Q Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2017, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2013.0335 ........................................................................................................................................................................ A Study of Anglo Expatriate Managers’ Learning, Knowledge Acquisition, and Adjustment in Multinational Companies in China STEVEN J. ARMSTRONG University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom YAN LI Xiamen University, Xiamen, China This study investigates Anglo expatriate managers’ learning, knowledge acquisition, and adjustment to the host culture when working within Anglo multinational companies operating in China. A structural equation model based on data from 121 expatriate managers reveals that Anglo managers adjust more effectively when their learning styles are congruent with the demands of the host culture. Their levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge and adaptive flexibility were also associated with their learning styles, which in turn led to more effective adjustment to the host culture. Implications for theory, global manager development, and expatriate management are provided. ........................................................................................................................................................................ Gregersen, 2005). These problems are exacerbated by an increasing need for expatriate managers. For example, recent studies have revealed that there are more than 65,000 MNCs with over 850,000 foreign subsidiaries operating globally (Colakoglu & Caligiuri, 2008), and numbers are expected to continue to grow steadily (UNCTAD, 2012). Clearly this shift to a global outlook for many MNCs is contingent on having an adequate number of global managers to staff the anticipated growth. There is also an increasing need to use expatriate managers relocated overseas in leadership positions to impact future success of MNCs (Harvey & Moeller, 2009). The usefulness of expatriate managers in emerging markets is inevitable because of the strategic roles these managers play and the severe shortage of local talent within these economies (Lenartowicz & Johnson, 2007). The impact of successful international assignments is also known to be beneficial for both A growing influx of foreign investment in emerging markets is driving increasing demand for global managers with the capabilities required to manage in culturally, economically, and institutionally diverse locations (Li & Scullion, 2010). Multinational corporations (MNCs) have known for some time that it is imperative to attract, develop, and retain managers who can live and work effectively outside of their own national borders for periods that often span several years (Caligiuri, 2000). However, recruiting candidates remains a significant challenge because few employees willingly accept international mobility (Mol, Born, Willemsen, & Van der Molen, 2005) and many that do return early for various reasons, including difficulties in adapting to host cultures (Stroh, Black, Mendenhall, & Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Yan Li, School of Management, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China, Email:liyangigi@xmu.edu.cn 1 Copyright of the Academy of Management, all rights reserved. Contents may not be copied, emailed, posted to a listserv, or otherwise transmitted without the copyright holder’s express written permission. Users may print, download, or email articles for individual use only. 2 Academy of Management Learning & Education organizational success and individual career progression (Dickmann & Doherty, 2008). For example, organizations led by CEOs with international experience perform better financially (Carpenter, Sanders, & Gregersen, 2001), and the managers themselves attest to living and working abroad as the most powerful experience in developing their career capital (Dickmann & Doherty, 2008). However, managing international assignments is both challenging and complex for organizations (Shaffer, Harrison, Gregersen, Black, & Ferzandi, 2006), and despite several decades of research, there is still widespread evidence that expatriate managers in MNCs perform poorly overseas, and that their inability to function effectively can be detrimental to an MNCs’ global business (Johnson, Lenartowicz, & Apud, 2006; Harvey & Moeller, 2009). The causes of failure are numerous and complex (Cole, 2011), but a key factor identified in the literature is a lack of cultural knowledge on the part of international managers (Lenartowicz, Johnson, & Konopaske, 2014). This can be costly for an MNC in terms of both direct (Vogel & van Vuuren, 2008) and indirect costs of reduced productivity, damaged relationships, and lost opportunities that can be more costly in the long term (Dowling, Festing, & Engle, 2013). A high risk of repatriate turnover has also been reported (Furuya, Stevens, Bird, Oddou, & Mendenhall, 2009), which suggests that MNCs may not always be able to capitalize on benefits of international assignments once the assignee repatriates. The factors that determine whether employees with international assignment experience choose to remain with their organizations are