BIO 120 Kingdom Animalia Animal Structure and Diversity Worksheet

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Introduction Ch. 1

Put your answers in Red or another color

Themes in the Study of Life

Define Evolution:

Define Biology:

Properties of Life

List and describe the properties of life:

Biological Hierarchy

List the order of the biological hierarchy from most inclusive to least inclusive:

Organisms Interact with their Environment

Describe how energy and chemicals cycles through the environment, including the role of producers and consumers:

How is structure related to function? Name two examples:

What is the difference between a system and a model?

Scientific Method

List the steps to the scientific Method starting with an observation:

A hypothesis must be_______________ and _______________ in order to start an experiment.

What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data?

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

What is the difference between a theory and a fact?

Using the moth on the tree example from your lecture, come up with a question, hypothesis and experimental design:

What are the controls?

What are the variables?

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1 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Exercise 3 KINGDOM ANIMALIA: ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY Student Learning Outcomes: At the conclusion of this exercise you should: (1) Be able to identify ​seven​ important anatomical characteristics which are used to classify animals into different evolutionary groups. (2) Be able to apply a taxonomic key to classify animals according to specific anatomical characteristics. (3) Be able to analyze selected animal specimens and place them into their proper taxonomic groups. (4) Be able explain "adaptive radiation" in vertebrate appendages and provide an example. (5) Be able to categorize ten common San Diego County animals using an ecological classification. (6) Be able to understand the difference between using ecological criteria and evolutionary (phylogenetic) criteria when classifying organisms. Introduction to the Phylogenetic Classification of Animals Today you will be learning the currently accepted evolutionary tree diagram (cladogram) for the 9 most common animal phyla in this lab (Figure 1). It includes a recent revision of groupings that has been determined using DNA sequence evidence. The most fundamental differences between groups are the same whether anatomical and embryonic characteristics or DNA data is used. The branching points in the phylogenetic tree (usually leading to clusters of animal phyla) are based on the presence or absence of unique ​anatomical and​ ​embryological characteristics​ that are thought to be most important. You will spend a good portion of today's laboratory looking at examples of these characteristics. 2 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Figure 1. Evolutionary Tree Diagram of Animals. 3 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Animal Origins and their Evolutionary Relationships The closest unicelled relatives of animals are unicelled Protists that have flagella as a means of locomotion. This suggests that animals may have originated as colonial flagellated protists about 700 million years ago. The oldest known animals in the fossil record are cnidarians (e.g. jellyfish/jellies) that appear in sediments dated at about 600 million years old. One fundamental characteristic distinguishing animal groups is the ​presence or absence of true tissues​. Sponges are the only animals that lack true tissues and are placed in their own group: The ​Parazoa ​("beside animals"). All other animals are placed in the ​Eumetazoa​ ("true animals"). A second major characteristic used in animal systematics is ​body symmetry​. The eumetazoans are subdivided into taxa that exhibit ​radial symmetry​ (The ​Radiata​) and those that exhibit bilateral symmetry. ​We will examine these kinds of symmetry later in the activity.​ ​All eumetazoans, exclusive of Radiata (jellyfish) and Parazoans (sponges), are placed together in a clade (branch) called the ​Bilateria​. Associated with bilateral symmetry is cephalization which is the concentration of sensory organs at the anterior end of the animal. Several other important characteristics are related to events that occur during early embryonic development. Remember that the developing embryo passes through stages leading to development of a gastrula, or hollow ball of cells with a tube through it. Once the gastrula stage is reached by an embryo, ​two or three layers of cells​, called germ layers, arise that will develop into tissues and organs. The radially symmetrical animals have ​ectoderm​ and ​endoderm​, whereas bilaterally symmetrical animals have both these germ layers and a third layer called mesoderm​. Mesoderm forms between the ectoderm and endoderm and gives rise to muscles and those internal organs not formed by the endoderm. Therefore, the Radiates, which have only 2 germ layers are known as ​diploblastic​, whereas all Bilaterians have three germ layers and are known as ​triploblastic​. The major branching point within the Bilateria on the evolutionary tree of animals has to do with what happens to the blastopore during​ ​embryonic development.