1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Academic Writing Most international students need to write essays and reports for exams and coursework. Yet writing good academic English is one of the most demanding tasks students face. This new edition of Academic Writing has been fully revised to help students reach this goal. Clearly organised, the course explains the writing process from start to finish. Each stage is demonstrated and practised, from selecting suitable sources, reading, notemaking and planning through to re-writing and proof-reading. The four main parts of Academic Writing allow teachers and students to easily find the help they need. Each part is divided into short sections, which contain examples, explanations and exercises, for use in the classroom or self-study. Cross-references allow easy access to relevant sections, and a full answer key is featured on the companion website. The third edition of this popular course builds on the success of the earlier editions and responds to suggestions from both students and teachers. Plagiarism has become a major concern in higher education, and a special feature of Academic Writing is a section on avoiding plagiarism. There are also units on the key skills of paraphrasing, summarising and referencing. The book includes sections on crucial areas such as argument, cause and effect, comparison, definitions and academic style. Working in groups, dealing with graphs, charts and numbers and giving examples are explained in detail. Another part deals with accuracy in writing, providing practice with topics such as vocabulary, conjunctions and prepositions. The final part provides a range of writing models of both short and longer essays and reports. A new companion website offers further practice with a range of additional exercises, including answers. All international students wanting to maximise their academic potential will find this practical and easy-to-use book a valuable guide to writing in English for their degree courses. Stephen Bailey is a freelance teacher and writer of materials for English for Academic Purposes. He has taught international students for many years at the University of Nottingham, UK, and has previously worked in the Czech Republic, Japan, Malaysia and Spain. International students have many adjustments to make as they enter British universities and Stephen’s book makes at least one area of their lives – academic study – much more approachable. With its straightforward approach and improved layout, it will be a book many students will come to regard as an essential companion to their university lives. Stephen Dewhirst, Freelance EAP teacher, UK Stephen Bailey has produced an excellent new edition of his popular book Academic Writing. This book presents a great blend of advice and practice. The advice focuses on what is required in terms of academic writing at university. He addresses different types of academic writing and even includes sample writing texts. The practice breaks down academic writing by focussing on the language typically required in academic settings with lots of student exercises. His book takes the international student writer through the process of academic writing, moving from understanding academic writing tasks to using reading sources through to revising and drafting the final text. Dr Lindy Woodrow, Director China Education Centre, University of Sydney, Australia International students and indeed all students should find this book very helpful. It is accessible to read and engages in an explicit and sharply focused manner with many elements of the critical use of reading, of writing and of studying. The book usefully explains, exemplifies, and tests understanding. It deals with the problematic areas of plagiarism and grammatical work, of developing argument and counter argument, and essay expression. It should be very useful for international students engaged in academic writing. Professor Gina Wisker, University of Brighton, UK Stephen Bailey's Academic Writing is one of the few academic writing books that deal with core areas effectively - language, text type, academic conventions and the writing process. This is done by giving simple explanations, authentic examples and useful practice opportunities which can either be done in class or as self study. The book appeals to a range of levels including pre and in sessional students and equips them with a range of the key language and skills needed to embark on academic writing in higher education. Fiona Gilbert, Oxford Brookes University, UK The third edition of Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students will be welcome by all students new to academic writing in English-medium colleges and universities. The book is carefully set out to guide students step by step through the maze of assignment types, writing conventions and mysterious vocabulary they will find when entering higher education. Moving from the writing process through common patterns of grammar and argument to models of literature reviews, essays and reports, the handbook offers a clear, practical and accessible introduction to the skills students will need to write effectively at university. Professor Ken Hyland, University of Hong Kong This book provides international students with a useful introduction to the basic practices in reading and writing for academic purposes. It includes topics such as the typical content of article abstracts, the mechanics of citation and referencing, and some uses of sources in writing – topics that will help international students, studying in an English medium university for the first time, to meet their tutors’ expectations in reading and writing assignments. The chapter on reading advises a critical attitude to internet resources, advice most relevant to students today. Antonia Chandrasegaran, National Institute of Education, Singapore 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Academic Writing A Handbook for International Students Third edition Stephen Bailey First edition published 2003 by Routledge Second edition published 2006 by Routledge This edition published 2011 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2011. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2011 Stephen Bailey All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bailey, Stephen, 1947– Academic writing for international studies of business/ Stephen Bailey. – 1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Authorship. 2. Academic writing. 3. Business writing. I. Title. PN151.B26 2011 808′.06665 – dc22 2010014023 ISBN 0-203-83165-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN13: 978–0–415–59580–3 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–59581–0 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–83165–6 (ebk) 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Contents Acknowledgements Teachers’ introduction Students’ introduction Academic writing quiz xi xiii xv xix Part 1 The writing process 1 1.1 3 Background to writing The purpose of academic writing 3 Common types of academic writing 4 The format of long and short writing tasks 5 The features of academic writing 6 Some other common text features 7 Simple and complex sentences 8 Writing in paragraphs 9 1.2A Reading: finding suitable sources 11 Academic texts 11 Types of text 14 Using reading lists 14 Using library catalogues 15 Using library websites to search electronic resources 17 1.2B Reading: developing critical approaches 19 Reading methods 19 Titles, sub-titles and text features 21 Reading abstracts 22 Fact and opinion 23 Assessing internet sources critically 24 Critical thinking 27 1.3 Avoiding plagiarism What is plagiarism? 30 Acknowledging sources 31 Degrees of plagiarism 32 Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing 33 Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits 35 30 vi 1.4 Contents From understanding titles to planning 36 The planning process 36 Analysing essay titles 37 Brainstorming 38 Essay length 39 Outlines 40 1.5 Finding key points and note-making 43 Note-making methods 44 Finding key points 45 Finding relevant points 46 Effective note-making 47 1.6 Paraphrasing 50 The elements of effective paraphrasing 50 Techniques for paraphrasing 52 1.7 Summarising 56 What makes a good summary? 56 Stages of summarising 57 1.8 References and quotations 62 Why use references? 62 Citations and references 63 Reference verbs and systems 64 Using quotations 65 Organising the list of references 69 1.9 Combining sources 72 Mentioning sources 72 Taking a critical approach 73 Combining three sources 76 1.10 Organising paragraphs 77 Paragraph structure 77 Development of ideas 80 Linking paragraphs together 81 1.11 Introductions and conclusions 83 Introduction contents 83 Introduction structure 84 Opening sentences 86 Conclusions 88 1.12 Re-writing and proof-reading Re-writing 90 Proof-reading 93 Confusing pairs 96 90 vii 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Contents Part 2 Elements of writing 2.1 Argument and discussion 99 101 Discussion vocabulary 101 Organisation 102 The language of discussion 105 Counter-arguments 106 Providing evidence 106 2.2 Cause and effect 109 The language of cause and effect 109 2.3 Cohesion 115 Reference words 115 Preventing confusion 117 2.4 Comparisons 119 Comparison structures 119 Forms of comparison 121 Using superlatives 122 2.5 Definitions 126 Simple definitions 126 Complex definitions 128 2.6 Examples 130 Using examples 130 Phrases to introduce examples 131 Restatement 133 2.7 Generalisations 134 Using generalisations 134 Structure 135 Building on generalisations 138 2.8 Numbers 139 The language of numbers 139 Percentages 140 Simplification 141 Further numerical phrases 142 2.9 Problems and solutions 145 Structure 145 Vocabulary 148 2.10 Style Components of academic style 150 Guidelines 152 150 viii Contents Avoiding repetition and redundancy 154 Varying sentence length 155 2.11 Visual information 158 The language of change 158 Types of visuals 159 Describing visuals 162 Labelling 163 2.12 Working in groups 166 Why work in groups? 166 Making group work successful 168 Dealing with problems 169 Points to remember 170 Part 3 Accuracy in writing 3.1 Abbreviations 173 175 Types of abbreviation 175 Some common abbreviations 176 Abbreviations in writing 177 3.2 Academic vocabulary 179 Adjectives, nouns and verbs 179 Formality in verbs 182 3.3 Articles 184 Use of articles 184 Using definite articles 185 3.4 Caution 188 The use of caution 188 The language of caution 189 Using modifiers 189 3.5 Conjunctions 192 Types of conjunctions 192 Conjunctions of opposition 196 3.6 Nouns and adjectives 198 Using nouns and adjectives 198 Abstract nouns 201 3.7 Prefixes and suffixes How prefixes and suffixes work 203 Prefixes 204 Suffixes 205 203 ix 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 3.8 Contents Prepositions 207 Using prepositions 207 3.9 Punctuation 212 Capitals 212 Apostrophes 213 Semi-colons 213 Colons 213 Commas 214 Quotation marks 214 3.10 Singular or plural? 217 Five areas of difficulty 217 Group phrases 218 Uncountable nouns 219 3.11 Synonyms 222 How synonyms work 222 Common synonyms in academic writing 223 3.12 Time words 226 How time words are used 226 Time words and tenses 227 3.13 Verbs – passives 231 Active and passive 231 Structure 232 Using adverbs 232 3.14 Verbs of reference 236 Using verbs of reference 236 Common referring verbs 237 3.15 Verbs – tenses 241 Using tenses 241 Simple or continuous? 