Did She Mean To Do It?
Did She Mean to Do It?
Tissyana C. Camacho
California State University, Northridge
Did She Mean To Do It?
Introduction
A clear understanding of intentional action is central to successful social functioning during the
early school years and beyond (e.g., Dodge, 1980). During the school age years, children become
involved in new varieties of social interactions, which should help solidify their entry into their
cultural group. An understanding of another person's intentions is required in order to
communicate effectively and interact appropriately in these new settings. If one child hits
another, the victim's reaction will depend on whether the act is viewed as intentional or
unintentional. This is such a crucial issue that we use the question "Did she mean to do it?" to
frame the current study on the development of a folk theory of intention.
Method
Participants
Participants (N = 72) were divided into three age groups: 1) young age-group: 16, First Grade, 6year-olds (9 male, 7 female); 2) middle age-group: 27, Second to Fifth Grade, 7- to 10-year-olds
(14 male, 13 female); and 3) old-age group: 29 undergraduates (5 male, 24 female).
Procedure
Children were met by the researchers outside their classroom at the end of the school day. They
were escorted to a quiet area in a school corridor where they were interviewed by one to three
undergraduate researchers. Undergraduates were interviewed during their research laboratory
meeting. All participants completed six intention tasks and the Bryant (1982) Empathy Test for
Children and Adolescents. Children chose a token gift at the conclusion of the study.
Measures
There were two intention measures, with three tasks for each measure: Knowledge-intention and
age-of-intent. All six tasks were presented as stories with a description of the protagonists
engaging in accidental and intentional incidents. There was a fixed order, with one knowledgeintention task followed by one age-of-intent task. The experimenter drew the child's attention to
the appropriate incident during the narration and followed up each task with a memory question.
If the child did not remember the story, it was repeated.
For each intention task, the identification question was scored as either passing or failing.
One point was given for a correct answer and a 0 was given for an incorrect answer. A total
identification score was created, which consisted of the sum of participants' scores for the
identification questions across both measures (Range: 0–6). (The results for the justification
tasks will not be reported in this paper.)
References
Bryant B. K (1982). An index of empathy for children and adolescents. Child Development,
53(2), 413-425.
Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior. Child Development,
51(1), 162.
Dunn,J. (1988). The beginnings of social understanding. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Learning Objectives
• Explain why APA style was created
• Identify the 10 different components of an APA-style manuscript
• Describe and discuss the expectations in the five main sections of an
APA-style manuscript
• Differentiate between scientific writing and non-scientific writing
What is APA Style?
APA Style (7th Edition)
• Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (APA)
• APA’s guidelines for communicating research
(and other) findings
• Important for consistency in reading,
reviewing, editing, and accountability
History of APA Style
• Presented as a 7-page journal article in 1929
• Developed by researchers in various fields such as psychology,
anthropology, and business managers (sponsored by the National
Research Council)
• “Establish a simple set of procedures, or style rules, that could codify
the many components of scientific writing to increase the ease of
reading comprehension.”
Overall APA Style: Double-Spaced
Go to Format →
Click Paragraph →
Spacing = Double
Important side note:
Make sure your
”Before” and “After”
spacing is set to zero!
Overall APA Style: 1” Margins
• Go to “Layout”
• Click on “Margins”
• Select 1” on all sides
Overall APA Style: Font
Sans Serif Fonts
• 11-point Calibri
• 11-point Arial
• 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode
Serif Fonts
• 12-point Times New Roman
• 11-point Georgia
• Normal (10-point) Computer
Modern (the default font for
LaTeX)
For this class,
please make sure your font is always
12-point Times New Roman
Overall APA Style: Paragraph Alignment
• Indent first line of every paragraph
• Use tab key; set at ½ inch
• All text should be aligned left
• Except for titles, captions, the abstract, or block quotations
Components of an APA Manuscript:
In order:
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Method
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. References
8. Tables
9. Figures
10. Appendices
Title Page
• Everything centered
• Title of Paper (in bold)
• Author Name(s)
• Institution
• Page # (which is always 1, top right corner)
• Running Header: Shortened title that will show up on every page
• WRITTEN IN ALL CAPS; Less than 50 characters (including spaces, punctuation,
etc.)
