Name ___________________ Course ID ___________ Date ____________
LEAP 4: Reading and Writing
THE PRACTICE FINAL EXAM for LEVEL SEVEN READING and WRITING
VOCABULARY
Choose the best word to complete each sentence.
1. Self-driving cars need sensors that allow them to _____________ any
nearby object.
a) adapt
b) detect
c) pose
2. Although a safety standard for self-driving cars has yet to _____________,
the day when self-driving cars become common is coming soon.
a) emerge
b) resolve
c) stimulate
3. All the car’s ___________ are displayed on its dashboard.
a) algorithms
b) policies
c) functions
4. Governments will need to develop __________ related to safety
requirements for self-driving cars.
a) policies
b) circumstances
c) sensors
5. Moral problems about what self-driving cars will do in difficult situations
need to be ____________ before the cars are sold to the public.
a) manipulated
b) simulated
c) resolved
6. What ____________ of language are best learned through personal
interaction?
a) aspects
b) affects
c) clusters
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7. Technology should ______________ what instructors already do in the
classroom.
a) elicit
b) augment
c) assume
8. When technology enhances teaching, ______________ students to
embrace the technology is not a problem.
a) contributing
b) convincing
c) pursuing
9. The main purpose of group work is to produce a strong presentation; the
development of friendships is ____________ to the learning.
a) attuned
b) designated
c) incidental
10. When students have time, they ___________ their hobbies and interests
with passion.
a) pursue
b) enhance
c) provoke
11. Competitive athletes are watched closely by the World Anti-Doping Agency
(WADA) in case they _____________ a doping violation.
a) comply
b) commit
c) convict
12. When world-class athletes are ______________ in their sports over many
years, people may suspect that they are using performance-enhancing
drugs.
a) conspiring
b) dominant
c) indignant
13. Coaches and doctors of competitive athletes are _____________ not to
provide drugs to athletes during a competition.
a) obligated
b) insinuated
c) contaminated
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14. WADA now requires athletes to use a “passport” that records their biological
_______________ so doctors know what is normal for each athlete.
a) delusions
b) mutations
c) parameters
15. Athletes may be tempted to using performance-enhancing drugs if they
believe that the drugs will create an improved ______________ of
themselves.
a) deterioration
b) evasion
c) version
16. Pharmaceutical compounds in the water system have _____________
effects on fish and plants.
a) induced
b) detrimental
c) obsolete
17. Scientists have discovered that fish who swim downstream of wastewater
treatment plants ____________ sexual abnormalities.
a) exhibit
b) inhibit
c) degrade
18. Although scientists have noticed these abnormalities in fish, they are not
certain of the ______________ for humans.
a) residues
b) compounds
c) implications
19. Scientists are now working to _____________ the negative effects of these
compounds on fish.
a) transmit
b) mitigate
c) trigger
20. As measures to detect the levels of pharmaceutical compounds in the water
supply improve, the standards for what is considered safe have become
____________.
a) obsolete
b) ingested
c) corroborated
(____/20 points)
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ACCURACY SKILLS
A. Read the following sentences and indicate whether or not they express
uncertainty.
Sentences
Express
uncertainty?
Y = Yes
N = No
1. How can engineers and scientists develop technologies that
have positive social impact?
2. Technologies that can be used effectively over large spaces
and with large groups of people will create the most lasting
change.
3. It is possible to develop technology that will work on a small
scale, but if it doesn’t work on a large scale, then it might not be
the best technology for the Global South.
4. Whether innovative technologies can withstand the difficult
climate conditions in the Global South is an important question.
5. If you had the knowledge to develop a technology that could
create social change, would you do it?
(_____/10 points
)
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READING COMPREHENSION
Based on your understanding of the reading, “From Innovation to Social Impact,”
indicate whether the following statements are True or False
Statements
T = True
F = False
1. The reading follows academic convention and starts with a definition
of the term innovation.
2. For something to be called an innovation, it must create significant,
positive change.
3. There are two broad categories of innovation: evolutionary and
frugal.