243 Using time phrases 244 Part 4 Writing models 4.1 Formal letters and emails 247 249 Letters 249 Emails 252 4.2 Writing CVs The contents of a CV 254 254 x 4.3 Contents Reports, case studies and literature reviews 257 Writing reports 257 Essays and reports 258 Case studies 259 Example case study 260 Literature reviews 264 Example literature review 264 4.4 Designing and reporting surveys 267 Questionnaire design 268 Survey language 268 4.5 Writing longer essays 273 The process of researching and writing a longer essay (2,000–5,000 words) 273 Example essay 275 Self-assessment exercises Glossary Index 282 287 291 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Acknowledgements I would like to thank the many staff and students at the Centre for English Language Education (CELE) at the University of Nottingham who have helped develop these materials over a number of years. In particular I should mention Steve Dewhirst, John Hall, Sandra Haywood, Mick Kavanagh, Ann Kavanagh, Richard Lee, John Rabone and Ann Smith, who have helped me unravel some of the finer points of academic language. My wife Rene has again provided me with invaluable support, encouragement and advice on many aspects of academic writing during the development of this project. Final thanks are due to my daughter, Sophie, for helping me keep the whole subject in perspective! 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Introduction for teachers This course has been developed to help international students with their written assignments in English at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. Students who are not native speakers of English often find the written demands of their courses very challenging. In addition to the vocabulary of academic English they have to learn new conventions of style, referencing and format. Furthermore, their lecturers are often concerned by their lack of critical thinking skills, and also mention students’ failure to answer the specific question and their inability to develop answers logically. Issues around vocabulary, plagiarism and referencing skills are significant additional worries. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students sets out to address these problems directly. It recognises that while international students are not expected to write perfect English, accurate and effective language use is an essential skill for such students. What may be individually minor problems with prepositions, word endings, spelling or articles can result in essays that are barely comprehensible to the best-motivated marker. To deal with this students are guided through the stages of the writing process in Part 1 and then the related writing skills are explained and practised in Part 2. Part 3 is designed as a reference guide to tackle the main problems of accuracy, while Part 4 provides examples of some common formats. Teachers may wish to work through the writing process in Part 1 while referring to units in Part 2 as the group progresses. (Part 2 is not intended to be taught from start to finish: note the alphabetical organisation of Parts 2 and 3.) A feature of Academic Writing is its clear and logical organisation, which makes it ideal as a self-study and reference guide for students needing to work independently. This is a recognition that most courses in academic writing are inevitably time-constrained, and that some students may have no other option. It is designed to be used on both pre-sessional and insessional courses, and is suitable for subject-specific (e.g. law, medicine) and multi-discipline courses in English for Academic Purposes (EAP). xiv Introduction for teachers Part Topic Main Application 1 The writing process Classroom use from finding sources to proof-reading 2 Elements of writing Classroom use from argument to working in groups and self-study 3 Accuracy in writing from abbreviations to verb tenses Classroom use, selfstudy and reference 4 Writing models from letters to longer essays Self-study and reference Academic Writing uses authentic texts and examples taken from a wide range of disciplines. Extensive cross-referencing is provided to assist both teacher and students in finding relevant support. All exercises can be done individually or in pairs and groups. A full range of answers plus some extra practice exercises are available on the book’s website: (http://cw.routledge. com/textbooks/bailey) or email: education@routledge.com The material in this course has been extensively tested in the classroom, but improvements can always be achieved. Therefore I would be very glad to receive any comments or suggestions about the book from teachers or students for future editions. Stephen Bailey 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Introduction for students What is the purpose of the book? This book is designed to help you succeed in the writing tasks you may be given as part of your academic course. The kind of writing that you are asked to do may be different from the assignments you have done before, and for some this may be the first time you have had to write long essays or reports in English. Your teachers know that English is not your native language and will be sympathetic to the problems you have in your writing. But at the same time you will want to learn to write as clearly and accurately as possible, not only to succeed on your current course but also in preparation for your career. Almost all large companies and organisations expect their staff to be able to communicate effectively in written English, as well as orally. Therefore, during your studies you have the ideal opportunity to learn to write English well, and this book can help you achieve that goal. In addition to accuracy, students on academic courses are expected to take a critical approach to their sources. This means that your teachers will expect you to question and evaluate everything you read, asking whether it is reliable or relevant. You are also expected to refer carefully to the sources of all your ideas, using a standard system of referencing. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students will help you to develop these skills. Managing your time Many teachers complain about work that is handed in late or shows signs of having been finished in a hurry. This leads to poor marks, and can be avoided by better time management. This means planning your time carefully from the start of the course so that your work is never late or rushed. xvi Introduction for students I Decide if the following ideas about time management are true or false: (a) Essay deadlines are often several months after the course starts. (T/F) (b) The best way to plan an assignment is to use some kind of wall chart. (T/F) (c) Reading and note-making often take longer than writing. (T/F) (d) The best time to study is after midnight. (T/F) (e) It’s a good idea to make time every day to relax with friends. (T/F) In fact, all of these are true except for (d): it’s better to study during the day and then get a good night’s sleep. The key point is to schedule the work for each task week by week, so that you allocate time for drafting, re-writing and proof-reading. By doing this you will avoid the last-minute panic that leads to poor marks and having to re-take courses. Using the book The book can be used either with a teacher or for self-study and reference. Each unit contains practice exercises that can be checked using the answer key on the website. For ease of use it is divided into the following sections: Part 1 The writing process This follows the process of writing from the reading stage through to proof-reading. Part 2 Elements of writing The key writing skills, organised alphabetically from argument to working in groups. Part 3 Accuracy in writing This section revises and practises areas of grammar and vocabulary, again arranged alphabetically, from abbreviations to verb tenses. Part 4 Writing models Gives examples of letters and emails, CVs, reports, case studies and longer essays. xvii 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Introduction for students To help you get the most out of this course, note the following points: • Instructions are printed in a display type, for example: I • List your ideas below Links to relevant units are shown like this: 䉴 See Unit 4.5 Writing longer essays These links help you to find extra information, but do not have to be read in order to complete the exercises. • Extra practice in some areas is provided on the Academic Writing website (http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/bailey). This is shown by: @ Referencing> • Answers are provided for most exercises on the website. If no definite answer can be given, an example answer is usually offered. • The index can be used to locate specific information. The glossary explains academic terms that you may not be familiar with. • WARNING! Every semester many students lose vital written work because of lost or broken laptops. Make a habit of backing up your files onto a memory stick at least once a day. Thousands of students have already found that Academic Writing helps them to write more clearly and effectively. This new edition has been developed using their feedback and ideas, and I would be very glad to receive comments and suggestions on any aspect of the book to help develop further editions. Stephen Bailey 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Academic writing quiz I How much do you know about academic writing? Find out by doing this fun quiz. 1 The main difference between academic writing and normal writing is that academic writing: (a) uses longer words (b) tries to be precise and unbiased (c) is harder to understand 2 The difference between a project and an essay is: (a) essays are longer (b) projects are longer (c) students choose projects’ topics 3 Teachers complain most about students: (a) not answering the question given (b) not writing enough (c) not referencing properly 4 The best time to write an introduction is often: (a) first (b) last (c) after writing the main body 5 Plagiarism is: (a) a dangerous disease (b) an academic offence (c) an academic website xx 6 Academic writing quiz Making careful notes is essential for: (a) writing essays (b) revising for exams (c) all academic work 7 An in-text citation looks like: (a) (Manton, 2008) (b) (Richard Manton, 2008) (c) (Manton, R. 2008) 8 Paraphrasing a text means: (a) making it shorter (b) changing a lot of the vocabulary (c) adding more detail 9 Paragraphs always contain: (a) six or more sentences (b) an example (c) a topic sentence 10 The purpose of an introduction is: (a) to give your aims and methods (b) to excite the reader (c) to summarise your ideas 11 Proof-reading means: (a) getting a friend to check your work (b) checking for minor errors (c) re-writing 12 Teachers expect students to adopt a critical approach to their sources: (a) sometimes (b) only for Master’s work (c) always 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 The writing process PART 1 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Background to 1.1 writing CHAPTER Most academic courses assess students through written assignments. These include coursework, which may take weeks to write, and exam answers, which often have to be written in an hour or less. This unit deals with: • • • The names of different writing tasks The format of long and short writing tasks The use of sentences and paragraphs 1 The purpose of academic writing Writers should be clear why they are writing. The most common reasons for writing include: • to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted • to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen • to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view • to synthesise research done by others on a topic I Can you suggest any other reasons? • In all cases it is useful to bear in mind the likely readers of your work. How can you explain your ideas to them effectively? Although there is no Part 1 The writing process 4 fixed standard of academic writing, it is clearly different from the written style of newspapers or novels. Similarly, it is generally agreed that academic writing attempts to be accurate and objective. What are its other features? I Working alone or in a group, list your ideas below. • Impersonal style ____________________________________________________________ • ____________________________________________________________ • ____________________________________________________________ • ____________________________________________________________ 2 Common types of academic writing Below are the most common types of written work produced by students. I Match the terms on the left to the definitions on the right. Notes A piece of research, either individual or group work, with the topic chosen by the student(s). Report The longest piece of writing normally done by a student (20,000+ words) often for a higher degree, on a topic chosen by the student. Project A written record of the main points of a text or lecture, for a student’s personal use. Essay A general term for any academic essay, report, presentation or article. Dissertation/ Thesis A description of something a student has done e.g. conducting a survey. Paper The most common type of written work, with the title given by the teacher, normally 1000–5000 words. 