unclear. Understanding this phenomenon is becoming a priority for MNCs (Reiche, Kraimer, & Harzing, 2011), because a key motive is not only to accomplish a specific task during the assignment, but also to contribute to the long-term development of both individual talent and the larger organization (Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, & Lepak, 2005). For these reasons, international HR practitioners and management researchers alike are interested in evaluating international assignments and understanding how to best predict individuals who can live and work successfully in cross-national settings (Caligiuri, 2000) and subsequently be retained by the organization. Previous research indicates considerable variation in criteria used to evaluate the success of expatriate assignments. Three common criteria are cross-cultural adjustment, performance on the global assignment, and completion of the assignment (Caligiuri, 2000). Cross-cultural adjustment has been argued to be the antecedent of both March performance and completion of the assignment (Furuya et al., 2009). Given that these are both important for MNCs, a better understanding of the factors that impact cross-cultural adjustment is necessary. Organizational interventions for enhancing crosscultural adjustment range from didactic training programs to intensive cultural experiences gained from international assignments (Caligiuri, 2006). The latter are aimed at cultivating individuals to think more globally by exposing them to the challenges of living and working in a foreign environment (Leung, Maddux, Galinsky, & Chiu, 2008), and the topic has an established pedigree in the international human resource management research literature. Cultural knowledge in emerging markets has been argued to have a special nature in that it is highly tacit (Lenartowicz et al., 2014) and fast-changing, and its acquisition will depend on intensive socialized activities and experiences in the host culture (Li & Scullion, 2010). Expatriation success will hinge on how well expatriate managers learn from their experiences (Ng, Dyne, & Ang, 2009), and the knowledge acquired is deemed to be an underestimated strategic outcome in the study of expatriate adjustment (Hocking, Brown, & Harzing, 2004). However, few studies have researched management learning and knowledge acquisition in the context of cross-cultural adjustment (Yamazaki, 2005). This is despite assertions that different learning strategies may be required for effective adaptation in various host cultures (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007); tacit knowledge is known to be one factor that distinguishes successful managers from others (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008); culture is believed to shape peoples’ preferred modes of learning (Yamazaki, 2010), and is argued to be one of the most powerful socialization agents that impact on individuals’ styles of learning (De Vita, 2001; Lenartowicz et al., 2014). Given the dearth of globally successful professionals, it is important for organizations to more fully understand how managers learn and develop as a function of their international experiences. Our work here seeks to examine in detail how expatriate adjustment to a host culture and the acquisition of managerial tacit knowledge are influenced by different approaches to learning. It does this through the lens of experiential learning theory. THEORY DEVELOPMENT AND HYPOTHESES Expatriate Adjustment Expatriate adjustment to international assignments involves significant changes to the work that individuals perform and requires them to deal with 2017 Armstrong and Li unfamiliar norms that often lead to expatriates returning home prematurely (McGinley, 2008). The range of failure of expatriate managers, typically between 20 and 40%, is known to lead to high direct and indirect costs for MNCs (Dowling et al., 2013). Further costs of an implicit nature occur when expatriate managers remain in their overseas assignments despite underperforming, leading to damage of an organization’s reputation, relationships, and performance (Harzing, 1995). These issues are of particular concern to MNCs because damage to reputation in key strategic foreign markets detrimentally affects their prospects of developing international business relationships (Athanassiou & Nigh, 2000). There are also considerable costs for managers themselves, including loss of selfesteem, self-confidence, and reputation (Dowling et al., 2013). Given the increasing needs for expatriate managers in developing countries where the economic and cultural distance will be greater than in developed countries, problems with adapting to the host culture are likely to be even more significant (Aycan et al., 2000; Haslberger, 2005). More research is therefore needed to enhance our understanding of the reasons for expatriate failure (Reiche et al., 2011), particularly in non-Western contexts, such as China (Selmer, 2006). Previous research has revealed a multitude of reasons for expatriate failure, but the one that has been historically identified as the primary reason is related to expatriates’ inability to adjust to foreign environments (Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Okpara & Kabongo, 