4. Frugal innovation is innovation that doesn’t require a lot of money.
5. The author believes that technological innovation should be used to
increase the wealth of developed countries.
6. The purpose of the first paragraph in section 1.2 of the reading is to
show how poor people in the Global South are.
7. The author provides some examples of how technology has
improved the lives of people in the Global South to show that not much
more can be done.
8. By reducing the amount of food waste from 33 percent to 25
percent, 870 million more people could be fed.
9. The author provides no references for the statistics in section 1.3 of
the reading.
10. The author states that in 2010, the wealthiest 1 percent of people
on the planet held 50 percent of the global wealth.
11. The purpose of section 1.4 is to question why advanced
technological innovation does not always have a positive social impact.
12. The author believes that developing successful technological
innovations is challenging and developing technological innovations
that have positive social impact is even more challenging.
13. To have a positive social impact in the Global South, developing
countries should impose their standards of technology.
14. An assessment of the needs of the population in the Global South
should be conducted before any technological innovation is
implemented.
15. To be successful in the Global South, technological innovations
should be affordable.
16. Successful technological innovations in the Global Sound should
be able to function in areas with high temperatures and intermittent
electrical supply.
17. Concerns about a technology’s accessibility can be determined
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after the technology has been developed.
18. It is less important to think about how technology can be repaired
and recycled in the Global South.
19. The author gives the example of the geotagged households in
Kenya to show that obvious solutions to problems might not be the
right solutions.
20. The author believes that people who live in the Global South can
also be creators of technological innovation.
(_____/20 points)
READING AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS
A. Skim the paragraph and identify each of the texts below as either a
paraphrase or a summary.
Paragraph from reading:
Innovation is the new buzzword. Much hope has been placed on technological
innovation, social innovation, financial innovation, and organizational innovation;
we might even start hearing talk about the need to innovate innovation. However,
innovation in itself is not enough. Social impact—meaning positive change for
society and, in this case, low-income communities in the Global South—requires
successful implementation and use of technologies at a large scale. Why, with
rampant technological innovation, does the social impact of technology remain so
limited? There are still many needs unmet in many parts of the world, and much
hope is being placed on innovation to accelerate the implementation of the United
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals that aim for significant social impact.
Text 1: _____________________
Hostettler (2018) states that to achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals, we should seek to develop technological innovations that offer
positive social impact for the Global South, despite the many challenges that this
entails.
Text 2: _____________________
Hostettler (2018) believes that innovation in social, financial and organization fields
offers hope for the future. Nevertheless, innovation aimed at creating positive
social change in the Global South will demand technological innovation that can be
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scaled up to address issues of poverty. The author questions why technology,
which has successfully led change in so many areas, has yet to have a significant
social impact in the Global South. Advocates of the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals are hoping technological innovation will hold the key to
achieving these important goals.
____/ 4 points)
B. Organize the four statements (listed out of order in the box) in the table that
follows to create a point-form outline of a problem-solution text about technological
innovation and social impact.
1. If we succeed, technological innovation will help us meet the United Nations’
Sustainable Development Goals.
2. We need to develop technological innovations that have positive social impact.
3. Technological innovation is promising, but often falls short of reducing these
rates.
4. The Global South suffers from high rates of poverty, hunger, and mortality.
Elements of a
Problem-Solution Text
Situation
Statements
Problem
Solution
Evaluation
(_____/4 points)
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C. Match the causes (conditions) with the most likely effects related to
technological innovation.
Causes (Conditions)
1. Implementation of
Effects
a) Developing countries avoid the
technological innovation with
positive social impact
___ mistakes of industrialized countries
2. End of the use of traditional
b) Rural low-income communities
___ have banking services and farmers
get information about fair market
prices.