​ This is the opening on the surface of the embryo that forms as gastrulation starts. At the end of gastrulation, the tube through the embryo forms another opening. In one group of Phyla, the blastopore becomes the mouth and the other opening becomes the anus. These are called the ​protostomes​ (which means "first mouth"). In the deuterostomes​ (which means "second mouth"), the blastopore becomes the anus and the second opening becomes the mouth. Many other characteristics are correlated with being either a "protosome" or a "deuterostome". Molluscs, annelids, and arthropods are protostomes while chordates and echinoderms are deuterostomes. Within the Protostome groups, the recent DNA evidence has suggested a major split between two groups of taxa that was not previously recognized. The important characteristics that 4 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia scientists have decided to separate these taxa are that one group of Phyla have a kind of larva called a ​trochophore​ while the other group lack this kind of larva and go through the process of ecdysis​ or molting. The ​trochophore larva​ (Figure 2.) is able to swim with the band of cilia around its middle and feed, since it has a digestive tract. This larva is found in groups that are marine or freshwater and has been lost in groups like the earthworms that are terrestrial. ​Ecdysis is found in animals that have a non-cellular toughened outer body coating (the cuticle or exoskeleton), which they have to break out of and shed (or molt) in order to grow, as insects do. The last characteristic shown on the branches of the tree diagram is the presence of a ​segmented body​. ​ This feature is thought to be an important morphological characteristic that can be used to determine evolutionary relationships. It is observed in both the protostome and deuterostome groups and is thought to have evolved independently in both of these branches (See Figure 1). The characteristic called out in the text box below the tree diagram is the ​presence or absence of an internal body cavity (or “coelom”)​. An internal body cavity, or ​coelom​, is always associated with mesoderm germ tissue found only in animals with all 3 germ tissues. Triploblastic animals, lacking a coelom (body cavity) are ​acoelomate ​(“no cavity”). Flatworms are acoelomates. Animals with a coelom that is only partially lined with mesoderm are said to have a pseudocoelom ​(“false coelom”) and are described as "pseudocoelomates". Nematodes are pseudocoelomates. An animal with a coelom (“body cavity”) completely lined with mesoderm tissue is said to have a ​true coelom​ and called a ​eucoelomate​. Molluscs, annelids, arthropods, and chordates are examples of eucoelomates. The presence/absence and kind of coelom used to be used to distinguish evolutionary groupings, but the DNA evidence suggests that the trochophore/ecdysis distinction is more informative of evolutionary history. With the exceptions of body symmetry and segmentation, the characteristics that we have just reviewed are difficult to observe on whole adult animals in the laboratory. Today we will also learn some more easily observable characteristics that will enable you to distinguish between specimens of the 9 Phyla shown in Figure 1. 5 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Application: Look carefully at the following 6 “make-believe organisms". Try to classify them into ​four different groups. What ​one​ simple observational criterion could you use? Question 1. Write ​one ​obvious characteristic of body form which you could use to "slot" the six different animals above into ​4​ groups. (The characteristic should have 4 types or variations.) Replace this text with your answer. Question 2. Give a descriptive name to each of your four groups. List the different "animals" above (A-F) which would fall into each of your four groups: Descriptive Name of Group Animals in Group In this example, what was your purpose (objective or goal), in using the criterion you chose? It is very likely that you were ​not ​trying to say anything about the organism's ancestral (evolutionary) relationships! Your objective was simply identification and nothing more. If you were "into" legs you might have used leg number as a criterion. On the other hand, you might have used general body shape or body size as the basis for your classification system. As discussed earlier, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, investigators were faced with a problem very similar to the one you were just asked to deal with: New and exotic plants and animals were being brought back to European ​taxonomists​ (biologists who classify) in enormous numbers by world explorers. Just as with our example, different biologists used different criteria to classify their specimens. This obviously led to a great deal