5 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.1 Background to writing 3 The format of long and short writing tasks Short essays (including exam answers) generally have this pattern: Introduction Main body Conclusion Longer essays may include: Introduction Main body Literature review Case study Discussion Conclusion References Appendices 䉴 See Units 4.3 Reports, case studies and literature reviews and 4.5 Writing longer essays Dissertations and journal articles may have: Abstract List of contents List of tables Introduction Main body Literature review Case study Findings Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgements References Appendices Part 1 The writing process 6 I Find the words in the lists above that match the following definitions: (a) A short summary of 100–200 words, which explains the paper’s purpose and main findings. __________________________________________________________ (b) A list of all the sources the writer has mentioned in the text. __________________________________________________________ (c) A section, at the end, where additional information is included. __________________________________________________________ (d) A short section where people who have helped the writer are thanked. __________________________________________________________ (e) Part of the main body in which the writer discusses relevant research. __________________________________________________________ (f) A section where one particular example is described in detail. __________________________________________________________ 4 The features of academic writing There is considerable variation in the format of academic writing required by different schools and departments. Your teachers may give you guidelines, or you should ask them what they want. But some general features apply to most formats. I Read the text below and identify the features underlined, using the words in the box. sentence paragraph heading title sub-title phrase (a) A fishy story (b) Misleading health claims regarding omega-3 fatty acids (c) Introduction 7 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.1 Background to writing (d) There has been considerable discussion recently about the benefits of omega-3 fatty acids in the diet. (e) It is claimed that these reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and may even combat obesity. Consequently food producers have added omega-3s to products ranging from margarine to soft drinks in an attempt to make their products appear healthier and hence increase sales. (f) However, consumers may be unaware that there are two types of omega-3s. The best (long-chain fatty acids) are derived from fish, but others (short-chain fatty acids) come from cheaper sources such as soya. This latter group have not been shown to produce the health benefits linked to the long-chain variety. According to Tamura et al. (2009) positive results may only be obtained either by eating oily fish three times a week, or by taking daily supplements containing 500mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). (a) __________________________________________________________ (b) __________________________________________________________ (c) __________________________________________________________ (d) __________________________________________________________ (e) __________________________________________________________ (f) __________________________________________________________ 5 Some other common text features (a) Reference to sources using citation: According to Tamura et al. (2009) (b) The use of abbreviations to save space: docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (c) Italics: used to show words from other languages: Tamura et al. (= and others) (d) Brackets: used to give subsidiary information or to clarify a point: . . . but others (short-chain fatty acids) come from cheaper sources such as soya. Part 1 The writing process 8 6 Simple and complex sentences I Study the table below. Annual vehicle production 2005–9 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 135,470 156,935 164,820 159,550 123,075 All sentences contain verbs: In 2005 the company produced over 135,000 vehicles. Between 2005 and 2006 vehicle production increased by 20 per cent. Simple sentences are easier to write and read, but complex sentences are also needed in academic writing. However, students should make clarity a priority, and avoid writing very complex sentences until they feel confident in their ability.Complex sentences contain conjunctions, relative pronouns or punctuation, which link the clauses: In 2005 the company produced over 135,000 vehicles but between 2005 and 2006 production increased by 20 per cent. Over 164,000 vehicles were produced in 2007; by 2009 this had fallen to 123,000. I Write two simple and two complex sentences using data from the table above. (a) __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ (b) __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ (c) __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ (d) __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 9 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.1 Background to writing 7 Writing in paragraphs I Discuss the following questions: What is a paragraph? Why are texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs? Do paragraphs have a standard structure? I Read the text below and divide it into a suitable number of paragraphs. 7.1 BIOCHAR Charcoal is produced by burning wood slowly in a low-oxygen environment. This material, which is mainly carbon, was used for many years to heat iron ore to extract the metal. But when Abraham Darby discovered a smelting process using coke (produced from coal) in 1709 demand for charcoal collapsed. At approximately the same time the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere began to rise. But a new use for charcoal, re-named biochar, has recently emerged. It is claimed that using biochar made from various types of plants can both improve soil quality and combat global warming. Various experiments in the United States have shown that adding burnt crop wastes to soil increases fertility and cuts the loss of vital nutrients such as nitrates. The other benefit of biochar is its ability to lock CO2 into the soil. The process of decay normally allows the carbon dioxide in plants to return to the atmosphere rapidly, but when transformed into charcoal this may be delayed for hundreds of years. In addition, soil containing biochar appears to release less methane, a gas which contributes significantly to global warming. American researchers claim that widespread use of biochar could reduce global CO2 emissions by over 10 per cent. But other agricultural scientists are concerned about the environmental effects of growing crops especially for burning, and about the displacement of food crops that might be caused. However, the potential twin benefits of greater farm yields and reduced greenhouse gases mean that further research in this area is urgently needed. 䉴 See Unit 1.10 Organising paragraphs Part 1 The writing process 10 Examples of types of academic texts Argument and discussion Unit 2.1 and Website Case studies Unit 4.3 Cause and effect Unit 2.2 Classification Website Comparisons Unit 2.4 and Website Descriptions Website Laboratory reports Website Literature reviews Unit 4.3 Problems and solutions Unit 2.9 Recommendations Website Reports Unit 4.3 Survey reports Unit 4.4 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2 Reading: finding A suitable sources CHAPTER Students often underestimate the importance of effective reading, but on any course it is vital to be able to locate the most relevant and suitable sources. This unit: • • • examines the most appropriate text types for academic work explores ways of locating relevant material in the library explains the use of electronic resources 1 Academic texts You need to read a variety of text types for your course, so it is important to identify suitable types and recognise their features. This will help you to assess their value. I You are studying Tourism Marketing. Read the text extracts 1–4 below and decide which are the most suitable for academic use, and why. Text Suitability? 1 Yes, it summarises some relevant research, and includes citations 2 3 4 12 Part 1 The writing process 1.1 To promote tourism and market destination, it is important to study the tourists’ attitude, behaviour and demand. The studies of Levitt (1986) and Kotler and Armstrong (1994) suggest that an understanding of consumer behaviour may help with the marketing planning process in tourism marketing. The research of consumer behaviour is the key to the underpinning of all marketing activity, which is carried out to develop, promote and sell tourism products (Swarbrooke and Horner, 1999; Asad, 2005). Therefore, the study of consumer behaviour has become necessary for the sake of tourism marketing. 1.2 The romance of travel has always fascinated me, and our recent trip to Thailand lived up to expectations. We flew from Dubai and after a comfortable flight arrived in Bangkok just as the sun was rising. Our stay in the city lasted only a couple of days before we set off for the hill country around Chang Mai, where we were planning to visit some of the indigenous tribes who live in this mountainous region. When we arrived the weather was rather disappointing, but after a day the heavy rain gave way to sparkling clear sunshine. 1.3 Holiday trips to the Antarctica have quadrupled in the past decade and last year more than 46,000 people visited the land mass and surrounding oceans. However, safety fears and concerns about the impact visitors are having on the delicate frozen landscape have soared and members of the Antarctic Treaty – an agreement between 28 nations, including the UK, on the use of the continent – are now meeting to discuss ways to regulate tourism. British officials are seeking to establish a ‘strategic agreement for tourism’ around the South Pole. If successful, it will see treaty members introduce new measures to improve the safety of tourist trips, while also reducing the impact that visitors will have on the environment. The regulations could see limits on the number of ships and landings, restrictions on how close they come to shore, a ban on building tourist facilities and hotels on the continent, and rules on waste discharges from ships. 