2011; Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley, 1999; Takeuchi et al., 2005). The adjustment model proposed by Black, Mendenhall, and Oddou (1991) is regarded as the most influential treatment of expatriate experiences and represents a context-specific reflection of the stressor–stress–strain sequence (Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005). Research on expatriate adjustment based on this model has generally focused on three facets: general or cultural adjustment related to comfort associated with general living conditions; interaction adjustment related to comfort associated with interacting with host country nationals; and work adjustment related to comfort associated with the assignment of job or tasks. In a meta-analytic study, Hechanova, Beehr, and Christiansen (2003) sought to determine a range of variables that predict the development of expatriate adjustment across all three facets. Self-efficacy, frequency of interaction with host nationals, and family support consistently predicted all three types 3 of adjustment. Bhaskar-Shrinivas and colleagues (2005) further extended theory by demonstrating that adjustment has reliable implications for psychological strains and bottom-line outcomes, including task- and relationship-based outcomes. They concluded that although expatriate adjustment is sensitive to many stressors, we do now have a much clearer knowledge about temporal patterns, inputs to, and outputs from adjustment. Armed with that knowledge, they suggest that researchers should now focus on contextual variables that might mitigate or exacerbate adjustment problems for the steadily increasing number of individuals sent on international assignments. This is because after 3 decades of research and prescription there is still widespread evidence that a significant number of managers in MNCs perform poorly overseas (Cornelius & Debner, 2011). Lack of cultural knowledge is cited as a frequent source of failure (Lenartowicz et al., 2014). Although knowledge is believed to be a product of learning from experience (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995), there is a dearth of research on the learning context and how cultural knowledge is created and diffused in MNCs. This is a primary purpose of our research here. Although it is commonly held that expatriate managers engage in extensive learning during their overseas assignments (Osland, Bird, Mendenhall, & Osland, 2006), there is scant empirical research on what they have learned or on what factors may affect their learning (Furuya et al., 2009). Undoubtedly, international assignments provide an ideal opportunity for expatriates to learn and develop the necessary skills for adapting to challenging new environments (Farh, Bartol, Shapiro, & Shin, 2010). However, newcomers find themselves in unfamiliar territory, and they must adapt by accessing a wide range of knowledge about the local culture and language, the local business setting, and the local interpersonal communication networks (Hocking, Brown, & Harzing, 2007). Recent studies (e.g., Lenartowicz et al., 2014; Maertz, Hassan, & Magnusson, 2009) have highlighted the importance of experiential-learning theories for developing and exhibiting culturally appropriate behaviors to fit with the host culture. Learning is a critical process of human adaptation and leads to acquisition of new knowledge and development of skills through interaction with the immediate environment (Boyatzis & Kolb, 1995). Success of intercultural adjustment has also been linked to person–environment fit (Armstrong & Cools, 2009). In the context of learning, the fit between an 4 Academy of Management Learning & Education individual’s learning style and the work context has been shown to positively influence the accumulation of managerial tacit knowledge (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008) and cultural intelligence in global leaders (Li, Mobley, & Kelly, 2013). A recent examination of expatriate adjustment (Yamazaki, 2010) highlighted the importance of Kolb’s (1984) experiential-learning theory (ELT), deemed by others to be an appropriate theoretical lens through which to examine how cultural knowledge is acquired (Fowler & Blohm, 2004; Yamazaki & Kayes, 2004). Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) ELT defines learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (Kolb, 1984: 41). The theory builds on the foundational work of other prominent scholars, such as Jung (1923), Dewey (1938), and Lewin (1951), who gave experience a central role in their theories of human learning. ELT remains one of the most pervasive theories about how managers learn from experience (Li et al., 2013) and represents “a dynamic, holistic model of the process of learning from experience and a multi-linear model of adult development” (Kolb & Kolb, 2009: 43). The theory is based on a learning cycle driven by the resolution of two dialectically related modes of grasping experience (Concrete Experience versus Abstract Conceptualization) and two dialectically related modes of transforming experience (Reflective Observation versus Active Experimentation). Experiential learning is “a process of constructing knowledge that March involves a creative tension among these four learning