of confusion when one tried to determine whether he was describing a new type of animal or not. People could not be sure whether they were talking about the same organism. Since it was vogue in the eighteenth 6 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia century for the western European aristocracy to have their own museum collections of organisms, there must have been a good deal of pressure to develop a universally acceptable classification system. Since then, zoologists and botanists have continued their struggle to develop an objective approach to classify organisms into their proper evolutionary groups. Currently, the Cladistic approach is considered the most useful biological classification technique. Although there is an almost infinite diversity in the shapes of living things, certain physical and chemical characteristics common to large groups of animals and plants become apparent when they are seen together. These characteristics form the basis for our modern system of classification and are the backbone of evolutionary theory that suggests that all animals have descended from common ancestors. It is this universally accepted classification system which is being used when someone says: "There goes a bird, fish, crab, worm, spider, human, starfish, etc." 7 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Vertebrates and Invertebrates The nine Phyla in the Animal Kingdom that we are studying are broken down into 2 broad groups: the ​Vertebrates ​and ​Invertebrates. ​(The word “phylum” is singular; “phyla” is the plural version.) The ​vertebrates​, all of which belong to the ​Phylum Chordata​, are animals that have a column of vertebrae for a backbone and they include those animals which are probably most familiar to you. You are to learn the 7 Classes of vertebrates in the Phylum Chordata. They are listed below: 1. Phylum Chordata (7 groups to learn in this Phylum) a. Superclass Agnatha (the "jawless fishes" which include the lamprey and hagfish Classes) b. Superclass Gnathostomata (fish with true jaws) Class Chondrichthyes (the cartilage fishes like sharks and rays) Class Osteicthyes (the bony fishes like bass and tuna) c. Superclass Tetrapoda (​vertebrates with 4 appendages rather than fins): Class Amphibia, the amphibians (frogs, and salamanders, etc.) Class Reptilia, the reptiles (lizards, snakes, turtles, etc.) Class Aves, the birds Class Mammalia, the mammals. The ​invertebrates​, which of course have no vertebral column, are members of many​ ​different phyla. The most common invertebrate groups that you might expect to run into include the following 8 phyla: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Phylum Porifera (sponges) Phylum Cnidaria (also called Coelenterata) (sea anemones and jellyfish, etc.) Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms​,​ like planaria) Phylum Nematoda (round worms) Phylum Annelida (segmented worms like earth worms) Phylum Mollusca (bivalves, snails, octopi, etc.) Phylum Arthropoda (crabs, insects, and spiders, etc.) 5 groups to learn here: a. Class Arachnida (spiders, mites, ticks and scorpions) b. Class Insecta (flies, grasshopper, butterflies etc.) c. Subphylum Crustacea (old grouping: Class Crustacea) includes crabs, shrimp, lobster, barnacles, etc. d. Class Chilopoda (the centipedes) e. Class Diplopoda (the millipedes) 8. Phylum Echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars etc.) 8 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia We will now investigate the anatomical characteristics that are used to categorize animals into the various evolutionary groupings mentioned above. I. Anatomical Characteristics Used in Phylogenetic Classification of Animals The characteristics that are described in Sections 1-7 below are more or less natural criteria which have become apparent to taxonomists after many years of observation of animal morphology (shape). The physical characteristics of many animals were observed and recorded (accumulation of facts) and natural relationships were perceived. The search for order (“​patterns​”) which is characteristic of science, led to the construction of a system of classification into which each kind of animal more or less ​naturally​ fits. Procedure: Go to the appropriate station​ (that matches the section number) and observe the examples of what is meant by each of the anatomical characteristics. In order for you to identify "unknown" animals later in this exercise you must know this material well. Note:​ Not all of these characteristics will be equally apparent in all animals and some would be obvious only after dissection of the animal to be identified. Section 1. Type of Body Symmetry Observed in Animals Most animals you will observe are either ​bilaterally or radially symmetrical.​ The bilateral animals are characterized by the fact that there is only one plane in which you can cut them in two and obtain mirror images. Thus, a dog can be divided into identical (but reversed) halves by cutting it between the eyes, through the middle of the body, and then through the tail to obtain mirror images. If we cut across the abdomen from the left to the right side, however, one-half would have a tail and the other half a head. Obviously, these halves are not identical. Question 3.