• 7th edition: you do not need the words “running head” on the first page.
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Header
< ---------- >
1” Margins
X
X
X
X
X
Title
Name
Institution
Page #
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Abstract
• Write this part of the paper last
• Page #2
• Label as “Abstract” (centered & in bold)
• Brief comprehensive summary of all sections of the paper (intro,
method, results, discussion)
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Not
Indented
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Running head is ½”
from top of the page
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Introduction
Title
Level 1 Heading
Double-spaced
Paragraphs
indented
< ---------- >
1” Margins
< ---------- >
1” Margins
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Introduction
• From general topic to your specific research
• “V” shape → Broad to Narrow
1) Why is this question worth studying?
2) What do we already know?
3) What don’t we know?
4) Specific hypotheses
3
Is Cooperation Gender-Blind? A Longitudinal Study of Cooperation in Preschool Boys and Girls
Cooperation—the ability to work together towards a common goal—is a fundamental aspect of
successful social interaction. Cooperation enables successful teamwork, and promotes bonding and
friendship formation at multiple ages (Switzer & Sekulich, 2005). Indeed, without cooperation, we would
not be able to…..INSERT MORE EVIDENCE HERE ESTABLISHING THAT, IN GENERAL, THE
BROAD TOPIC OF COOPERATION IS IMPORTANT FOR PEOPLE TO STUDY
Cooperative behaviours begin to develop in the preschool years. Pascaris et al. (1998)
showed that 3-year-old children were more likely than 2-year-olds to engage in co-operative and
helping behaviours (such as working with a partner to complete a puzzle). Additionally, further research
shows….INSERT MORE EXAMPLES FROM EXISTING LITERATURE DEMONSTRATING THAT
COOPERATION DEVELOPS DURING THE PRESCHOOL YEARS
In addition to cooperative behaviours, concepts of gender and gender identity are also
developing during the preschool years (Kearnan & Smith, 2007). At ages 3 and 4 years, children begin to
concretely identify themselves as boys or girls, and spontaneously talk about specific behaviours that boys
and girls “should and should not” engage in (Kearnan, Harkness, & Jademan, 1999). Other research also
shows that….INSERT MORE EXAMPLES FROM EXISTING LITERATURE DEMONSTRATING
THAT GENDER CONCEPTS ASLO DEVELOP DURING THE PRESCHOOL YEARS
4
An important question that is currently under-investigated in the existing
literature is the extent to which the development of gender concepts affects
cooperative behaviours in preschool children. More specifically, it is possible that
once gender concepts are firmly established, young children may prefer to cooperate
more with people of the same gender. To directly investigate this possibility, we
conducted a longitudinal study examining cooperative behaviours in a large sample
of preschool children starting at 2 years of age, and following them until their 6 th
birthday. Cooperative behaviours were assessed every 2 months when the children
met in laboratory for play group, and gender concept measures were also gathered at
this time. We hypothesize that when children are young, and their gender concepts
are not as fully formed, they will engage in cooperative behaviours with people of
either gender. However, once children achieve a more concrete gender identity, they
will exhibit a preference for cooperating with people of their same gender, and
prevalence of cross-gender cooperation will decrease.
Method
Method (in order of presentation)
1. Participants
•
•
•
•
•
Describe sample
Specify # of participants
How were they selected?
Compensation?
Complied with ethics?
2. Procedures
• Procedures/research design -summarize each step in the execution of the study
• Description of what happened in the study (e.g., order of events, duration of events, etc.)
3. Measures
• Description of each measure
• Operational definition of each measure
• Scoring information of measure (0 = X, 1 = Y)
APA Heading Levels
• https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/headings
Results
Results
• Which analyses did you run?
• Start with a few sentences about the types of analysis you ran
• “To answer the question of Latino adolescents changing their ethnic selfidentification from broader identifications to more ethnically identified terms over
time (e.g., American to Mexican), changes in mean responses were examined and a
chi-square analysis was performed (see Table 2).”