13 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2A Reading: finding suitable sources 1.4 Equally, from a political perspective, the nature of state involvement in and policies for tourism is dependent on both the political-economic structures and the prevailing political ideology in the destination state, with comparisons typically made between market-led and centrally planned economies. For example, the Thatcher–Reaganinspired neo-liberalism of the 1980s, and the subsequent focus on privatisation and the markets in many Western nations contrasted starkly with the then centrally planned tourism sectors in the former Eastern Europe (Buckley and Witt, 1990; Hall, 1991). At the same time, of course, it has also long been recognised that the political-economic relationship of one nation with another or with the wider international community (that is, the extent of political-economic dependency) may represent a significant influence on tourism development (Telfer, 2002). Thus, in short, tourism planning and development in the destination tends to reflect both the structures and political ideologies of the state and its international politicaleconomic relations. I The main features of academic texts are listed in the table below. Find examples of each using the texts above. Feature Examples 1 Formal vocabulary the marketing planning process in tourism marketing . . . the extent of political-economic dependency . . . 2 Use of references 3 Impersonal style 4 Long, complex sentences Part 1 The writing process 14 2 Types of text I The table below lists the most common written sources used by students. Work with a partner to consider their likely advantages and disadvantages. Text type Advantages Disadvantages Textbook Written for students May be too general Website Journal article Official report (e.g. from government) Newspaper or magazine article e-book 3 Using reading lists Your teacher may give you a printed reading list, or it may be available online through the library website. The list will usually include textbooks, journal articles and websites. If the list is electronic there will be links to the library catalogue to let you check on the availability of the material. If the list is printed, you will have to use the library catalogue to find the texts. You do not have to read every word of a book because it is on the list. Your teacher will probably suggest which pages to read, and also tell you which parts are the most important. On reading lists you will find the following formats: 15 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2A Reading: finding suitable sources Books Miles, T. R. Dyslexia: A Hundred Years On / T.R. Miles and Elaine Miles, 2nd ed. Open University Press, 1999. Journal articles Paulesu E. et al. Dyslexia: Cultural Diversity and Biological Unity. Science, 2001, 291, pages 2165–7. Websites www.well.ox.ac.uk/monaco/dyslexia.shtml 4 Using library catalogues University and college libraries usually have online catalogues. These allow students to search for the materials they want in various ways. If the title and author’s name are known it is easy to check if the book is available, but if you are making a search for material on a specific topic you may have to vary the search terms. For instance, if you have been given an essay title: ‘Is there a practical limit on the height of tall buildings? Illustrate your answer with reference to some recent skyscrapers.’ you might try: Skyscraper design Skyscraper construction Design of tall building Construction of tall buildings If you use a very specific phrase you will probably only find a few titles. ‘Skyscraper construction’, for example, only produced three items in one library database, but a more general term such as ‘skyscrapers’ found 57. I You have entered the term ‘skyscrapers’ in the library catalogue search engine, and these are the first eight results. In order to answer the essay title above, which would you select to borrow? Give your reasons. Part 1 The writing process 16 Full details Title Ed/ Year Location Holdings 1 Skyscraper: the politics and power of building New York city in the twentieth century / Benjamin Flowers. c2009 Main library Availability 2 Skyscraper for the XXI century / edited by Carlo Aiello. 2008 Science library Availability 3 Taipei 101 / Georges Binder [editor]. 2008 Main library Availability 4 Tall buildings: image of the skyscraper / Scott Johnson. 2008 Fine Arts Library Availability 5 Skyscrapers: Fabulous Buildings that Reach for the Sky / Herbert Wright. 2008 Main library Availability 6 Eco skyscrapers / Ken Yeang. 3rd Ed. 2007 Science library Availability 7 Cost optimization of structures: fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, and parallel computing / Hojjat Adeli, Kamal C. Sarma. 2006 Science library Availability 8 Skyscrapers: a social history of the very tall building in America / by George H. Douglas. 2004 Main library Availability Full details If you click on this you will get more information about the book, including the number of pages and a summary of the contents. This may help you decide whether to borrow it. Ed/year If a book has had more than one edition it suggests that it is a successful title. The books are listed by the most recent first; always try to use the most up-to-date sources. 17 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2A Reading: finding suitable sources Location Many large universities have more than one library. This tells you which one the book is kept in. Holdings If you click on availability it will tell you how many copies the library holds and if they are available to borrow or out on loan. 5 Using library websites to search electronic resources E-journals and other electronic resources such as subject databases are becoming increasingly important. Their advantage is that they can be accessed by computer, saving the need to visit the library and find a text. Most library websites have a separate portal or gateway for searching electronic resources. This allows you to enter the name of a specific journal, or look for possible journals in your subject area by entering a term such as ‘international business law’. In this case, the database may offer the following titles: European Business Law Review European Business Organisation Law Review International Trade and Business Law Review Law and Business Review of the Americas In each case, you can access a list of issues available, which will let you read a list of published articles. Most journals publish four issues per year. In the case of European Business Organisation Law Review, the list would include: Dec 2009 Vol. 10 Issue 4 Sep 2009 Vol. 10 Issue 3 June 2009 Vol. 10 Issue 2 Mar 2009 Vol. 10 Issue 1 By clicking on any of these issues you can read a full list of articles. It is usually sufficient to read the abstract to find out if the article will be relevant to your work. Note that most journal websites contain a search engine to allow you to search all back issues by subject. They may also offer links to articles in other journals on the same topic. 18 Part 1 The writing process The best way to become familiar with these methods is to practise. Library websites usually contain tutorials for new students, and librarians are always willing to give help and advice when needed. I Select a specific topic from your subject area. (a) Use the library catalogue to search for relevant books. Write down the most useful titles. (b) Look for a few relevant journal articles, using the library portal. Write a reference for each article. 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2 Reading: B developing critical approaches CHAPTER Students are expected to adopt a critical approach to sources, which requires a full understanding of written texts. This unit • • • explains effective reading methods examines common text features, including abstracts explores and practises a critical analysis of texts 1 Reading methods It is easy for students to underestimate the importance of reading skills. Especially for international students, reading academic texts in the quantity required for most courses is a demanding task. But students will not benefit from attending lectures and seminars unless the reading is done promptly, while clearly most writing tasks require extensive reading. Moreover, the texts often contain new vocabulary and phrases, and may be written in a rather formal style. This means that distinct methods have to be adopted to cope with the volume of reading required, which is especially important when you are reading in another language. Clearly, you do not have time to read every word published on the topic you are studying. The chart below illustrates an approach to finding and dealing with texts. Part 1 The writing process 20 I Complete the empty boxes in the chart with the following techniques: • Read intensively to make notes on key points • Scan text for information you need (e.g. names) • Survey text features (e.g. abstract, contents, index) Choosing suitable texts Look at title and sub-title Skim text for gist – is it relevant? Read extensively when useful sections are found I Can you suggest any other reading skills to add to the chart above? 21 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2B Reading: developing critical approaches 2 Titles, sub-titles and text features Many books and articles have both a title and a sub-title: The Right to Have Rights: Citizenship Practice and the Political Constitution of the EU. The title is usually shorter; the sub-title often gives more information about the focus. After finding a relevant text, it is worth checking the following text features before starting to read: Author Is the writer well-known in his/ her field? What else has he/ she published? Publication date and edition Do not use a first edition if there is a (revised) second edition available. Abstract See section below. Contents A list of the main chapters or sections. This should tell you what proportion of the text is devoted to the topic you are researching. Introduction or preface This is where the author often explains his/ her reasons for writing, and also how the text is organised. References This list shows all the sources used by the author and referred to in the text. It should give you some suggestions for further reading. Bibliography These are the sources the author has used but not specifically referred to. Index An alphabetical list of all the topics and names mentioned in a book. If, for example, you are looking for information about a person, the index will tell you if that person is mentioned, and how often. Part 1 The writing process 22 3 Reading abstracts They are normally found in peer-reviewed journal articles, where they act as a kind of summary to enable researchers to decide if it is worth reading the full article. As a student you will not normally have to write abstracts, but it is important to be able to read them effectively. I Study this example: 3.1 CITIZENSHIP NORMS AND THE EXPANSION OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Russell J. Dalton A growing chorus of scholars laments the decline of political participation in America, and the negative implications of this trend for American democracy. This article questions this position – arguing that previous studies misdiagnosed the sources of political change and the consequences of changing norms of citizenship for Americans’ political engagement. Citizenship norms are shifting from a pattern of duty-based citizenship to engaged citizenship. Using data from the 2005 ‘Citizenship, Involvement, Democracy’ survey of the Center for Democracy and Civil Society (CDACS) I describe these two faces of citizenship, and trace their impact on political participation. Rather than the erosion of participation, this norm shift is altering and expanding the patterns of political participation in America. (Dalton, R.J. (2008) Political Studies 56 (1) 76–98) Abstracts normally have a standard structure. I Underline the main components of the abstract above. (a) Background position (b) Aim and thesis of article (c) Method of research (d) Results of research 23 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2B Reading: developing critical approaches 4 Fact and opinion When reading, it is important to distinguish between facts: Rice is grown in warm wet climates. and opinions: I like rice. I Decide if the following statements are facts, opinions or both. Fact Opinion 1 Smoking can be dangerous to health. 