​ Give three examples of organisms that exhibit bilateral symmetry. 1. 2. 3. The ​radially symmetrical​ animals can be cut in half several different ways, however, and still obtain two mirror images (provided only that the "cut" is made through the center of the animal). 9 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Question 4.​ Give 4 examples of organisms with radial symmetry. 1. 2. 3. 4. In which echinoderm is it most difficult to identify radial symmetry? One group of animals, the sponges, may be ​asymmetrical​—not having any plane across which they are mirror images. Question 5.​ Observe the sponges, and draw two examples below. Replace this text with your answer. Section 2. Segmentation in Some Animals Many animals have structures or body parts which are linearly repeated, like the cars of a railroad train. These parts are called segments. A clear example of this characteristic is the repetitive arrangement of the external body parts of the sandworm, ​Nereis,​ or the earthworm. In some animals the segmentation has been secondarily lost, or so modified that the repeated parts are no longer similar in appearance. It is sometimes possible to find clear segmentation in the embryo or in the adult's internal anatomy when external observation suggests that no segmentation exists. The crayfish and, to a greater degree, the human animal are examples of organisms in which segmentation has been modified or lost during the organism’s evolutionary history. Segmentation can still be observed in the human embryo as well as in the adult's repeating vertebrae which make up the backbone or vertebral column. Question 6.​ How are the segments in the crayfish modified? Replace this text with your answer. 10 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Section 3. The Type of Skeleton in the Animal Some animals like the crayfish or grasshopper have an ​exoskeleton​ (outer skeleton). There are no bones beneath their hard outer "shells." The vertebrates, however, have an ​endoskeleton (internal skeleton) made of bone or cartilage. Many creatures like the protozoans (single-celled animals), jellyfish, planaria (flatworm) and earthworms (segmented worms) have no skeleton at all. Animals without any true skeleton usually maintain their shape using water pressure (​hydrostatic "skeleton"​). Question 7.​ Give one example of an organism with an exoskeleton. Replace this text with your answer. Question 8.​ Give one example of an organism with an endoskeleton. Replace this text with your answer. Question 9.​ Give one example of an organism with a hydrostatic skeleton. Replace this text with your answer. Section 4. The Number of Paired Locomotive Appendages in the Animal The number of locomotive (walking, flying, etc.) paired appendages an animal has is a very important criterion for classifying animals into different evolutionary groups. For example, the human animal and other primates, as well as other vertebrates, have two pairs of appendages, while grasshoppers and other members of the insect class have three pairs of appendages. Moreover, 4 pairs of appendages are found in Class Arachnida, including spiders, mites, and scorpions.​ ​This criterion is appropriate only for animals with bilateral symmetry. Question 10.​ Give two examples of animals with 2 pairs of locomotive appendages. Replace this text with your answer. Question 11.​ Give two examples of animals with 3 pairs of locomotive appendages. Replace this text with your answer. Question 12.​ Give two examples of animals with 4 pairs of locomotive appendages. Replace this text with your answer. 11 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Section 5. The Type of Digestive Tract in the Animal Various digestive tract strategies have evolved in different animal groups to aid in the absorption of food molecules. Animals have either: no digestive tract​, instead absorption occurs through "body" surfaces (protozoans and sponges, etc.). a ​sac-like or incomplete digestive tract​ with only one opening by which food enters and wastes leave (jellyfish,​ ​flatworms). a ​tube-like or complete digestive tract​ where food enters at one end (called the mouth) and wastes leave at the other end (called the anus), such as annelids, arthropods, chordates (including humans), molluscs, and nematodes. Question 13.​ What organism is shown with a complete digestive tract? Replace this text with your answer. Question 14.