• Numbers
• What did you find, not why
• “A chi-square test of independence indicated that the relationship between T1 ethnic
self-identification and T2 ethnic self-identification was significant, χ2 (N = 1982) =
468.51, p < .001. Of the group who identified with a national label at T1 (i.e.,
Mexican, Cuban, etc.), 54.9% remained in that group at T2. The remaining
participants were largely identifying with a pan-ethnic label (25.8%) or hyphenated
label (18%) at T2.”
Discussion
• Start by restating your research question
• “This study examined XYZ…”
• Explain what you found
• No numbers
• Frame your explanations
• What does it all mean? Interpret your numbers.
• How does it relate to the theories cited earlier in your paper? How does this explain human
behavior?
• Alternative explanations
• Limitations specific to your study (e.g. your operational definition)
• Have you advanced the understanding of human behavior? How?
• Explain the reasons behind all results!
• “We found XYZ, which may suggest that …”
Discussion
1) Review study’s
purpose, summarize
main results
2) Discuss how results fit
with existing literature
3) Provide reasoning for results,
backed by existing theory & research
4) Discuss larger implications
5) Discuss limitations
6) Re-summarize main findings
7) Suggest future research & end on positive note
References
Retrieved from http://library.csun.edu/egarcia/documents/apacitationguide.pdf
References in APA Style
• In-text Citations: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations
• Basic Principles of Reference List Entries: https://apastyle.apa.org/stylegrammar-guidelines/references/basic-principles
• Reference Examples: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammarguidelines/references/examples
Writing Style
• Writing APA style means paying attention to detail
• It is difficult, but you should not aim difficulty
• Do not write the same way you talk!
• “We basically observed to see if kids liked to beat each other up.”
• “We observed a preschool classroom in order to determine how aggressively 3- to 4
–year-olds behave in an everyday situation.”
• Read in developmental science to write in developmental science
• Communicating science
• Use one of your citations as a model paper
Scientific Writing - Intro
Plain English
Scientific Writing
We wanted to see how….
We sought to examine…
We are trying to figure out if…
We aimed to address…
We believed that…
We expected/ predicted/
hypothesized...
We predict that children played…
We predicted that children would
play...
Scientific Writing - Method
Plain English
Scientific Writing
Each child was watched for…
Each child was observed for…
Categories were decided upon...
Categories were determined...
We discussed and voted on
categories…
Categories were determined by the
consensus of 5 researchers.
We then put our results together.
We then compiled the results.
…until we received our desired
number of participants.
Until the target number of
participants were
recruited/observed.
Scientific Writing - Results
Plain English
Scientific Writing
The results show that the
hypothesis is correct/wrong.
Results confirmed/refuted the
hypothesis.
The hypothesis was proven correct.
The hypothesis was supported.
We were right about…
The results confirmed our
prediction…
These results propose that…
These results suggest that…
Scientific Writing - Discussion
Plain English
Scientific Writing
The study talked about…
The study addressed...
Obviously….
It is evident that…
The most important thing to do in
the future is…
An important next step is…
We felt as though our results…
Our results… (don’t interject feelings, just state it)
Our findings do not make sense.
Our findings are counterintuitive.
Email me if you have any
questions!
9/14/20
APA Style and Formatting
Dr. Camacho
CADV 380/L
1
Learning Objectives
• Explain why APA style was created
• Identify the 10 different components of an APA-style manuscript
• Describe and discuss the expectations in the five main sections of an
APA-style manuscript
• Differentiate between scientific writing and non-scientific writing
2
1
9/14/20
What is APA Style?
3
APA Style (6th Edition)
• Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (APA)
• APA’s guidelines for communicating research
(and other) findings
• Important for consistency in reading,
reviewing, editing, and accountability
4
2
9/14/20
History of APA Style
• Presented as a 7-page journal article in 1929
• Developed by researchers in various fields such as psychology,
anthropology, and business managers (sponsored by the National
Research Council)
• “Establish a simple set of procedures, or style rules, that could codify
the many components of scientific writing to increase the ease of
reading comprehension.”
5
Overall APA Style: Double-Spaced
Go to Format à
Click Paragraph à
Spacing = Double
Important side note:
Make sure your
”Before” and “After”
spacing is set to zero!