2 Smoking is addictive. 3 Smoking should be banned. 4 Smoking is dangerous so it should be banned. If suggestions are made in academic writing (smoking should be banned) it is important that they are supported by true facts (smoking is dangerous). I Read the following sentences and decide if they are fact or opinion. If they are fact, decide if they are true or false. If they are opinion, decide if you agree or disagree. Fact or opinion? 1 Britain has the highest crime rate in the world. 2 In Britain, hundreds of crimes are committed every day. 3 Many criminals are never caught. 4 The police are inefficient. 5 The police should be abolished. Facts – true or false? Opinions – agree or disagree? Part 1 The writing process 24 5 Assessing internet sources critically You cannot afford to waste time on texts that are unreliable or out-ofdate. If you are using material that is not on the reading list you must assess it critically to ensure that the material is trustworthy. Internet sources are plentiful and conveniently available, but you need to ask several questions about each site: • Is this a reputable website, for example with ac. (= academic) in the URL? • Is the name of the author given, and is he/she well-known in the field? • Is the language of the text in a suitable academic style? • Are there any obvious errors in the text, e.g. spelling mistakes, which suggest a careless approach? I Compare these two internet texts on deforestation. Which is likely to be more reliable? 5.1 We are destroying the last of our vital natural resources, just as we are starting to wake up to how precious they are. Rainforest once covered 14 per cent of the land now it’s down to a mere 6 per cent. Scientists predict that the rest could disappear in less than 40 years. Thousands of acres are cut down each second with dire consequences for the countries involved and the planet as a whole. Scientists estimate that we loose 50,000 species every year, many species every second including 137 plant types (not even species but whole groups of plant species) and as these plants disappear before science can record them so does the chance to gain helpful knowledge and possible medicines. 5.2 The scale of human pressures on ecosystems everywhere has increased enormously in the last few decades. Since 1980 the global economy has tripled in size and the world population has increased by 30 per cent. Consumption of everything on the planet has risen – at a cost to our ecosystems. In 2001, The World Resources Institute estimated that the demand for rice, wheat, and corn is expected to grow by 40 per cent by 2020, increasing irrigation water demands by 50 per cent or more. They further reported that the demand for wood could double by the year 2050; unfortunately it is still the tropical forests that supply the bulk of the world’s demand for wood. 25 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2B Reading: developing critical approaches There are several aspects of (1) which should make the reader cautious: the style is very personal (we are . . .) and informal (it’s down to . . .) and there is a word used wrongly (‘loose’ instead of ‘lose’). No sources are provided. But possibly more disturbing is carelessness with facts. Is it really possible that thousands of acres of rainforest are being cut down every second? The writer also claims that many species are being lost every second, but if we take the figure of 50,000 per year it means one species is lost every 10 minutes. Clearly the writer is seeking to dramatise the subject, but it is quite unsuitable as an academic source. In contrast, the second text is written in accurate, semi-formal language and includes a source. It seems more likely to be reliable. 6 Practice I (a) Read the following texts and decide if you can trust the information. Give reasons for your decisions in the table below. 6.1 Hard up? Why struggle when you could live in luxury? Solve your money worries easily and quickly by working for us. No experience needed, you can earn hundreds of pounds for just a few hours’ work per day. Work when it suits you, day or night. Don’t delay, call today for an interview on 07795–246791. 6.2 If you have money problems, there’s lots of ways you can save cash. Instead of spending money on new clothes, try buying them secondhand from charity shops, where you’ll find lots of stylish bargains. Eating out is another big expense, but instead you can get together with a few friends and cook a meal together; it’s cheaper and it’s fun. Bus fares and taxis can also cost a lot, so it might be worth looking for a cheap bicycle, which lets you travel where you want, when you want. Part 1 The writing process 26 6.3 Most students find that they have financial difficulties at times. It has been estimated that nearly 55 per cent experience financial difficulties in their first year at college or university. It’s often hard living on a small fixed income, and the cost of accommodation and food can come as a shock when you first live away from your parents. The most important thing, if you find you are getting into debt, is to speak to a financial advisor in the Student Union, who may be able to help you sort out your problems. 1 2 3 I (b) You are writing an essay on expanding educational provision in developing countries, titled: ‘Improving literacy in sub-Saharan Africa.’ I You find the following article in a recent magazine. Read it critically and decide whether you could use it in your work. 6.4 How can we get the world’s poorest children into school? This is a difficult question with no easy answer. In 1999 the UN adopted a set of goals called ‘Education for All’, but in many countries there has been little progress towards these aims. In Nigeria, for instance, the number of children not going to school has hardly changed since then. It is estimated that worldwide about 72m children never attend school, 45 per cent of whom are in sub-Saharan Africa. Even when schools and teachers are provided, there’s no guarantee that teaching is going on: World Bank research in India shows that a quarter of teachers don’t turn up on any day. Several proposals have been made to improve matters. A British academic, Professor Tooley, argues that low-cost private schools are more effective in delivering education to the poor since parental pressure maintains good standards. State schools could also relate pay to performance: research by Muralihadan and Sundararaman in India found that this improved students’ test performance far more significantly than spending the same money on teaching materials. 27 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.2B Reading: developing critical approaches Positive aspects: _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ Negative aspects: ______________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 7 Critical thinking Even when you feel that a text is reliable and that you can safely use it as a source, it is still important to adopt a critical attitude towards it. This approach is perhaps easiest to learn when reading, but is important for all other academic work (i.e. listening, discussing and writing). Critical thinking means not just passively accepting what you hear or read, but instead actively questioning and assessing it. As you read you should ask yourself the following questions: (a) What are the key ideas in this? (b) Does the argument of the writer develop logically, step by step? (c) Are the examples given helpful? Would other examples be better? (d) Does the author have any bias? (e) Does the evidence presented seem reliable, in my experience and using common sense? (f) Is this argument similar to anything else I have read? (g) Do I agree with the writer’s views? I Read the following text (7.1), thinking critically about the sections in bold. Then answer questions 1–9. Part 1 The writing process 28 7.1 The growth of the world wide web In the history of civilisation there have been many significant developments, such as the invention of the wheel, money and the telephone, but the development of the internet is perhaps the most crucial of all. In the space of a few years the world wide web has linked buyers in New York to sellers in Mumbai and teachers in Berlin to students in Cairo, so that few people can imagine life without it. It is estimated that over 70 per cent of North Americans, for instance, have internet access, and this figure is steadily increasing. Physical shops are under threat, as growing numbers shop online. In areas such as travel it is now impossible to buy tickets on certain airlines except on the internet. The web also links together millions of individual traders who sell to buyers through websites such as Ebay. Beyond the commercial sphere, the internet is also critically important in the academic world. A huge range of journals and reports are now available electronically, meaning that researchers can access a vast amount of information through their computer screens, speeding up their work and allowing them to produce better quality research. In addition, email permits academics to make effortless contact with fellowresearchers all over the world, which also assists them to improve their output. There is, of course, a darker side to this phenomenon, which is the use criminals have made of their ability to trade illegal or fraudulent products over the internet, with little control over their activities. But such behaviour is hugely compensated for by the benefits that have been obtained by both individuals and businesses. We are reaching a situation in which all kinds of information are freely available to everyone, which must lead to a happier, healthier and richer society. 29 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1 1.2B Reading: developing critical approaches ‘. . . such as the invention of the wheel, money and the telephone . . .’ Are these really critical developments? 2 ‘. . . the development of the internet is perhaps the most crucial of all.’ Is this true? 3 ‘. . . so that few people can imagine life without it.’ Is this claim credible? 4 ‘It is estimated that over 70 per cent of North Americans, for instance, have internet access . . .’ No source given. Does this figure seem likely? 5 ‘Physical shops are under threat, as growing numbers shop online.’ Is the first part true, and if so, is it caused by online shopping? 6 ‘ . . . speeding up their work and allowing them to produce better quality research.’ If the first part is true, does the result logically follow? 7 ‘We are reaching a situation in which all kinds of information are freely available to everyone, which must lead to a happier, healthier and richer society.’ Does the first part need any qualification? Is the conclusion justified? 8 Is the writer objective or biased? 9 Do I agree with this argument overall? @ Critical thinking> 䉴 See Unit 2.1 Argument and discussion Avoiding 1.3 plagiarism CHAPTER In the English-speaking academic world it is essential to use a wide range of sources for your writing, and to acknowledge these sources clearly. This unit explains why this is vital, and introduces the techniques students need to use. Further practice with these is provided in Units 1.6 Paraphrasing, 1.7 Summarising and 1.8 References and quotations. 