​ What type of digestive tract do humans have? Replace this text with your answer. Section 6. The Type of Respiratory System in the Animal All animal cells require oxygen gas (O​2​) in order to breakdown molecules like glucose and obtain needed energy (Cellular Respiration). In turn, animal cells give off carbon dioxide gas (CO​2​) during the molecular breakdown process. As a consequence,​ all​ multicellular animals have some membrane area specialized for the exchange of gases between the circulatory fluid ("blood") and the outside air or aquatic environment. Pouch-like internal membrane systems called ​lungs​ are often found in terrestrial organisms. Other terrestrial animals like insects and some spiders have many branched membrane-lined tubes (called ​tracheae​) with external openings (​spiracles​) in the abdominal region. In these animals, gas (air) is moved in and out of the tubes by abdominal movements. Aquatic animals like crabs and fish usually have many membrane systems called ​gills​ while animals like salamanders and starfish exchange gases throughout their exposed skin surfaces. Question 15.​ Draw a simple grasshopper, and draw and label its spiracles. Draw by hand, take a picture, and then replace this text with your drawing (Insert > Image). 12 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Section 7. Degree of Nervous System Development in Animal Some animals, such as jellyfish, have diffuse nervous tissue ("​nerve net​") distributed throughout the body. Other animals may have no specific nervous tissue, responding to stimuli through the innate irritability of their protoplasm. Some animals, however, have very specific nervous tracts culminating in an anterior accumulation of nervous tissue. This is called ​cephalization (cephalon: ​head​). Some of the external signs of cephalization include the accumulation of sense organs like ​eyes, antennae, whiskers, nose​, etc., at the anterior end of the body which is always first to enter into a new environment. Others have ganglia, bunches of nerves, present in each segment. Section 8 – The Presence of “True” Jaws in ​Most​ Vertebrates A ​skull​ is the recognizable “head” portion of a vertebrate’s endoskeleton. Specifically, the skull comprises the brain case fused with all ​upper​ jaw components. A movable ​lower​ jaw (known separately as the ​mandible​) is present in ​most​ vertebrates and allows the animal to open/close the jaws or chew. This is a ‘true” jaw. Observe “true” jaw movements in a live goldfish or in your lab partner. There is one significant group of primitive vertebrates ​without​ “true” jaws, the Superclass Agnatha. This group does not have a movable mandible, but only a round opening in the front lower part of the skull. Some species appear to have an open mouth at all times (which they often use as a sucker on the bodies of larger fish), while others have lip-like structures which hide the opening and function to sweep food into the mouth as the animal bottom-feeds, such as hagfish. Note: the term “false jaws” is not used. 13 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia II. Classification of Animals into their Evolutionary Groups Procedure: Classify the specimens displayed on the lab bench display using the detailed taxonomic/dichotomous key​ on the following pages. Complete the classification sheet found following the key. ​Indicate the phylum​ in which each specimen belongs. ​In the arthropod and chordate phyla, list the class (and the "order" in arthropods)​ to which an animal belongs as well. In the last column place the ​common name​ of the group and/or example. Sample listings are displayed at the top of the classification answer sheet. Smaller evolutionary groupings below the rank of order (such as family, genus and species) are not included in this exercise. Please handle specimens with care to prevent damage to their external features. How to Use the Dichotomous Key 1. Always start with the number 1 options​. Select the appropriate alternative of the two. Now look at the right-hand column to find ​the next number​ to check. 2. Continue following the numbers and letters until you get to a ​word.​ This is the ​phylum​ in which the animal belongs. If there is no number to the right of the phylum, you are finished. 3. In the case of ​Phyla Arthropoda and Chordata​, you must go on to ​class,​ which is indicated by a ​number following the phylum name. 4. In the case of ​Class Insecta​, go on to identify the ​order​ of the specimen. 5. After "keying out" the numbered unknown specimens and recording your conclusions about each animal, check your answers with the list at the instructor's desk. ​Make sure you go back and check to see why you miss-classified​ a particular ​animal​. 14 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Dichotomous Key for the Animal Kingdom Description 1a​. One-celled organisms exist singly or in colonies, usually microscopic 1b​. Many-celled organisms, mostly macroscopic (easily seen) 2a​. Body surface with many pores, one or more large oscula (openings) present, shape varies, generally with a rough spongy exterior, asymmetry, the body made of spicules and spongin 2b​. Body without numerous pores; has a mouth and digestive tract (or digestive cavity) 3a​. Body cylindrical or umbrella-shaped (radial symmetry), mouth surrounded by tentacles bearing nematocysts (stinging cells) 3b. Body not as described 4a. Body flattened dorsoventrally ("top to bottom") and no segmentation, no anus; the flatworms) 4b​. Body not as described 5a​. Body vermiform (worm-like) and thread-like, no segmentation, less than a few inches long 5b. Body not as described 6a​. Body vermiform and segmented, appendages (when present) not leg-like (​note: does ​not​ include small fish-like organisms, laterally compressed and having distinctly V-shaped segments.) 