemes. The culture theme incorporates factors such as collaboration within the university, and personal motivation of faculty to use ICT, as well as particular aspects of funding, faculty rewards and time release, leadership, and teaching and learning models. The support theme incorporates a whole range of institutional issues including ICT, administrative and library infrastructure, professional development for faculty, student support, educational and instructional design support, funding and availability of grant, and ICT literacy. Several factors are prominent that affect ICT use in universities: 1. Coherence of policy across all levels of institutional operations and specific policies that impact on ICT within each institution. 2. Intellectual property and copyright issues in emerging online environment. 3. Leadership and institutional culture. 4. Faculty issues and attitudes: namely, professional development and training, faculty recognition and rewards, and motivation of individuals. 5. Funding resources for developing and maintaining computer-based learning material and approaches, and faculty time release. In many universities, faculty members may lack confidence that their institutions are supportive of their efforts to transform learning through ICT. These faculty members 44 can recognize the value of using ICTs with their students, and would like to experiment with it. However, they are not ready to commit, because they may not think that the institution will support them. Graves (1998) believes that institutions “are not removing the barriers to the fair consideration of this type of work” in advancing the careers of faculty. Although there is a growing level of support in many universities for faculty efforts to use ICT for teaching, that support tends to be in the form of hardware help such as purchasing computer systems, training workshops, helping set up Web pages, and other forms of technical support. However, many believe those efforts are insufficient for faculty members interested in improving the quality of education through ICT. Additional barriers relate to the time-consuming nature of developing technologybased materials and approaches, and the scarcity of time available to commit to such tasks. Another issue is related to the gap in understanding between the technology experts and those coping with real classroom issues. As will be seen in the findings of this dissertation, many universities and other organizations are trying hard to fill these gaps by setting up faculty and staff support and development centers. However, the problem of lack of free time prevents many faculty members in many cases from attending and actively participating in organized workshop and seminars. One additional barrier relates to the perceived attitudes and knowledge of faculty. A lack of familiarity with the potential of technology and with the materials available to enhance teaching seems to be an issue. Watson (2001) argues that many universities tend to put the cart before the horse. They should first address the nature of learning and teaching needed to achieve knowledge. From this will emerge a clearer framework of 45 what change is required to do the job of modernizing education, and the new expectations and relationships for faculty and technology needed to achieve it. The difficulty with these interesting, and somewhat predictable, barriers is that they do not give clues to the interrelationships among the points listed and the priorities that must be addressed when attempting to minimize the barriers. Rather than identifying all of the perceived barriers to be overcome, a more useful approach is to take a positive attitude and look at the needs to be met for teaching practices to change. Such an approach is not easily achieved because university faculty members do not always know what their support needs will be when they are unfamiliar with educational technology and unaware of the educational and technical potential that technology offers. In part, it is a case of not knowing what they need to know until they are well along the track of experimentation and implementation. 2.5 Learning in Organizations Faculty members and trainers attitudes toward the effective use of ICT is related to their ability to learn a new technology and make changes happen in universities and organizations. Duncan and Weiss (1979) defined learning as the “process within the organization by which knowledge about action-outcome relationships and the effect on the environment of these relationships is developed.” Moreover, Rowley (1998) defined a learning organization as “an organization that facilitates the learning of all its members and continuously transforms itself.” Learning organizations concern themselves with individual learning that results in organizational learning (Weick and Ashford, 2001). According to this theory, individual learning will eventually lead to organizational 46 transformation enabling the organization to search for new ideas, new problems, and new opportunities from which competitive advantage can be realized. Markets are changing, and political and legal context shift. Fast communication due to ICT has impact on the ability of organizations to monitor and respond to their clients’ requirements. In this environment, organizations must know how to change and they must be able to learn and learn from their learning. The relationship between media deployment in organizations and learning has been the subject of a long debate. Clark (1983) challenged the assumption that media influence learning. He argued “all current reviews of media comparison studies suggest that we will not find learning differences that can be unambiguously attributed to any medium of instruction.” Kozma (1991) opposed this view and described learning with media as a complementary process in which representations are constructed and procedures are performed. He reiterated that some learners would learn a particular task regardless of the delivery tool. Others, however, will be able to take advantage of a particular medium’s characteristics to help construct knowledge. Patterson (1999) discussed the idea of a learning organization and applied his concept to universities. He argued that universities are centers of learning; they are knowledge-intensive industries; they create and acquire knowledge; they disseminate knowledge. As universities adapt to the changing external environment they become learning universities. Universities seek to create learning communities in which students learn through collaboration and through exposure to scholarship and research. In order to create learning organizations in higher education, members of the university community need to participate in individual learning. According to Patterson, universities as 47 organizations must create a climate in which experiential learning is harnessed to achieve organizational learning. Learning in a university requires extending the focus of learning from the classroom and the research laboratory to the wider organization, so that the whole institution creates and disseminates knowledge that can transform the university as an institution. 