(non-renewable) sources of
energy
3. Implementation of mobile
health apps
and use renewable energy sources.
c) Achievement of the United Nations’
___ Sustainable Development Goals
4. Implementation of mobile apps
d) Improved health outcomes and
for small businesses in the Global ___ prenatal care
South
(______/4 points)
WRITING SKILLS
A. Choose the correct verb form to complete the conditional sentences.
1. If technological innovations can create positive social change in the Global
South, the world _______________ the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals.
a) should achieve
b) should have achieved
c) will achieve
2. If we reduced the amount of food waste from 33 percent to 25 percent, 870
million more people ____________ fed.
a) will be
b) could be
c) could have been
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3. If we had addressed poverty earlier, perhaps we _______________ the
UN’s Sustainable Development Goals already.
a) will achieve
b) could achieve
c) could have achieved
4. If we distributed income more equally, 50 percent of the world’s income
_______________ in the hands of the richest 1 percent of the population.
a) will not be
b) would not be
c) would not have been
5. If technological innovation had been simple to scale up, we_____________
already.
a) would have succeeded
b) will succeed
b) would succeed
(_____/10 points)
B. Read the following two short paragraphs that are part of an annotated
bibliography entry for the reading, “From Innovation to Social Impact.” Identify
which paragraph is the summary and which is the evaluation.
Paragraph 1: _____________________
Hostettler suggests that technological innovations can generate positive social
change, and she offers several examples of technological and social innovations
that have had promising social outcomes. Readers will appreciate this positive,
logical approach to addressing the seemingly overwhelming challenges of closing
the gap between developing and developed countries.
Paragraph 2: _____________________
In the forward of her 2018 book Technologies for Development: From Innovation to
Social Development, Hostettler indicates that technological innovation that creates
positive social change offers hope for a future in which people living in the Global
South no longer suffer from hunger, ill health, and poverty. These future
innovations must be scalable, meet practical needs, and support local
entrepreneurship.
(_____/ 8 points)
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WRITING
Write a summary of the following paragraph.
-
Begin your summary by mentioning the author’s name and the date the
reading was published.
Finish with a complete reference to the reading.
Developing successful technologies is challenging, and obtaining the desired social impact
is even more so. For an innovation to have social impact, it must make the transition from
an innovation to a technology that can be implemented at scale, e.g., by becoming a
mainstream product such as a smart phone. The key question is how can a technology be
brought to scale in order to have a broad and positive impact? Ensuring that a
technological solution successfully addresses a specific issue in the Global South requires
careful attention during each phase of production, from the initial idea to bringing the
technology to scale (Hostettler, 2015). The first step is conducting a thorough needs
assessment in order to ensure that intended beneficiaries’ priority needs are being
targeted and that the right population has been identified. The needs assessment can also
help indicate whether a technology will be socioculturally appropriate and therefore
increase the chances of adoption. During prototype development in collaboration with key
stakeholders, the cost of the technology—a crucial factor—must be carefully considered,
as well as the customers’ ability and willingness to pay for it. An unaffordable technology
will not have the desired impact, as no one will be able to purchase it. Developing a
sustainable business model from the outset of technological innovation is key. If economic
insight is not part of the technological innovation process, then the chances of failure
increase dramatically, as the long-term financial sustainability cannot be ensured.
____ / 20 marks
Total: ______/100 marks
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Final Exam Reading
From Innovation to Social Impact
1.1 What Is Innovation?
Today, there appears to be a widespread call for innovation: product innovation,
process innovation, market innovation, organizational innovation, and social
innovation. It sometimes feels as though, when at loss, we call upon innovation.
The origin of the word innovation means “restoration, renewal,” from the
Latin innovationem and innovare. Joseph Schumpeter is considered the first
economist to have drawn attention to the importance of innovation in the 1930s
(Croitoru, 2012; Schumpeter, 1911). Innovation can be a new method, idea, or
product—something that is new or different. Innovation’s key characteristic is that
it is assumed to provide a significant, positive change. “To be called an
innovation, an idea must be replicable at an economical cost and must satisfy a
specific need […]”.1 In the context of development, we look more specifically at
social innovation, which can be described as “… a novel solution to a social
problem that is more effective, efficient, sustainable, or just than current
solutions. The value created accrues primarily to society rather than to private
individuals.”2
Innovation is often divided into two broad categories: evolutionary innovation
(also called continuous or dynamic evolutionary innovation) brought about by
many incremental advances in technology or processes, and revolutionary
innovation (also called discontinuous innovation), which is often disruptive and
new.3 In the technologies for development field, both types of innovation exist.