6b. Body not as described *Gr. = Greek; L. = Latin Taxonomic Groups Kingdom (or Clade) Protista Directions (stop) (Gr.​*​ for “first”) Kingdom (or Clade) Animalia Phylum Porifera ​Go to 2 (stop) (L.​*​ for “pore bearing”) (sponges: ​Scypha b​ ath sponge, etc.) Go to 3 Phylum Cnidaria (stop) (L. for “nettle”) (coelenterates: hydra, jellyfish, anemones, coral, etc.) Go to 4 Phylum Platyhelminthes (stop) (Gr. for “flat worm”) (flatworms-planaria, tapeworm, etc.) Go to 5 Phylum Nematoda (stop) (Gr. for “thread”)​ (roundworms [nematodes]: ​Ascaris​, vinegar "eel"; rotifers, etc.) Go to 6 Phylum Annelida (stop) (L. for “ring”) (segmented worms: earthworm, leech, etc.) Go to 7 15 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Description 7a​. Body segmented with jointed appendages, exoskeleton present 7b​. Body not as described 8a​. Jointed appendages abundant, present on most​ segments 8b. Jointed appendages not as described 9a. Cephalon (head) and thorax ("chest") fused (cephalothorax), two pairs of antennae, specialized appendages, respiration by gills Taxonomic Groups Phylum Arthropoda (Gr. for “joint foot”) 3 Subphyla in the phylum: Subphylum Crustacea Subphylum Uniramia: Subphylum Chelicerata Directions Go to 8 Go to 15 Go to 9 Go to 11 Subphylum Crustacea (stop) (L. for “shell group”) Includes many classes like the (shrimp, crab, lobster, the barnacles etc.) 9b. Body with head and numerous legs 10a. Each segment with one pair of legs, flat dorsoventrally, pair of venom claws formed from modified appendages Class Chilopoda (Gr. for “lip foot”) (chilopods: centipede) (stop) 10b. Each segment usually with two pairs of legs, flattened ventrally and rounded dorsally Class Diplopoda (Gr. for “double foot”) (diplopods: millipede) (stop) 11a​. Body divided into cephalon, thorax, abdomen, three pairs of legs, antennae and wings usually present Class Insecta (insects) Go to 12 11b. Cephalothorax, four pairs of walking legs, no wings or antennae Class Arachnida (Gr. for “spider”) (arachnids: spider, scorpion, tick, etc.) (stop) 12a. Possess one pair of wings 12b. Possess two pairs of wings (true of most insects) 13a. Wings are unlike in structure, hard upper pair, lower pair may be used for flying, lower pair may be hidden under upper pair, wings meet in straight line down the back 13b. Order Diptera (Gr. for “2 wings”) (true flies, mosquitoes, etc.) (Note: "-ptera" is Greek for "wing") Wings with scales (stop) Go to 13 Order Coleoptera (stop) (Gr. for “covered wing”) (ladybird beetle, weevil, etc.) Wings are alike Description 14a. Go to 10 Go to 14 Taxonomic Groups Order Lepidoptera (Gr. for “scaled wing”) (butterfly, moth, etc.) Directions (stop) 16 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia 14b. Wings without scales, thin and transparent with few cross veins 15a​. Soft body, generally with a shell or dorsal plates, ventral muscular foot (may be modified into arms) 15b. Body without shell, foot; not as described 16a​. Body wall is spiny, hard, or leathery; symmetry generally radial​ ​with body parts arranged in divisions of five; usually with soft sucker-like tube feet 16b. Body not as described 17a​. Worm-like body divided into three parts, gill slits present, invertebrate 17b. 18a​. Body not as described [3 general chordate characteristics: 1) pharyngeal breathing apparatus (more ancestrally for feeding); 2) dorsal nerve cord; 3) notochord (for body support)]. Includes lower sac-like chordates, ​and l​ ower fish-like chordates, and also ​higher vertebrate chordates with internal skeletons and two pairs of appendages. Body enclosed in a sac-like translucent covering, siphons present, bilateral symmetry ​not apparent in adult 18b. Body not enclosed as stated above 19a. Body lance-shaped, laterally compressed, numerous V-shaped muscle segments, no cranium or backbone, fish-like, less than a few inches long. No paired appendages. l9b. Body not as described, with a backbone, typically​ with two pairs of fins or limbs Order Hymenoptera (Gr. “membrane wing”) (ant, bee, wasp, etc.) Phylum Mollusca (L. for “soft”) ​(mollusks: clam, snail, octopus, etc.) (stop) (stop) Go to 16 Phylum Echinodermata (stop) (Gr. for “spiny skin”) (echinoderms: starfish, sea urchin, sand dollar, etc.) Go to 17 Phylum Hemichordata (stop) (Gr.for “half + cord”) (hemichordates: acorn or tongue worm) Phylum Chordata Go to 18 (Gr. for “cord”​ meaning "back notochord” referring to notochord) (the chordates) Subphylum Urochordata (stop) (Gr. for “tail + cord”) (tunicates or sea squirts) Go to 19 Subphylum Cephalochordata (stop) (Gr. for “head + cord”) (lancelets: amphioxus) Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates with a cranium and backbone) Go to 20 17 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Description 20a​. Fish without “true” jaws or paired appendages, entirely aquatic. Gill passages are spherical pockets, not slits. 