6
3
9/14/20
Overall APA Style: 1” Margins
• Go to “Layout”
• Click on “Margins”
• Select 1” on all sides
7
Overall APA Style: Font
Sans Serif Fonts
Serif Fonts
• 11-point Calibri
• 12-point Times New Roman
• 11-point Arial
• 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode
• 11-point Georgia
• Normal (10-point) Computer
Modern (the default font for
LaTeX)
For this class,
please make sure your font is always
12-point Times New Roman
8
4
9/14/20
Overall APA Style: Paragraph Alignment
• Indent first line of every paragraph
• Use tab key; set at ½ inch
• All text should be aligned left
• Except for titles, captions, the abstract, or block quotations
9
Components of an APA Manuscript:
In order:
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Method
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. References
8. Tables
9. Figures
10. Appendices
10
5
9/14/20
Title Page
• Title
• Author Name(s)
• Institution
• Page # (which is always 1, top right corner)
• Header: Shortened title that will show up on every page
11
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Header
< ---------- >
1” Margins
Page #
< ---------- >
1” Margins
X
X
X
X
X
Title
Name
Institution
12
6
9/14/20
Abstract
• Write this part of the paper last
• Page #2
• Label as “Abstract”
• Brief comprehensive summary of all sections of the paper (intro,
method, results, discussion)
13
Retrieved from http://library.csun.edu/egarcia/documents/apacitationguide.pdf
14
7
9/14/20
Introduction
15
16
8
9/14/20
Introduction
• From general topic to your specific research
• “V” shape à Broad to Narrow
1) Why is this question worth studying?
2) What do we already know?
3) What don’t we know?
4) Specific hypotheses
17
3
Is Cooperation Gender-Blind? A Longitudinal Study of Cooperation in Preschool Boys and Girls
Cooperation—the ability to work together towards a common goal—is a fundamental aspect of
successful social interaction. Cooperation enables successful teamwork, and promotes bonding and
Why is this
friendship formation at multiple ages (Switzer & Sekulich, 2005). Indeed, without cooperation, we
topic
would
worth
studying?
not be able to…..INSERT MORE EVIDENCE HERE ESTABLISHING THAT, IN GENERAL, THE
BROAD TOPIC OF COOPERATION IS IMPORTANT FOR PEOPLE TO STUDY
Cooperative behaviours begin to develop in the preschool years. Pascaris et al. (1998)
showed that 3-year-old children were more likely than 2-year-olds to engage in co-operative and
helping behaviours (such as working with a partner to complete a puzzle). Additionally, further research
shows….INSERT MORE EXAMPLES FROM EXISTING LITERATURE DEMONSTRATING THAT
COOPERATION DEVELOPS DURING THE PRESCHOOL YEARS
In addition to cooperative behaviours, concepts of gender and gender identity are also What do
we already
know?
developing during the preschool years (Kearnan & Smith, 2007). At ages 3 and 4 years, children begin to
concretely identify themselves as boys or girls, and spontaneously talk about specific behaviours that boys
and girls “should and should not” engage in (Kearnan, Harkness, & Jademan, 1999). Other research also
shows that….INSERT MORE EXAMPLES FROM EXISTING LITERATURE DEMONSTRATING
THAT GENDER CONCEPTS ASLO DEVELOP DURING THE PRESCHOOL YEARS
18
9
9/14/20
4
An important question that is currently under-investigated in the existing
literature is the extent to which the development of gender concepts affects
cooperative behaviours in preschool children. More specifically, it is possible that
once gender concepts are firmly established, young children may prefer to cooperate
more with people of the same gender. To directly investigate this possibility, we
What
don’t we
know?
conducted a longitudinal study examining cooperative behaviours in a large sample
of preschool children starting at 2 years of age, and following them until their 6th
birthday. Cooperative behaviours were assessed every 2 months when the children
met in laboratory for play group, and gender concept measures were also gathered at
this time. We hypothesize that when children are young, and their gender concepts
are not as fully formed, they will engage in cooperative behaviours with people of
either gender. However, once children achieve a more concrete gender identity, they
Specific
Hypotheses
will exhibit a preference for cooperating with people of their same gender, and
prevalence of cross-gender cooperation will decrease.