When considering the significant needs that continue to go unmet in the Global
South, frugal innovation is particularly important. Frugal innovation is a process
whereby new business models are developed, value chains are reconfigured,
and products are redesigned in a scalable, sustainable manner to serve users
facing extreme affordability constraints: “Simple, frugal innovation provides
functional solutions using scant resources for the many who have little
means”.4 Frugal innovation implies doing better with less by focusing on
affordability, simplicity, quality, and sustainability.5
1.2 Progress Driven by Technological Innovation
The innovation that interests us here is technological innovation for sustainable
development in the Global South. Since 1990, a billion people have escaped
extreme poverty, 2.1 billion have gained access to improved sanitation, and more
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than 2.6 billion have gained access to an improved source of drinking water
(United Nations, 2015). Between 1990 and 2015, the global under-five mortality
rate drastically decreased from 91 per 1000 live births to 43. Between 2000 and
2015, the incidence of HIV, malaria, and tuberculosis declined. The proportion of
seats held by women in parliaments worldwide, though still a far cry from
egalitarian representation, rose from 17 to 23 percent in 2016 (UNDP, 2016).
Technological innovation has played an important role in this progress. New
technologies can help governments and citizens to interact more efficiently and
increase the scope and efficiency of public services. With the steadily growing
penetration rate of mobile phones, many countries are now able to use mobile
phones to extend basic social services, including health care, financial services
and education, to hard-to-reach populations. The Internet allows for considerably
more information sharing than any other means of communication ever has
(UNDP, 2016).
Technology is one of the key factors that can help developing countries close the
gap with industrialized countries. In addition to infrastructure, a productive and
healthy workforce, roads, and access to information and knowledge, technology
can help countries to leapfrog forward (Sachs, 2015; Wooldridge, 2012). For
instance, now that traditional sources of energy such as fossil fuels are coming to
an end, adopting renewable energies based on hydro, wind, or solar power might
offer an opportunity for developing countries to not repeat the same mistakes
made by industrialized countries, but instead forge ahead with the help of cuttingedge technology in the energy and health sectors. Mobile technology can be
transformative. For instance, mhealth apps can help upscale health programmes
for prenatal care. It can also raise awareness about the risk of contracting
malaria and smartphones can now diagnose pneumonia via diagnostic devices
(Ettinger, Pharaoh, Buckman, Conradie, & Karlen, 2016; Friedman &
Karlen, 2015). Mobile technology can also leverage social impact in the financial
sector by providing remote banking services for rural low-income communities
and information for farmers about fair market prices (Martin & Abbot, 2011).
1.3 Remaining Challenges
However, as outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, many
needs are yet to be met in the Global South.6 Human development has been
uneven, as progress has bypassed many communities; others have merely
managed to ensure basic human needs. Even though poverty has been reduced
massively over the past 25 years, poor nutrition still causes 45 percent of the
deaths among children under five. Stunting and other delays in physical
development are still very common in children in developing countries. Yet, a
third of the world’s food supply is wasted each year. By reducing this figure to 25
percent, 870 million more people could be fed. Unless the deprivation is
addressed, 167 million children will live in extreme poverty by 2030, and sixtyLEAP 4: Reading and Writing
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nine million children under five will die of preventable causes. These outcomes
will undoubtedly have a negative impact on the capacities of future generations.
One hundred fourteen million young people and 644 million adults still lack basic
reading and writing skills. Persistent deprivation is observable in various aspects
of human development. Yet, the income gap continued to widen in thirty-four of
the eighty-three countries observed between 2008 and 2013. In twenty-three
countries, the poorest 40 percent saw their income decline; and yet, alarmingly,
income growth has been particularly pronounced at the top rungs of the income
ladder—in other words, the rich get richer while the poor get poorer.