2.6 Technology and Organizational Culture Over the last three decades or so, organizational activities have been extensively affected by the introduction of new technologies, particularly information technology (Valentine, 2000). Today, technological administrative systems monitor, control and evaluate organizational activities (Zuboff, 1998). Everyday organizational life is increasingly embedded in a technological system and the people in those organizations have no choice but to use information technology in radically new ways to carry out operations. Prior research on information technology in organizations has tended to focus on the use of technology and the degree of user training needed to understand factors affecting information technology usage and, in turns, technology effectiveness. The social interaction between organizations and information technology still requires more research and analysis. A better understanding of how organizational culture is shaped or changed is still needed when information technology is introduced in an organization. According to Yanow (2000), observing members of an organization at work is equivalent to seeing a culture. An organization can be seen as “a set of acts and interactions involving language and objects repeated over time, with patterns and 48 variations” (Yanow, 2000, p. 249). Organizational culture represents the personality of the organization. Members of an organization come to sense the particular culture of an organization, which includes the assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs (artifacts) of organization members and their functioning style. Culture is not easy to express distinctly, but people know it when they sense it. In its simplest level, culture consists of a set of values that helps people in an organization understand which actions are considered acceptable and which are considered unacceptable. Culture is rooted in history and stems from deep values and beliefs. For example, the culture of a large corporation is quite different from that of a hospital, which is quite different from that of a university. One can tell the culture of an organization by looking at the arrangement of furniture, what members wear, and how people talk to each other - similar to how one can get a feeling about another’s personality. Technology has always been a central variable in organizational theory informing research and practice. Organizational scholars have always looked for better approaches to study and analyze organizations and organizational communication as a way of studying organizational culture. Structuration Theory One of the most influential theoretical paradigms in information technology research has been Anthony Giddens’s structuration theory (Orlikowski, 1992) applied to the study of information technology in organizations. Structuration theory is concerned with the nature of social systems. Its core argument is that social structure exists in the actions of human agents as they use existing structures and create new ones in the course 49 of everyday life. The theory links two philosophical extremes that traditionally have been viewed as incompatible. The first theory is based on functionalism, which holds that social structures are independent of people; they exists in all institutions, organizations, technologies, or other entities, directly influencing human action. The other theory is interpretivism, which holds that social structures exist only in the minds of people and hold no meaning outside the social construction that people create. The functionalist view holds that the consequences of structures explain their existence (causal arguments exist). The interpretive view holds that structures are cognitively formed through experience (social constructionist arguments exist). Functionalists give more weight to the power of structure, while interpretivists give more weight to the power of human agency. Giddens bridges these views by stating that structures are neither inherent to institutions nor inherent to people; they are rooted in both and occur in the actions people take, especially as they interact with one another. Therefore, structures exist as actors apply them; they are a medium and outcome of human interaction. Giddens uses the term “structuration” to illustrate, “Structures are systems of ongoing actions, being continuously produced and reproduced through time”. Giddens is trying to balance the subjective and objective dimensions of social reality. He is proposing a meta-theory that incorporates both dimensions. Gauntlett (2002) explained “Giddens’s theory of structuration notes that social life is more than random individual acts, but is not merely determined by social forces” (p. 93). This means that the social reality cannot be explained only by using the micro-level activity; however, social reality can not be disregarded by only looking at the macro-level activity. 