1 What is plagiarism? Basically plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source without giving credit (acknowledgement) to the author. It is seen as a kind of theft, and is considered to be an academic crime. In academic work, ideas and words are seen as private property belonging to the person who first thought or wrote them. Therefore it is important for all students, including international ones, to understand the meaning of plagiarism and learn how to prevent it in their work. The main difficulty that students face is that they are expected: (a) to show that they have read the principal experts on a subject – by giving citations (b) to explain these ideas in their own words and come to their own original conclusions 31 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.3 Avoiding plagiarism There are several reasons why students must avoid plagiarism: • Copying the work of others will not help you develop your own understanding • To show that you understand the rules of the academic community • Plagiarism is easily detected by teachers and computer software • It may lead to failing a course or even having to leave college 2 Acknowledging sources If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must show that you have done this by providing the correct acknowledgement. There are two ways to do this: Summary and citation Smith (2009) claims that the modern state wields power in new ways. Quotation and citation According to Smith: ‘The point is not that the state is in retreat but that it is developing new forms of power . . .’ (Smith, 2009: 103). These in-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of the main text, which includes the following details: Author Date Title Place of publication Publisher Smith, M. (2009) Power and the State Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan The citation makes it clear to the reader that you have read Smith and borrowed this idea from him. This reference gives the reader the necessary information to find the source if the reader needs more detail. 䉴 See Unit 1.8 References and quotations Part 1 The writing process 32 3 Degrees of plagiarism Although plagiarism essentially means copying somebody else’s work, it is not always easy to define. I Working with a partner, consider the following academic situations and decide if they are plagiarism. Situation Yes/No 1 Copying a paragraph, but changing a few words and giving a citation. Yes 2 Cutting and pasting a short article from a website, with no citation. 3 Taking two paragraphs from a classmate’s essay, without citation. 4 Taking a graph from a textbook, giving the source. 5 Taking a quotation from a source, giving a citation but not using quotation marks. 6 Using something that you think of as general knowledge, e.g. large areas of rainforest have been cut down in recent years. 7 Using a paragraph from an essay you wrote and had marked the previous semester, without citation. 8 Using the results of your own research, e.g. from a survey, without citation. 9 Discussing an essay topic with a group of classmates and using some of their ideas in your own work. 10 Giving a citation for some information but mis-spelling the author’s name. This exercise shows that plagiarism can be accidental. For example, situation (10) above, when the author’s name is mis-spelt, is technically plagiarism but really carelessness. In situation (9) your teacher may have encouraged you to discuss the topic in groups, and then write an essay on your own, in which case it would not be plagiarism. Self-plagiarism is also theoretically possible, as in situation (7). It can be difficult to decide what is general or common knowledge (situation 6), but you can always try asking colleagues. 33 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.3 Avoiding plagiarism However, it is not a good excuse to say that you didn’t know the rules of plagiarism, or that you didn’t have time to write in your own words. Nor is it adequate to say that the rules are different in your own country. In general, anything that is not common knowledge or your own ideas and research (published or not) must be cited and referenced. 4 Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing Quotations should not be over-used, so you must learn to paraphrase and summarise in order to include other writers’ ideas in your work. This will demonstrate your understanding of a text to your teachers. • Paraphrasing involves re-writing a text so that the language is substantially different while the content stays the same. • Summarising means reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points. 䉴 See Units 1.6 Paraphrasing and 1.7 Summarising Normally both skills are used at the same time, as can be seen in the examples below. I Read the following text and then compare the five paragraphs below, which use ideas and information from it. Decide which are plagiarised and which are acceptable, and give your reasons in the table. 4.1 RAILWAY MANIAS In 1830 there were a few dozen miles of railways in all the world – chiefly consisting of the line from Liverpool to Manchester. By 1840 there were over 4,500 miles, by 1850 over 23,500. Most of them were projected in a few bursts of speculative frenzy known as the ‘railway manias’ of 1835–7 and especially in 1844–7; most of them were built in large part with British capital, British iron, machines and know-how. These investment booms appear irrational, because in fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise, most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all: in 1855 the average interest on capital sunk in the British railways was a mere 3.7 per cent. (From The Age of Revolution by Eric Hobsbawm, 1995, p. 45) 34 Part 1 The writing process (a) Between 1830 and 1850 there was very rapid development in railway construction worldwide. Two periods of especially feverish growth were 1835–7 and 1844–7. It is hard to understand the reason for this intense activity, since railways were not particularly profitable investments and some produced no return at all. (Hobsbawm, 1995: 45) (b) There were only a few dozen miles of railways in 1830, including the Liverpool to Manchester line. But by 1840 there were over 4,500 miles and over 23,500 by 1850. Most of them were built in large part with British capital, British iron, machines and know-how, and most of them were projected in a few bursts of speculative frenzy known as the ‘railway manias’ of 1835–7 and especially in 1844–7. Because most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all these investment booms appear irrational. In fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise. (Hobsbawm, 1995: 45) (c) As Hobsbawm (1995) argues, nineteenth-century railway mania was partly irrational: ‘because in fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise, most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all: in 1855 the average interest on capital sunk in the British railways was a mere 3.7 per cent.’ (Hobsbawm, 1995: 45) (d) Globally, railway networks increased dramatically from 1830 to 1850; the majority in short periods of ‘mania’ (1835–7 and 1844–7). British technology and capital were responsible for much of this growth, yet the returns on the investment were hardly any better than comparable business opportunities. (Hobsbawm, 1895: 45) (e) The dramatic growth of railways between 1830 and 1850 was largely achieved using British technology. However, it has been claimed that much of this development was irrational because few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise; most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all. 35 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.3 Avoiding plagiarism Plagiarised or acceptable? a b c d e 5 Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits Few students deliberately try to cheat by plagiarising, but some develop poor study habits that result in the risk of plagiarism. I Working with a partner, add to the list of positive habits. • Plan your work carefully so you don’t have to write the essay at the last minute. • Take care to make notes in your own words, not copying from the source. • Keep a record of all the sources you use (e.g. author, date, title, page numbers, publisher). • Make sure your in-text citations are all included in the list of references. • __________________________________________________________ • __________________________________________________________ 6 Research Does your college or university have a policy on plagiarism? Look on the website to find out. It may raise some issues that you want to discuss with colleagues or your teachers. If you can’t find anything for your institution try one of these sites: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ http://uefap.com/writing/plagiar/plagfram.htm From 1.4 understanding titles to planning CHAPTER In both exams and coursework it is essential for students to understand what an essay title is asking them to do. A plan can then be prepared, which should ensure the question is answered fully, while preventing time being wasted. This unit looks at: • • • key words in titles brainstorming ideas alternative methods of essay planning 1 The planning process Although teachers frequently complain that students do not answer the question set, this problem can be avoided by more care at the start of the process. Planning is necessary with all academic writing, but clearly there are important differences between planning in exams, when time is short, and for coursework, when preparatory reading is required. However, in both cases the process of planning should include these three steps: (a) Analyse the title wording and decide what is required. (b) Brainstorm the topic to focus your ideas. (c) Prepare an outline using your preferred method. 37 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.4 From understanding titles to planning With coursework your outline will probably be revised as you read around the topic. 䉴 See Unit 4.5 Writing longer essays 2 Analysing essay titles Titles contain key words that tell the student what to do. Note that titles often have two (or more) parts: ‘What is meant by a demand curve and why would we expect it to slope downwards?’ In this case ‘what’ is asking for a description and ‘why’ for a reason or explanation. I Match the key words on the left to the definitions on the right. Analyse Explain a topic briefly and clearly Assess (Evaluate) Deal with a complex subject by reducing it to the main elements Describe Divide into sections and discuss each critically Discuss Break down into the various parts and their relationships Examine (Explore) Illustrate Make a proposal and support it Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefits and drawbacks Outline (Trace) Give a detailed account of something State Give a simple, basic account of the main points of a topic Suggest Give examples Summarise Decide the value or worth of a subject Part 1 The writing process 38 3 Practice I Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what they are asking you to do. (a) How and why has the market for international tourism segmented since the middle of the twentieth century? What are the economic and social forces that have driven this process? (b) Describe some of the reasons why patients do not always take their medication as directed. (c) How can psychology contribute to the reduction of bullying behaviour in schools? (d) Is there a move towards subjectivity in criminal law? Should there be? (e) Discuss the response of buildings and soil to earthquakes, indicating what measures can be used to ensure structural stability. 4 Brainstorming It is often helpful to start thinking about a topic by writing down any ideas you have, in any order. Taking the example from (3a), you might collect the following points: International tourism – segmentation of market How and why: • • • • Package holidays made foreign holidays popular Internet allows travellers to plan own holidays In 60s jet aircraft permit faster travel – long and short haul holidays In 90s budget airlines lower costs – short breaks Economic and political forces: • • • Rising disposable incomes permit more spending on travel Developing countries see tourism as route to growth Older, retired people spend more on travel 39 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.4 From understanding titles to planning I Working with a partner, brainstorm ideas for the title below. What are the benefits of learning a second language at primary school (age 6–10)? Are there any drawbacks to early language learning? 