Approximately 46 percent of the total increase in income between 1988 and 2011
was attributed to wealthiest 10 percent of the population. Since 2000, 50 percent
of the increase in global wealth benefitted only the wealthiest 1 percent of the
world’s population; only 1 percent went to the poorest 50 percent. Global wealth
has become far more concentrated. In 2000, the wealthiest 1 percent of the
population held 32 percent of global wealth. This increased to 46 percent in 2010
(UNDP, 2016). Not surprisingly, new development challenges have emerged
and/or deepened, including climate changes, conflict, and desperate migration
(UNDP, 2016).
1.4 Need for Social Impact
Innovation is the new buzzword. Much hope has been placed on technological
innovation, social innovation, financial innovation, and organizational
innovation; we might even start hearing talk about the need to innovate
innovation. However, innovation in itself is not enough. Social impact—meaning
positive change for society and, in this case, low-income communities in the
Global South—requires successful implementation and use of technologies at a
large scale. Why, with rampant technological innovation, does the social impact
of technology remain so limited? There are still many needs unmet in many
parts of the world, and much hope is being placed on innovation to accelerate
the implementation of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals that
aim for significant social impact. [We must explore] decisive key factors when
considering how we can move from innovation to social impact.
1.5 The Bumpy Road to Social Impact
Developing successful technologies is challenging, and obtaining the desired
social impact is even more so. For an innovation to have social impact, it must
make the transition from an innovation to a technology that can be implemented
at scale, e.g., by becoming a mainstream product such as a smart phone. The
key question is how can a technology be brought to scale in order to have a
broad and positive impact? Ensuring that a technological solution successfully
addresses a specific issue in the Global South requires careful attention during
each phase of production, from the initial idea to bringing the technology to scale
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(Hostettler, 2015). The first step is conducting a thorough needs assessment in
order to ensure that intended beneficiaries’ priority needs are being targeted and
that the right population has been identified. The needs assessment can also
help indicate whether a technology will be socio-culturally appropriate and
therefore increase the chances of adoption. During prototype development in
collaboration with key stakeholders, the cost of the technology—a crucial factor—
must be carefully considered, as well as the customers’ ability and willingness to
pay for it. An unaffordable technology will not have the desired impact, as no one
will be able to purchase it. Developing a sustainable business model from the
outset of technological innovation is key. If economic insight is not part of the
technological innovation process, then the chances of failure increase
dramatically, as the long-term financial sustainability cannot be ensured.
Regarding technical aspects, especially in developing countries, a technology’s
robustness is crucial, as it will have to withstand high temperatures, humidity,
dust, and unstable electrical circuits. Other key questions to be considered are: Is
the technology easy to use, or can it only be operated by experts? In the event of
a breakdown, is there a supply chain for spare parts, or will they need to be
imported at a prohibitive cost from developed countries? Do the required
capacities and infrastructure for repairs exist? Can the waste products of
production and the technological product be recycled at the end of life? Does the
product meet the objectives of a circular economy? How can local staff be
trained? Does the technology comply with national and international standards?
What needs should be considered regarding the legal framework, e.g., patenting
or open access? In addition, we need to ask ourselves: Does this technology
push local companies out of business? Does it consider local political factors
such as corruption and civil unrest? Who will have access to this technology?
Does it run the risk of creating inequalities?
It is particularly important to integrate scalability early on. Key factors such as
country size, the political landscape, culture, language, the potential cost of
establishing a regional service network, logistical challenges, spare-part depots,
and human resources must be taken into account. A large-scale study of 20,000
geotagged households in Kenya showed that 50 percent of unconnected homes
are “under grid,” meaning they are within range of an existing transformer but are
not connected. It turned out that the need for innovation lies not at the
technological level but in identifying appropriate tech adoption incentives, such
as subsidies and innovative financing mechanisms (Lee et al., 2016). This
experience shows the importance of taking an interdisciplinary approach by
bringing together practitioners, engineers, anthropologists, economists, computer
scientists, etc. to develop innovation that can bring about a large-scale, positive
social impact.