modes that is responsive to cultural demands” (Kolb & Kolb, 2009: 44). Figure 1 depicts Kolb’s (1984) 4-stage cycle, a recursive process that is responsive to the leaning situation. Concrete experiences (CE) are the basis for reflections and observations (RO) on those experiences. Those reflections are assimilated into abstract concepts (AC) leading to development of new theory from which new implications for action can be drawn. These implications and new theories are then tested through active experimentation (AE). This stage both completes the cycle of learning and ensures it begins afresh by assisting the creation of new experiences (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). When grasping new experiences, learners with a strong preference for CE rely on the tangible and immediately felt qualities of the experience, whereas those with a strong preference for AC rely on conceptual interpretation and symbolic representation of the experience. When transforming new experiences, learners with a strong preference for RO transform through internal processing, whereas those with a strong preference for AE transform through actual manipulation of the external world. Possession of all four abilities indicated by the four poles of the model is critical for effective learning, but in reality, few individuals are equally strong on CE, RO, AC, and AE. Most people develop strengths in one or two of these due to their environment, past experiences, and their hereditary equipment (Kolb, 1984). This led to the development of learning styles to explain these phenomena. The two distinct dimensions of grasping (AC-CE) and transforming (AE-RO) experience are orthogonal FIGURE 1 Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Cycle 2017 Armstrong and Li and form four quadrants that lead to different learning styles depending on the learner’s preference for employing different phases of the learning cycle (Figure 1). The diverging learning style specializes in CE (feeling) and RO (reflecting), while the converging learning style specializes in AC (thinking) and AE (acting). The assimilating learning style specializes in AC and RO, whereas the accommodating learning style specializes in CE and AE. Cultural Influences on Learning Styles Interests in studying management in non-Anglo cultures has increased rapidly in recent decades (Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, & House, 2012), and the most common research approach has been to explain cross-cultural differences in terms of differences in cultural values. Cultural values are those likely to be internalized by managers who grow up in a particular culture, and these values will influence their behavior in ways that may not be conscious (Fu & Yukl, 2000). Cultural norms specify acceptable forms of behavior and may be formalized as social laws limiting the use of power. When managers engage in overseas assignments, they are likely to have to modify their behavior to conform to social norms about acceptable behavior in the host culture, even if they have not yet internalized those norms (Yukl, 2013). In a project spanning over 20 years, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project investigated the complex effects of culture on management (leadership) and organizational effectiveness (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). This led to Dorfman et al. (2012) to classify over 60 countries into 10 clusters (Anglo; Eastern Europe; Latin America; Latin Europe; Confucian Asia; Nordic Europe; SubSaharan Africa; Southern Asia; Germanic Europe; and the Middle East). These societal clusters accurately reflected differences in nine cultural value dimensions (Dorfman, Hanges, & Brodbeck, 2004; Gupta, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002), including some not identified in earlier research by Hofstede (1993). Our work here is focused on the Anglo (UK, Ireland, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South AfricaCaucasian) and Confucian cultures (China, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan) with management samples drawn from the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to represent the Anglo cluster and mainland China to represent the Confucian cluster. Culture also has an important influence on how people learn (Hayes & Allinson, 1988; Lee & Li, 2008). 5 Styles of learning result from the interplay between the person and the environment (Kolb, 1984). Previous research has shown that learning styles are influenced by culture of birth and residence (Kolb & Kolb, 2009) as well as other factors such as personality type, educational specialization, professional career, current job, and adaptive competencies (Kolb, 1984). With regard to cultural differences in learning styles, previous evidence has revealed that the diverging learning style—where managers prefer to grasp new experiences by relying on the tangible and immediately felt qualities of the experience (CE) and transform those experiences through internal processing (RO)— tends to dominate in Confucian cultures (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007). People with diverging learning styles have strong potential to understand what behaviors are appropriate in different cultural contexts (Phillion, 