5 Essay length Coursework essays usually have a required length, normally between 1,000 and 5,000 words. You must keep to this limit, although deviations of 5 per cent more or less are generally acceptable. However, at the planning stage you need to consider what proportion of the essay to allocate to each part of the question. As a basic guide, 20 per cent is usually sufficient for the introduction and conclusion together (references are not included in the word count). Therefore, in a 2,000 word essay the main body would have 1,600 words. If this was the length given for title (3a) above, you might decide on the following allocation: Segmentation of the market for international tourism – how 300 words – why 500 words Economic forces 400 words Social forces 400 words Total 1,600 words Part 1 The writing process 40 This calculation is useful since it can guide the amount of reading you need to do, as well as providing the basis for an outline. Moreover, it prevents you from writing an unbalanced answer, in which part of the question is not fully dealt with. Essays in exams do not have a word limit, but it is equally important to plan them in similar terms, e.g. part 1 40 per cent, part 2 60 per cent. I Identify the key words in the following titles and decide what percentage of the main body to give to each part. Title Part 1 (%) (a) Describe the typical social, cultural and environmental impacts experienced by tourist destinations in developing countries. How can harmful impacts be reduced or avoided? (b) How can schools make better use of IT (information technology)? Illustrate your answer with examples. (c) Outline the main difficulties in combating malaria. Suggest possible strategies for more effective anti-malaria campaigns. (d) What is ‘donor fatigue’ in international aid and how can it be overcome? 6 Outlines An outline should help the writer to answer the question as effectively as possible. Care at this stage will save wasted effort later. The more detail you include in your outline, the easier the writing process will be. Note that for coursework it is usually better to write the main body first, then the introduction and finally the conclusion. Therefore you may prefer to outline just the main body at this stage. There is no fixed pattern for an outline; different methods appeal to different students. For example, with first part of title (5a) above: ‘Describe the typical social, cultural and environmental impacts experienced by tourist destinations in developing countries.’ Part 2 (%) 41 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.4 From understanding titles to planning (a) The outline might be a list: (i) Social impacts • increase in variety of jobs available • price inflation • new range of business opportunities (ii) Cultural impacts • new patterns of dress and behaviour may cause problems • market for traditional crafts and/or rituals grows (iii) Environmental impacts • increased pressure on limited resources, e.g. water • loss of natural habitat to building projects • provision of new infrastructure, e.g. roads (b) An alternative is a mind map: Increase in variety of jobs available Social impacts New range of business opportunities Price inflation Market for traditional crafts and/or rituals grows Cultural impacts New patterns of dress and behaviour may cause problems Increased pressure on limited resources e.g. water Loss of natural habitat to building projects Environmental impacts Provision of new infrastructure e.g. roads Part 1 The writing process 42 I (i) What are the advantages and drawbacks of each method? I (ii) Prepare an outline for the second part of the same title, using either method: ‘How can harmful impacts be reduced or avoided?’ Outline 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 Finding key 1.5 points and note-making CHAPTER After finding a suitable source and identifying relevant sections of text, the next step is to select the key points that relate to your topic and make notes on them. This unit explains and practises this process, which also involves skills developed in Units 1.6 Paraphrasing and 1.7 Summarising. 1 Why make notes? I What are the main reasons for note-making? Add to the list below. (a) To prepare for essay writing __________________________________________________________ (b) __________________________________________________________ (c) __________________________________________________________ (d) __________________________________________________________ (e) __________________________________________________________ Part 1 The writing process 44 2 Note-making methods I You are looking for information on the current media revolution. Study the text below (key points underlined) and the notes in the box. What do you notice about the language of the notes? 2.1 THE DEATH OF THE PRESS? A hundred years ago news was exclusively provided by newspapers. There was no other way of supplying the latest information on politics, crime, finance or sport to the millions of people who bought and read newspapers, sometimes twice a day. Today the situation is very different. The same news is also available on television, radio and the internet, and because of the nature of these media, can be more up-to-date than in print. For young people especially, the internet has become the natural source of news and comment. This development means that in many countries newspaper circulation is falling, and a loss of readers also means a fall in advertising, which is the main income for most papers. Consequently, in both Britain and the USA newspapers are closing every week. But when a local newspaper goes out of business an important part of the community is lost. It allows debate on local issues, as well as providing a noticeboard for events such as weddings and society meetings. All newspapers are concerned by these developments, and many have tried to find methods of increasing their sales. One approach is to focus on magazine-type articles rather than news, another is to give free gifts such as DVDs, while others have developed their own websites to provide continuous news coverage. However, as so much is now freely available online to anyone with a web browser, none of these have had a significant impact on the steady decline of paid-for newspapers. (Source: New Business Monthly, May 2010, p. 37) 45 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.5 Finding key points and note-making (New Business Monthly, May 2010, p. 37) Decline of newspapers a) Newspapers only source of news 100 yrs ago – now also TV, radio + www b) Newspaper sales > decline in advertising > newspapers shutting c) Attempts to increase sales: – more magazine content – gifts – websites but none effective. 3 Finding key points I Read the following text and underline two key points. Then choose a title for the paragraph. Title: _______________________________________________________ 3.1 The generation born after the second world war, sometimes called the baby-boomers, are now reaching retirement age, and businesses are starting to realise that they are a wealthier market than any previous retirement group. Financial products, travel and medicines are well-established industries which interest the over-60s, but others are now focusing on this age group. Volkswagen, for instance, has produced a car with raised seats and more interior space to appeal to their tastes. In Japan, with its ageing population, companies have more experience of selling to the retired, and have been successful with unusual products such as a robotic seal, which serves as a pet substitute for the lonely. There are, however, certain difficulties in selling to this market. Some customers resent being addressed as ‘old’ since they see themselves as more youthful, while there is a huge variation in the profile of the baby boomers, ranging from healthy and active to the bed-ridden and infirm. Part 1 The writing process 46 4 Finding relevant points When preparing to write an essay you have to search for information and ideas relevant to your subject. Therefore the key points that you select must relate to that topic. You are given an essay title: ‘Does the state have a role in promoting public health?’ I Read the following article and underline the key points that relate to your essay topic. 4.1 A SLIMMER AMERICA? Currently over two-thirds of Americans are believed to be either overweight or obese, but recently it has been discovered that the situation may have stabilised. The rate of increase appears to have virtually stopped, so that on average women and children weigh no more now than they did ten years ago. This trend may have important consequences for the health care system: according to a recent study (Finkelstein et al., 2009) an obese American is likely to cost the system over 40 per cent more than someone with normal weight. This is due to the increased risks of medical conditions such as diabetes, to which should be added extra costs connected with illness and resulting absence from work. Until recently it was assumed that the long-term trend would continue so that ultimately all Americans would become overweight; Wang (2008) had estimated that this would happen by 2048. Obviously, such an assumption implies steadily rising medical insurance costs. If the new trend continues there are clear benefits for public health and the associated finances, but medical researchers still struggle to understand the basic causes of the problem, which is that obesity in America is now three times greater than fifty years ago. There is substantial evidence that obesity is linked to social class: those with irregular and badly paid employment are more likely to eat what is convenient and tasty rather than have the time or energy to organise a healthy diet. The number of people in this category may have risen in recent years. Another possibility is that food now is cheaper relative to income, while free time is more valuable, so continued . . . 47 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.5 Finding key points and note-making cont. people are attracted to consuming convenient but often unhealthy fast food. In addition, washing machines and other devices mean that fewer calories are used in doing domestic chores around the house. Although valid, these factors apply in many other countries where the same growth in obesity has not been seen. Recent years have certainly seen more pressure for informative food labelling and campaigns to encourage school children to eat more fruit and vegetables. Although Americans often dislike being told what to do by their government, these campaigns may finally be having an effect. Certainly about a third of the population attempt a slimming programme every year, and although many give up it appears that the number of people who succeed may be rising. (Herapath, T. (2010) Journal of Transatlantic Contexts 14, 319) 5 Effective note-making Notes are for your personal use so you should create your own style. (a) You must use your own words and not copy phrases from the original to avoid the risk of plagiarism. The quantity of notes you make depends on your task: you may only need a few points, or a lot of detail. (b) Always record the source of your notes, to save time when you have to write the list of references. (c) Notes are written quickly, so keep them simple. Do not write sentences. Leave out articles (a/ the) and prepositions (of/ to). (d) If you write lists, it is important to have clear headings (underlined) and numbering systems (a, b, c, or 1, 2, 3,) to organise the information. Do not crowd your notes. (e) Use symbols (+, >, = ) to save time. (f) Use abbreviations (e.g. = for example). You need to make up your own abbreviations for your subject area. But do not abbreviate too much, or you may find your notes hard to understand in the future! 