20b. Body not as described 21a. Fish with “true” jaws and paired appendages, entirely aquatic Taxonomic Groups Superclass Agnatha (Gr. for “without + jaws”) Directions (stop) (fish ​without true jaws​ or paired appendages: lamprey or hagfish) Go to 21 Superclass Gnathostomata Go to 22 (Gr. for “jawed mouth”) (fish ​with true jaw​s and paired appendages) 21b. Body not fish-like; typically with four appendages, usually land-dwelling animals 22a. Cartilaginous fish; typically with a ventral Class Chondrichthyes (Gr. for” mouth (on underside of snout). Several gill cartilage fishes”) slits present. (shark, ray, etc.) (stop) 22b. Bony fish, with a terminal mouth (on front end). A single cover (operculum) covering the gills on each side. Class Osteichthyes (Gr. for “bony fishes”) (most fish: tuna, trout, goldfish, catfish, bass, perch, etc.) (stop) 23a. Skin soft, moist and slimy, no external scales; typically, toes lack claws Class Amphibia​ (amphibians: frog, newt, salamander, etc.) (stop) 23b. Body not as described 24a. Body covered with scales; toes with claws (when toes are present) 24b. Body not covered with scales 25a​. Body covered with feathers, anterior limbs for flight, horny toothless beak 25b. Body with hair and mammary glands Superclass Tetrapoda (​four-footed​ land animals, generally) Go to 23 Go to 24 Class Reptilia (reptiles: lizard, snake, tortoise, etc.) (stop) Go to 25 Class Aves (birds: robin, sparrow, duck, etc.) (stop) Class Mammalia ​(mammals: cat, bear, human, monkey, etc.) (stop) 18 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Unknown Phylum Example Platyhelminthe Example Arthropoda Example Hemichordata Example Chordata 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Subphylum Superclass Class Order for phylum chordata only for phylum chordata only for phyla arthropoda and chordata only for class insecta only Example Flatworm Tapeworm Insecta Lepidoptera Moths: Sphinx moth acorn tongue worm Vertebrata Gnathostomata Osteichthyes Bony fish 19 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Unknown Phylum Subphylum Superclass Class Order for phylum chordata only for phylum chordata only for phyla arthropoda and chordata only for class insecta only Flatworm Tapeworm Example Platyhelminthes Example Arthropoda Example Hemichordata Example Chordata 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Example Insecta Lepidoptera Moths: Sphinx moth acorn tongue worm Vertebrata Gnathostomata Osteichthyes Bony fish 20 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia III. An Ecological (rather than Evolutionary) Classification of Animals As you now are aware, a phylogenetic classification of animals focuses attention on the anatomical and physiological similarities between animals which are thought to have evolutionary significance. It is important to recognize that knowing the phylum or class to which an animal belongs tells us nothing about the animal's niche (job or function) in the ecosystem in which it lives. Because this is true, ecologists have developed other classification schemes which focus attention on how a plant or animal interrelates within its community. (Ecologists are biologists who study some aspect of the interrelationship between an ecosystem's plants, animals and physical factors.) A common classification scheme used by ecologists is the one based on how a particular organism obtains its food (energy). In general, the classification categories are as follows: Trophic (feeding) categories: A. Autotrophs (Gr. “self​-f​ eeding”) ​Organisms which ​are not​ dependent on​ ​organic​ ​matter for their energy. Ecologists sometimes call them “Producers” in contrast to “Consumers”. Two kinds exist: 1. Photoautotrophs:​ Green plants which can capture sunlight energy. 2. Chemoautotrophs:​ Bacteria and blue green algae which can obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds like sulfur. B. Heterotrophs:​ Organisms which ​are​ dependent on organic matter from other organisms for their energy​. Trophic Level Description 1. Macroconsumers:​ (Macro = large) Herbivore An organism which feeds on plant tissue. First Level An animal which feeds primarily Carnivore on herbivores. Second Level An animal which feeds primarily Carnivore on first level carnivores. Third Level An animal which feeds primarily Carnivore on second level carnivores. Fourth Level An animal which feeds primarily Carnivore on third level carnivores. Scavengers Organisms which feed on dead organisms. Examples A ​mouse​ or ​insect​ which eats grass or seeds. A ​snake​ or ​fox​ which eats mice and other rodents. A ​roadrunner​ (bird) which eats snakes and lizards. A ​coyote​ which eats a roadrunner or hawk. A ​mountain lion​ which eats a coyote or a hawk. Animals like ​flesh flies ​or crayfish​ which eat dead organisms. Parasites (can be a Organisms which live with a larger A ​flea​, ​mite​, ​tick​ on a mouse, carnivore at any organism and from which it draws bird, or mountain lion. level) nourishment. 