2002). However, because they are less inclined to take action, they may not be as proficient in applying these behaviors (Li et al., 2013). Conversely, the converging style of learning—where managers prefer to grasp new experiences by relying on conceptual interpretation and symbolic representation of the experience (AC), and transform those experiences through actual manipulation of the external world (AE)—tends to dominate in Anglo cultures. Other comparative studies of Confucian and Anglo societies have also demonstrated that learning styles are distinguishable in these ways across the two cultures (Pratt, 1991; Yamazaki, 2005). However, although diverging and converging learning styles tend to dominate Confucian and Anglo cultures respectively, learning styles can also vary within cultures due to a combination of disposition, personality type, educational specialization, career choice, current job role, and tasks (Kolb & Kolb, 2009). According to ELT, incongruence between individuals’ styles of learning and the norms of the learning environment may undermine their feelings of belonging, resulting in maladjustment (Kolb, 1984). Conversely, when peoples’ learning styles are matched with their work environment, they tend to learn more quickly (Dunn & Griggs, 2003), retain information for longer, experience increased satisfaction with the learning process, and accumulate higher levels of tacit knowledge (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008). A fit between an individual’s learning style and the work environment is therefore likely to lead to better adjustment. We therefore put forward the following congruence hypotheses: Hypothesis 1a: Anglo expatriate managers’ ACCE learning dimension is negatively related to their adjustment in China. 6 Academy of Management Learning & Education Hypothesis 1b: Anglo expatriate managers’ AERO learning dimension is negatively related to their adjustment in China. Although different learning styles tend to dominate particular cultures, individuals’ learning styles will converge within cultures through their socialization experiences to more closely match environmental demands (De Vita, 2001). Several empirical studies have supported this assertion (Auyeung & Sands, 1996; Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007; Yuen & Lee, 1994). From this evidence, we expect that expatriates’ learning styles will evolve according to the degree of change of learning orientation that is demanded by the host country (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2004). Furthermore, the longer the exposure to the environmental demands, the greater the tendency for a person to specialize even more in the learning style that is matched with such demands (Kolb, 1984). On the basis that learning styles will evolve over time according to the degree of change of learning orientation that is demanded by the local environment (Kolb & Kolb, 2009), we postulate that the length of time that Anglo expatriate managers have engaged in international assignments in China will be positively related to a shift in their learning orientations toward those favored by the host country (e.g., diverging). Thus, we hypothesize the following: Hypothesis 2a: The length of Anglo expatriate managers’ time in position in China is negatively related to their AC-CE learning dimension. Hypothesis 2b: The length of Anglo expatriate managers’ time in position in China is negatively related to their AE-RO learning dimension. Tacit Knowledge in Management Tacit knowledge is believed to be a product of learning from experience that affects performance in real-world settings (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). It is recognized as an essential element of expertise and has been shown to be important for success of individuals (Nestor-Baker, 1999) and for competitive advantage in organizations (Prahalad & Hamel, 1990). Previous authors (e.g., Simon, 1973; Baumard, 1999) attribute the origin of the construct to the science philosopher, Polanyi, who captured the meaning of tacit knowledge in his famous quote: “we can know more than we can tell” (1966: 4). Managerial tacit knowledge is believed to be March generated in the intimacy of lived personal experience (Baumard, 1999), guides actions and decisions without being in our field of consciousness (Anderson, 1983), and is believed to be an essential factor that distinguishes successful managers from others (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008; Wagner & Sternberg, 1987). A substantial amount of research has been undertaken into the nature of tacit knowledge in a variety of professions such as nursing (Herbig, Bussing, & Ewart, 2001); education (Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001); and management (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008) that have provided a valuable insight into its importance. However, one body of research into the nature of tacit knowledge is particularly noteworthy (e.g., Sternberg et al., 2000; Sternberg & Wagner, 1993; Wagner & Sternberg, 1985, 1987) because it provides a sound methodological basis from which tacit knowledge can be studied. Wagner and Sternberg’s (1985) study of the role of tacit knowledge in management demonstrated significant