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The constraints of low-resource settings can be a strong driver of innovation.
People living in rural or urban areas, educated or uneducated, are not just
consumers of innovation, they can also be the source. They have significant
inventive power to design and solve problems locally in their own socio-cultural
context. In Togo, for instance, a 3-D printer was made using electronic waste
salvaged from landfill sites, with the aim of improving the lives of communities by
“printing” objects such as medical prostheses.7 3-D printing technology has the
potential to bring about concrete social impact and is particularly interesting in
emergency relief situations and for providing medical services in remote areas.
Medical devices can be printed on demand and in adequate quantity, e.g.,
irrigation syringes, oxygen splinters, umbilical cords, and prostheses.
Furthermore, using portable solar-powered 3-D printers can increase the
technology’s autonomy. Overall, 3-D printing could not only improve health care
in the developing world but could also allow for economic independence. 3-D
printing might help countries launch their own production rather than depend on
global supply chains by importing expensive medical devices from the developed
world (Dotz, 2015).
1.6 Conclusion
Social impact requires the successful implementation of a technology at a large
scale. In this respect, developing a sustainable business model is crucial. De
Jager, Mthembu, Ngowi, and Chipunza (2017) argue that the underlying
challenge when it comes to ensuring a high impact depends on the
development and successful implementation of a robust
innovation/entrepreneurship ecosystem, the cooperation of all stakeholders,
and sufficient resources. Innovation must also be linked to national and
institutional systems, e.g., when developing medical technologies, the Ministry
of health should be a key partner from the onset.
The challenge consists in considering all of these factors simultaneously; by not
doing so, the entire arch of technology development could run the risk of
collapse due to a single factor (e.g., financial sustainability or socio-cultural
acceptability) not being adequately addressed. It is for this reason that
universities have a key role to play in supporting the path to innovation and
entrepreneurship education, with outcomes that impact society at large.
Human-centred design is the core of development engineering that aims to
scale for impact by incorporating development goals, constraints, and
opportunities (Levine, Lesniewski, & Agogino, 2016). Development engineering
is based on the belief that innovative technologies have the potential to improve
life in low-income communities by incorporating insight from the social sciences
throughout technological innovation—from prototyping to production at scale.
We increasingly realize that engineers not only need to excel in their discipline
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but must also be able to work efficiently in economically, socially, and
environmentally diverse contexts. To create a new generation of practitioners
and social entrepreneurs, formal training at academic institutions must strive to
include additional skill sets based on interdisciplinary training and design-based
thinking in order to bridge the gap between innovation and social impact.
(2206 words)
Footnotes
1. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/innovation.html.
2. https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/faculty-research/centers-initiatives/csi/defining-socialinnovation.
3. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/innovation.html.
4. http://www.frugal-innovation.com/what-is-frugal-innovation.
5. https://hbr.org/2014/11/4-ceos-who-are-making-frugal-innovation-work.
6. http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-agenda/.
7. http://observers.france24.com/en/20161110-togolese-invent-3d-printer-waste.
References
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Anthropology and Sociology, 3(2), 137–148.
De Jager, H. J., Mthembu, T. Z., Ngowi, A. B., & Chipunza, C. (2017). Towards an innovation and
entrepreneurship ecosystem: A case study of the Central University of Technology, Free
State. Science, Technology and Society, 22(2), 310–331.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0971721817702292
Dotz, D. (2015). A Pilot of 3D printing of medical devices in Haiti. In S. Hostettler, E. Hazboun, &
J.-C. Bolay (Eds.), Technologies for development: what is essential? (pp. 33–44). Paris:
Springer.
Ettinger, K. M., Pharaoh, H., Buckman, R. Y., Conradie, H., & Karlen, W. (2016). Building quality
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431–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/03091902.2016.1213906
Friedman, Z., & Karlen, W. (2015). Medical devices and information communication technologies
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for development: What is essential? (pp. 113–118). Berlin: Springer.
Hostettler, S. (2015). Technologies for development. What really matters? In S. Hostettler, E.
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