50 Giddens suggested “human agency and social structure are in a relationship with each other” (Gauntlett, 2002, p. 93, see also Tucker, 1998). Giddens does not explicitly address the issue of technology in his structuration theory. In the context of Giddens’s structuration theory, the replication of social practices over time causes the social system to exhibit structural properties. However, a computer system is not a social system, and therefore it is not consistent with structuration theory to think of it as structural. As a result, other organizational scholars (Orlikowski, 1992) have tried to understand technology in organizations from the point of view of structuration. The Duality of Technology According to Orlikowski (1992), technology is created and changed by human action, yet it is also used by humans to accomplish some action. This “duality allows technology to be seen as enacted by human agency and as institutionalized in structure” (Orlikowski, 1992, p. 421). Agency and structure are inter-related. The ongoing actions and habits of human agents objectify and institutionalize these actions. Moreover, technology is interpretively flexible which means that the interaction between technology and organization is a function of the different actors and social/historical context implicated in its development and use. There is flexibility in how people design, interpret, and use technology, but this flexibility is a function of the material components comprising the artifact, the institutional context in which the technology in developed and used, and the power, knowledge, and interests of human actors. The aspect of time also has an influence on the interpretation of flexibility of technology. When the 51 interpretation and use of technology in organizations becomes the habit and routine over time, the interpretive flexibility of technology becomes less open to operational modification. Therefore, technology will assume a solidity and stability in the organization. In summary, people or agents in organizations draw on the rules and resources embodied within information technology in the conducting of their tasks. However, in their use of information technology, they unconsciously reaffirm the importance of its form and content, and reproduce those rules and resources as their organization’s structural properties. It is also possible that the agents will be able to change the technology and accordingly the structure of the organization. 2.7 Summary This chapter set the stage by presenting the general context of this dissertation. It addressed the theoretical foundations of the issues to be addressed in the research questions. The chapter outlined a general framework for using information and communication technologies in teaching and training, and related that to both pedagogical and organizational issues. Understanding the general theories of media use allows us to anticipate and predict patterns of use by faculty members. Also, the various methods by which ICTs can be evaluated and selected by instructors in support of their teaching practices are noted. Most of these theories are based on organizational and interpersonal communication principles. Approaches to teaching using information technology and various learning paradigms in education were reviewed to provide a link between technology and 52 pedagogy. Practical examples of how technology can be integrated into the teaching process from simple multimedia information delivery to constructivist strategies that foster collaboration and high-level thinking were discussed. Diffusion of innovations and its theories were discussed, first generically, then specifically to address the diffusion of educational technology systems. The chapter outlined several points that should be taken in consideration when diffusion theory is discussed in the context of dynamic and changing innovations such as information and communication technologies. It is not enough to achieve wide adoption of a technological innovation in an organization, but a follow up to ensure adoption continuity is needed. The last two sections of the chapter dealt with how information and communication technology influences organizational learning and culture. Theories of organizational culture were presented and linked to the role of technology in organizations. The discussion is important in understanding how universities as organizations look at themselves as whole entities and the ways universities can be changed and transformed through learning. Technology affects the way people communicate and interact, and that will in turn change organizational culture. Technology is assured to be creating new sorts of organizations that are changing the way universities and corporations teach, learn, and manage education and training. 53 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The purpose of the study is to review the literature on the impact of information and communication technology systems on teaching and training in order to develop a reference model to be used by faculty members, trainers, and decision makers in the area of educational technology. This review has looked at the question of impact from technological, pedagogical, and organizational dimensions. The subject of the study is mainly higher education, although many of the aspects discussed can also be applied to the corporate world. Over the past three decades, technology has penetrated all aspects of education and training, resulting in the generation of a huge body of knowledge in the form of empirical research, case studies, and personal narratives. The literature that has grown out of this research reflects individual as well as institutional experiences integrating ICTs in the teaching and training process. Many articles provide suggestions and recommendations for innovative new applications. Given the nature of the material under investigation, an approach called a qualitative “systematic review” is therefore used to sum-up this universe of research output and to provide a one-reference point for educators and trainers who want to have a practical overview of how ICTs can be used to enhance and improve their teaching and training. 54 Qualitative research deals with the subjective world (Noblit & Hare, 1988). It offers an insight into social phenomena to determine why people behave the way they do and understand what meaning experiences have for people. Qualitative approaches can help in framing questions when the phenomena are fluid and difficult to quantify. Qualitative analysis can contribute to the understanding of heterogeneous results. It also can identify factors that enable or impede the implementation of certain policies. 3.2 Systematic Reviews A systematic review is “a review of clearly formulated questions that uses systematic and explicit methods to identify, select, and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review.” 