variations in both level and content of tacit knowledge between groups of managers. These variations were attributed to the fact that managers pass through their experiences differently, at different points in time, and in different contexts. Wagner (1987) argued that tacit knowledge is particularly important for managerial performance and success and broke down the construct into three categories: (1) maximizing self-performance and productivity (managing self); (2) working with and directing others (managing others); (3) establishing and enhancing self-reputation (managing task). Managing self, others, and task defines the scope of tacit knowledge based on the context of a given situation. The three categories of managing self, others, and task have become the core feature in the development of the Tacit Knowledge Inventory for Managers (Forsythe et al., 1998). This instrument uses the critical incident technique to measure tacit knowledge based on a sequence of scenarios. Each scenario depicts a work-related situation followed by a series of items that are relevant to handling that situation. Respondents are expected to read these items and then rate the quality of each item on a 7-point scale. This process is repeated for all scenarios and situations. These scenarios are designed to elicit different responses from different individuals. Experts are expected to respond differently from novices due to the content and organization of their tacit knowledge. Scoring of the Tacit Knowledge Inventory relies on comparisons of respondent scores for 2017 Armstrong and Li each item with the aggregate score of an expert group. This technique is often referred to as the “expert–novice comparison” (Wagner & Sternberg, 1985). Empirical research has consistently shown that the inventory is able to predict performance success in managers (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008; Sternberg & Wagner, 1993; Wagner & Sternberg, 1987). According to Sternberg et al. (2000), tacit knowledge may well lead to a performance advantage for some because “it is likely that some individuals will fail to acquire it” (p. 117). Although studies have consistently demonstrated differences in level and content of tacit knowledge between expert and novice groups (Tan & Libby, 1997; Nestor-Baker, 1999), few have accounted for why or how these differences occur. We are informed, however, that differences can be attributed to the context of the learning environment and differences in the way individuals prefer to engage in the learning process (Sternberg et al., 2000). Peoples’ national culture (Yamazaki, 2005; Yamazaki & Kayes, 2004); work environment (Choo, 1998); and individual learning styles (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008; Kolb & Kolb, 2005) have all been shown to influence the acquisition of tacit knowledge. When peoples’ learning styles are matched with their work environment, it has been demonstrated that they achieve significantly more learning outcomes in an educational context (Dunn & Griggs, 2003) and higher levels of managerial tacit knowledge in a management context (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008). Conversely, a mismatch between learning style and work context is likely to impede the process of learning and knowledge acquisition. Elaborating further on this person–culture congruence theory, individuals with a strong orientation toward the converging learning style would rather deal with technical tasks and problems than with social and interpersonal issues (Kolb, 1984). This style is more suited to Yamazaki’s (2005) definition of a low-context culture (e.g., Anglo) in which explicit verbal messages and communication styles of a logical form are given high importance. Communication patterns of low-context cultures also focus less on interpersonal relationships and more on rationally detached analyses (Yamazaki, 2005). This is opposite to the diverging learning style associated with a preference for working in groups to gather information, listening with an open mind, and receiving personalized feedback (Kolb, 1984). This style is more suited to Yamazaki’s (2005) definition of a high-context culture (e.g., Confucian), where surrounding situations, external physical 7 environments, and nonverbal behaviors are all important for its members to determine the meanings of messages conveyed in communication. Covert clues in these contexts make differences to the members and are used to search for a real meaning beyond verbal messages (Yamazaki, 2005). Effective communications in high-context cultures require its members to become sensitive to immediate environments through feelings. Yamazaki (2005) further contends that in high-context cultures people rely on tangible and immediately felt qualities of the experience (CE), rather than conceptual interpretation and symbolic representation of the experience (AC), to acquire tacit knowledge that serves to distinguish covert cues for effective communication and successful interpersonal relationships; and they rely on internal processing (RO), rather than through manipulation of the external world (AE), for transforming experiences (Fridland, 2002; Kolb & Kolb, 2005; Yamazaki, 2005). This leads us to