19
Method
20
10
9/14/20
Method (in order of presentation)
1. Participants
•
•
•
•
•
Describe sample
Specify # of participants
How were they selected?
Compensation?
Complied with ethics?
2. Procedures
• Procedures/research design -summarize each step in the execution of the study
• Description of what happened in the study (e.g., order of events, duration of events, etc.)
3. Measures
• Description of each measure
• Operational definition of each measure
• Scoring information of measure (0 = X, 1 = Y)
21
APA Heading Levels
• https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/headings
22
11
9/14/20
23
Results
24
12
9/14/20
Results
• Which analyses did you run?
• Start with a few sentences about the types of analysis you ran
• “To answer the question of Latino adolescents changing their ethnic selfidentification from broader identifications to more ethnically identified terms over
time (e.g., American to Mexican), changes in mean responses were examined and a
chi-square analysis was performed (see Table 2).”
• Numbers
• What did you find, not why
• “A chi-square test of independence indicated that the relationship between T1 ethnic
self-identification and T2 ethnic self-identification was significant, χ2 (N = 1982) =
468.51, p < .001. Of the group who identified with a national label at T1 (i.e.,
Mexican, Cuban, etc.), 54.9% remained in that group at T2. The remaining
participants were largely identifying with a pan-ethnic label (25.8%) or hyphenated
label (18%) at T2.”
25
Discussion
• Start by restating your research question
• “This study examined XYZ…”
• Explain what you found
• No numbers
• Frame your explanations
• What does it all mean? Interpret your numbers.
• How does it relate to the theories cited earlier in your paper? How does this explain human
behavior?
• Alternative explanations
• Limitations specific to your study (e.g. your operational definition)
• Have you advanced the understanding of human behavior? How?
• Explain the reasons behind all results!
• “We found XYZ, which may suggest that …”
26
13
9/14/20
Discussion
1) Review study’s
purpose, summarize
main results
2) Discuss how results fit
with existing literature
3) Provide reasoning for results,
backed by existing theory & research
4) Discuss larger implications
5) Discuss limitations
6) Re-summarize main findings
7) Suggest future research & end on positive note
27
References
28
14
9/14/20
Retrieved from http://library.csun.edu/egarcia/documents/apacitationguide.pdf
29
References in APA Style
• In-text Citations: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations
• Basic Principles of Reference List Entries: https://apastyle.apa.org/stylegrammar-guidelines/references/basic-principles
• Reference Examples: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammarguidelines/references/examples
30
15
9/14/20
Writing Style
• Writing APA style means paying attention to detail
• It is difficult, but you should not aim difficulty
• Do not write the same way you talk!
• “We basically observed to see if kids liked to beat each other up.”
• “We observed a preschool classroom in order to determine how aggressively 3- to 4
–year-olds behave in an everyday situation.”
• Read in developmental science to write in developmental science
• Communicating science
• Use one of your citations as a model paper
31
Scientific Writing - Intro
Plain English
Scientific Writing
We wanted to see how….
We sought to examine…
We are trying to figure out if…
We aimed to address…
We believed that…
We expected/ predicted/
hypothesized...
We predict that children played…
We predicted that children would
play...
32
16
9/14/20
Scientific Writing - Method
Plain English
Scientific Writing
Each child was watched for…
Each child was observed for…
Categories were decided upon...
Categories were determined...
We discussed and voted on
categories…
Categories were determined by the
consensus of 5 researchers.
We then put our results together.
We then compiled the results.
…until we received our desired
number of participants.
Until the target number of
participants were
recruited/observed.
33
Scientific Writing - Results
Plain English
Scientific Writing
The results show that the
hypothesis is correct/wrong.
Results confirmed/refuted the
hypothesis.
The hypothesis was proven correct.
The hypothesis was supported.
We were right about…
The results confirmed our
prediction…
These results propose that…
These results suggest that…
34
17
9/14/20
Scientific Writing - Discussion
Plain English
Scientific Writing
The study talked about…
The study addressed...
Obviously….
It is evident that…
The most important thing to do in
the future is…
An important next step is…
We felt as though our results…
Our results… (don’t interject feelings, just state it)
Our findings do not make sense.
Our findings are counterintuitive.
35
Email me if you have any
questions!
36
18
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