䉴 See Unit 3.1 Abbreviations Part 1 The writing process 48 6 Practice A I Complete the notes for ‘Does the state have a role in promoting public health?’ using the key points underlined in (4) above. Source: (Herapath, T. (2010) Journal of Transatlantic Contexts 14, 319) Have Americans stopped getting fatter? (1) 2/3 Americans overweight, but lately growth in obesity seems to have stopped (2) May reduce future healthcare costs (obesity adds 40 per cent to medical expenses – Finkelstein et al., 2009) (3) (4) (5) 7 Practice B You have to write an essay titled: ‘Improving student performance: an outline of recent research.’ I Read the following text and make notes on the relevant key points. 7.1 SLEEP AND MEMORY In many countries, especially in hot climates, it is the custom to take a short sleep in the afternoon, often known as a siesta. Now it appears that this habit helps to improve the ability to remember and therefore to learn. Researchers have known for some time that new memories are stored short-term in an area of the brain called the hippocampus, but are then transferred to the pre-frontal cortex for continued . . . 49 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.5 Finding key points and note-making cont. long-term storage. They now believe that this transfer process occurs during a kind of sleep called stage 2 non-REM sleep. After this has occurred the brain is better able to take in new information, and having a sleep of about 100 minutes after lunch seems to be an effective way to permit this. Research by a team from the University of California sought to confirm this theory. They wanted to establish that a short sleep would restore the brain’s ability to learn. A group of about 40 people were asked to take part in two ‘lessons’; at 12 noon and 6 pm. Half the volunteers were put in a group which stayed awake all day, while the others were encouraged to sleep for an hour and a half after the first session. It was found that in the second lesson the second group were better at remembering what they had learnt, which indicates that the siesta had helped to refresh their short-term memories. The most effective siesta seems to consist of three parts: roughly 30 minutes of light sleep to rest the body, followed by 30 minutes of stage 2 sleep which clears the hippocampus, and finally 30 minutes of REM sleep which is when dreams are experienced: possibly as a result of the new memories being processed as they are stored in the pre-frontal cortex. This process is believed to be so valuable that some researchers argue that a siesta can be as beneficial as a full night’s sleep. (Kitschelt, P. (2006) How the Brain Works. Berlin: Freihaus, p.73) @ Note-making> Paraphrasing 1.6 CHAPTER Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text so that it is significantly different from the original source, without changing the meaning. Effective paraphrasing is a key academic skill needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism: it demonstrates your understanding of a source. This unit focuses on techniques for paraphrasing as part of the note-making and summarising process. 1 The elements of effective paraphrasing Paraphrasing and summarising are normally used together in essay writing, but while summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to restate the relevant information. For example, the following sentence: There has been much debate about the reasons for the industrial revolution happening in eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany. could be paraphrased: Why the industrial revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on the continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion. 51 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.6 Paraphrasing Note that an effective paraphrase usually: • has a different structure to the original • has mainly different vocabulary • retains the same meaning • keeps some phrases from the original that are in common use e.g. ‘industrial revolution’ or ‘eighteenth century’ 2 Practice A I Read the text below and then evaluate the three paraphrases (1=best), giving reasons. 2.1 THE CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Allen (2009) argues that the best explanation for the British location of the industrial revolution is found by studying demand factors. By the early eighteenth century high wages and cheap energy were both features of the British economy. Consequently, the mechanisation of industry through such inventions as the steam engine and mechanical spinning was profitable because employers were able to economise on labour by spending on coal. At that time, no other country had this particular combination of expensive labour and abundant fuel. (a) A focus on demand may help to explain the UK origin of the industrial revolution. At that time workers’ pay was high, but energy from coal was inexpensive. This encouraged the development of mechanical inventions based on steam power, which enabled bosses to save money by mechanising production (Allen, 2009). (b) The reason why Britain was the birthplace of the industrial revolution can be understood by analysing demand in the early 1700s, according to Allen (2009). He maintains that, Part 1 The writing process 52 uniquely, Britain had the critical combination of cheap energy from coal and high labour costs. This encouraged the adoption of steam power to mechanise production, thus saving on wages and increasing profitability. (c) Allen (2009) claims that the clearest explanation for the UK location of the industrial revolution is seen by examining demand factors. By the eighteenth century cheap energy and high wages were both aspects of the British economy. As a result, the mechanisation of industry through inventions such as the steam engine and mechanical spinning was profitable because employers were able to save money on employees by spending on coal. At that time, Britain was the only country with significant deposits of coal. a b c 3 Techniques for paraphrasing (a) Changing vocabulary by using synonyms: argues > claims/ eighteenth century > 1700s/ wages > labour costs/ economise > saving NB. Do not attempt to paraphrase every word, since some have no true synonym, e.g. demand, economy, energy (b) Changing word class: explanation (n.) > explain (v.) / mechanical (adj.) > mechanise (v.) / profitable (adj.) > profitability (n.) (c) Changing word order: . . . the best explanation for the British location of the industrial revolution is found by studying demand factors. > A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the industrial revolution. 䉴 See Units 3.2 Academic vocabulary and 3.11 Synonyms 53 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.6 Paraphrasing 4 Practice B I Read the following text and then practise the techniques illustrated above. 4.1 FOUR WHEELS GOOD The growth of the car industry parallels the development of modern capitalism. It began in France and Germany, but took off in the United States. There Henry Ford adapted the moving production line from the Chicago meat industry to motor manufacturing, thus inventing mass production. In the 1920s Alfred Sloan’s management theories helped General Motors to become the world’s dominant car company. After the second world war the car makers focused on the styling of their products to encourage more frequent model changes. From the 1970s there was criticism of the industry due to the inefficiency of most vehicles, which used petrol wastefully. At the same time, trades unions became increasingly militant in defence of their members’ jobs. Today the industry owns some of the most famous brands in the world. However, many car makers are currently threatened by increased competition and saturated markets. I (a) Find synonyms for the words underlined. (i) The growth of the car industry parallels the development of modern capitalism. Example: The rise of the automobile industry matches the progress of contemporary capitalism. (ii) It began in France and Germany, but took off in the United States. (iii) There Henry Ford adapted the moving production line from the Chicago meat industry to motor manufacturing, thus inventing mass production. Part 1 The writing process 54 I (b) Change the word class of the underlined words, and then re-write the sentences. (i) In the 1920s Alfred Sloan’s management theories helped General Motors to become the world’s dominant car company. Example: In the 1920s, with help from the managerial theories of Alfred Sloan, General Motors dominated the world’s car companies. (ii) After the second world war the car makers focused on the styling of their products, to encourage more frequent model changes. (iii) From the 1970s there was criticism of the industry due to the inefficiency of most vehicles, which used petrol wastefully. I (c) Change the word order of the following sentences (other changes may be needed). (i) At the same time, trades unions became increasingly militant in defence of their members’ jobs. Example: At the same time increasingly militant trades unions defended their members’ jobs. (ii) Today the industry owns some of the most famous brands in the world. (iii) However, many car makers are currently threatened by increased competition and saturated markets. I (d) Combine all these techniques to paraphrase the paragraph as fully as possible. 55 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.6 Paraphrasing 5 Practice C I Use the same techniques to paraphrase the following text. 5.1 THE PAST BELOW THE WAVES More than three million shipwrecks are believed to lie on the seabed, the result of storms and accidents during thousands of years of sea-borne trading. These wrecks offer marine archaeologists valuable information about the culture, technology and trade patterns of ancient civilisations, but the vast majority have been too deep to research. Scuba divers can only operate down to 50 metres, which limits operations to wrecks near the coast, which have often been damaged by storms or plant growth. A few deep sea sites (such as the Titanic) have been explored by manned submarines, but this kind of equipment has been too expensive for less famous subjects. However, this situation has been changed by the introduction of a new kind of mini submarine: the automatic underwater vehicle (AUV). This cheap, small craft is free moving and does not need an expensive mother-ship to control it. Now a team of American archaeologists are planning to use an AUV to explore an area of sea north of Egypt which was the approach to a major trading port 4,000 years ago. @ Paraphrasing> Summarising 1.7 CHAPTER Making oral summaries is a common activity, for example when describing a film or a book. In academic writing it is a vital skill, allowing the writer to condense lengthy sources into a concise form. Like most skills it becomes easier with practice, and this unit explains the basic steps needed to achieve an accurate summary. 1 What makes a good summary? I Write a summary of one of the topics below in no more than 20 words. (a) One of your parents (b) A town or city you know well (c) A film you have recently watched 57 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 62222 7 82 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 36222 1.7 Summarising I Compare your summary with others in your class. What is needed for a good summary? • ____________________________________________________________ • ____________________________________________________________ • ________________________...
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