1 Feldman (1971) considered large-scale review and integration of existing research as a type of research in its own rights. A qualitative systematic review summarizes results of primary studies and reports without the need to statistically combine them. A systematic review adheres to a strict scientific design in order to be more comprehensive, to minimize the chance of bias, and to ensure reliability. In a systematic review, research questions are explicitly stated. The methods by which potential material is identified, selection criteria, appraisal methods, and techniques for synthesizing or analyzing the literature are clearly outlined and followed. Because it is impractical even for an expert to read all literature published in a certain field, systematic reviews make information in that literature available in a robust form for practitioners wanting to keep up to date. They inform the practice of a certain 1 See the UK National Screening Committee at: http://www.nsc.nhs.uk/glossary/glossary_ind.htm 55 profession as well as trigger further research in a discipline. Systematic reviews overcome the subjectivity of qualitative research by avoiding bias towards a particular author’s point view, and clarify inadequately described methodologies and contradictory conclusions in the various research studies (Albanese and Norcini, 2002). An overwhelming body of literature is being generated every year in the area of educational technology. Technology changes so rapidly and the methods of integrating such technologies change at a rapid pace, no individual or organization can be always informed and up-to-date. Systematic reviews in the field of educational technology media help to aggregate the important issues studied by the various investigators. Winn (2002) discussed the difficulty of determining whether outcome differences in research studies are due to chance, to methodological inadequacies, or to inherent differences in study characteristics. Systematic reviews can help in addressing such concerns. It should be noted, however, that systematic reviews can never replace primary research. There is always a need to conduct original research and obtain first-hand data. Systematic reviews do not appraise the procedures used to conduct the research and the various methodologies followed. They may not clearly address issues related to the validity and reliability of the studies being reviewed. Rather, a systematic review is a good way to find out what works. Traditionally, systematic reviews have been used to synthesize studies in health and medical sciences to provide information about the effectiveness of certain interventions by identifying, appraising, and summarizing the results of otherwise unmanageable quantities of research. In a qualitative systematic review, information from many research reports is synthesized. Following the identification of a definable set of studies or reports, an iterative process of 56 analysis is performed that leads to the identification of themes or categories that dominate the literature. A qualitative systematic review applies scientific strategies that minimize bias to the systematic assembly, critical appraisal and synthesis of all relevant studies on a specific topic (Magarey, 2001). The use of scientific strategies makes a systematic review a research method in its own right and distinguishes it from the traditional literature review. It addresses the lack of standardization normally found in literature reviews, and attempts to make the review process transparent by defining the rules of evidence in generally agreed upon ways. In a literature review, a background or overview of the subject is provided. The topic is normally broad and there is no attempt to obtain all papers written in the field. The researcher might include articles that support his or her views, which prevent the reader from gaining an objective view of the breadth and depth of research on a given topic. Literature reviews can be used to generate evidence regarding the effectiveness of particular practices or interventions by leaving out contradictory citations. Systematic reviews, on the other hand, require researchers to formulate a specific research question, search the literature to identify all research on the chosen topic, select studies to be included in the review, extract data, analyze and synthesize data using either quantitative (meta-analysis) or qualitative (narrative) methods, and report the results. Systematic reviews use a replicable, scientific and transparent approach that generates balanced inferences based on a collection and analysis of the available evidence, rather than reflecting the views of the researcher. Systematic reviews are important for informing decision-makers and practitioners in such areas as health and education about the organization, delivery, and 57 implementation of health care plans, educational policies and technological initiatives. (Light & Pillemer, 1984). They are useful when there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of a particular approach. By collecting and synthesizing evidence from study reports and case studies, systematic reviews provide empirical answers to focused questions. By identifying what is known and what is not known, such reviews also help in planning new research studies and further exploration of related issues. Systematic reviews generally start with the development of a review protocol, equivalent to any primary research study. A review protocol specifies the plan that will be followed to identify, appraise, and collect research studies. The review protocol includes a background, review questions, search strategy, study selection criteria, study quality assessment, data extraction strategy, and synthesis of the extracted evidence. The review should state precise questions to be addressed. As with other research methodologies, systematic reviews can be thought of as analysis of existing data in a given set. The unit of analysis (an article or a report) is chosen to address specific characteristics of a certain population such as instructors or students. Examples of population characteristics can be faculty use of technology, student attitude towards computers, or faculty resistance to computers. Qualitative systematic review is based on several interconnected steps: (1) review protocol; (2) review questions; (3) the choice of content-based and methodological inclusion and exclusion criteria for papers and reports to be used in the review; (4) the identification of these papers; (5) the extraction of information from these papers; and (6) the methods for analyzing this information (Magarey, 2001). 58 Review Protocol: The review protocol is needed to ensure that a systematic review is ...
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