2. Microconsumers The decomposer organisms which Bacteria​ or ​fungus​ organisms (micro=small, often feed on organic matter and reduce "eating" organic matter in the microscopic) it to inorganic compounds. soil. 21 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia TABLE 2 Ecological Classification Compared with Evolutionary Classification: Ten Common Chaparral Animals Procedure: On the table marked “Chaparral Animals” you will find ten numbered animal specimens. Identify each animal to Phylum and Class (if applicable) and record your findings in the table below. Next, read the natural history card that goes with each animal and complete the table using your knowledge about ecological classification which you learned on the previous page. Phylum and other classification (if Specimen applicable) Common name 1 Fence lizard 2 Ground squirrel 3 Darkling beetle 4 Scrub jay 5 Earthworm 6 Termite 7 Slug or snail 8 Bat 9 Gopher snake 10 Tick Habitat requirements: where does it live? What does this animal eat? Ecological classification Clean up. 1. Return all specimens to their original location. Be sure to place them in numerical order. 2. Please turn off the microscopes with the living specimens in order to prevent them from overheating and drying. 3. Wipe down your lab bench with the yellow cleaner. 4. Push in your chair. 22 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia IV. Review Exercise Learn to recognize the names of animal taxonomic groups and also their common names. The following exercises will help you: 1. List the ​names​ of the ​9 animal phyla​ you have observed today, along with ​common names of ​animals​ you observed: Phylum Name: 2. Common Name: You were asked to learn 5 major groups (Classes) in the ​Phylum Arthropoda. ​List these 5 groups and describe the unique characteristics of each. Your instructor may ask you to identify these groups on a quiz, so you must be able to distinguish one group from another. Class name 1.) 2.) 3.) 4.) 5.) Identifying characteristics 23 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia 3. You were asked to learn 7 major groups (6 Classes and 1 Superclass) in the ​Phylum Chordata​. List these 7 groups below and describe the unique characteristics of each. Your instructor may ask you to identify these groups on a quiz so you must be able to distinguish one group from another. Class name 1.) Superclass 2.) Class 3.) Class 4.) Class 5.) Class 6.) Class 7.) Class Identifying characteristics 4. The various limb forms of the ​Superclass Tetrapoda​ are a good example of adaptive radiation. a. Define ​adaptive radiation​: Replace this text with your answer. b. List 4 examples of tetrapods with different limb shapes and decide whether these limbs are ​homologous or analogous​. Explain why. Replace this text with your answer. c. Assuming that adaptive radiation is the result of natural selection, suggest a ​selective agent​ which may have been responsible for the different limb shapes. Replace this text with your answer. 24 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia 5. Complete the following “Evolutionary tree” (cladogram) for the ​9 most common animal phyla​ you were asked to learn. Be able to place the phyla names in their proper locations. See Figure 1 for help. 25 Exercise 3 - Kingdom Animalia Figure 3. A practice version of Figure 1: Evolutionary Tree Diagram with the names of the phyla removed. Double click on the diagram and it will open in a drawing window where you should be able to write in the boxes.
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Biology Assignment
Themes in the Study of Life
Define Evolution: the genetic variation in mammals explains a lot about evolution, which can
be defined as the change in familial characteristics of animals over sequent generations
(Fowler, Roush & Wise, 2018). The process produces a diversity at all levels of biological
populations.
Define Biology: the term biology has its origins from Greek words bios and logos. Bio means
life and logos means study. Thus, biology is the study of life, plants (flora), and fauna
(animals) (Zedalis & Eggebrecht, 2018).
Properties of Life
List and describe the properties of life:
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Life has order. Meaning, it forms a highly organized structure.

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Life evolves. The aim is for adaptation. The life of animals changes in line with mutation
and natural adaptation to fit in the environment.

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Life self regulates. Besides the changes in the external environment, the internal
environment of a living organism adjusts at optimal levels to maintain a conducive
environment for survival.

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Life consumes energy. Organisms produce, convert, and consumer energy in distinct
forms.

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Life grows and develops. Genes determine the growth and development of...

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