the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 3a: Anglo expatriate managers’ ACCE learning dimension is negatively related to their levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge when working in China. Hypothesis 3b: Anglo expatriate managers’ AERO learning dimension is negatively related to their levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge when working in China. Managerial tacit knowledge is a product of learning from experience and is important for managerial performance and success (Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008; Sternberg et al., 2000). From the preceding discussions, we postulate that levels of managerial tacit knowledge accumulated in the host culture will positively influence their adjustment to international assignments in the host culture, which leads to the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 4: Anglo expatriate managers’ levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge are positively related to their adjustment in China. Adaptive Flexibility Kolb (1984) hypothesized that learning styles are determined by the interplay between people and their environments. As a consequence, learning styles have been shown to differ from one culture to another (Yamazaki, 2005), and expatriate managers’ 8 Academy of Management Learning & Education learning styles have been shown to change over a period of time in response to cultural demands (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007). Propensity for changes of this nature, however, will depend on the extent to which individuals are able to learn to adapt to, changing circumstances over time—otherwise known as “adaptive flexibility” (Boyatzis & Kolb, 1993; Kolb, 1984). Adaptive flexibility and the mobility it provides are the primary vehicles of individual self-development (Kolb, 1984). Kolb (1984) conducted several empirical studies about the relationship between adaptive flexibility and self-development. His research revealed a significant positive relationship between adaptive flexibility as measured by the Adaptive Style Inventory (ASI) and the level of ego development measured using Loevinger’s Sentence Completion Instrument and also between adaptive flexibility and the level of self-direction as measured in a self-assessment workshop (Kolb, 1984). Kolb (1984) concluded that those with higher levels of adaptive flexibility are more self-directed and display that directedness through a wide variation in their active behavior in different situations. Flexibility of a person’s learning style is related to the degree to which one integrates the dual dialectics of the learning process: abstraction/experience (AC-CE) and action/reflection (AE-OR; Kolb, 1984). Kolb (1984) hypothesized that individuals with balanced learning profiles on these dimensions will be more sophisticated (adaptively flexible) learners than those with specialized learning styles. Mainemelis, Boyatzis, and Kolb (2002) provided empirical evidence of this and concluded that “the more balanced individuals are on the dual dialectics of learning, the more they will show adaptive flexibility” (p. 3). Adaptive flexibility then, refers to the degree to which one changes learning style to manage competing demands and deal with environmental complexity. It can be postulated that as Anglo expatriate managers shift their learning orientations from Converging (AC and AE) toward Diverging (CE and RO) as demanded by Confucian culture, they will become more balanced learners. and therefore, demonstrate higher levels of adaptive flexibility. Furthermore, Yamazaki and Kayes (2007) proposed that expatriate managers develop greater adaptive flexibility to adjust to a new culture, and adaptive flexibility is a key component of successful cross-cultural adjustment. International assignments are full of challenges and uncertainties, especially in a host country with significant diversities. The complex and everchanging global environment requires expatriate March managers to be flexible (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011). As a consequence, expatriate managers will need to develop their levels of adaptive flexibility to achieve successful expatriation. This leads us to the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 5: The length of Anglo expatriate managers’ time in position in China is positively related to their levels of adaptive flexibility. Hypothesis 6: Anglo expatriate managers with greater levels of adaptive flexibility adjust better to their international assignments in China. From the foregoing discussion, the hypothesized causal relationships are illustrated in the Hypothesized Research Model shown in Figure 2. METHOD Procedure We used the Chinese government’s directory of MNCs in China to guide identification and selection of research sites. We visited 28 Anglo MNCs with subsidiaries in China. We took care to ensure that the culture and policies of all participating organizations were such that selection procedures led to the recruitment of expatriate managers with a similar composition (e.g., cultural background) and that operating procedures actively encouraged these managers to interact with host nationals from both their workplace and their local communities. Eighteen of the original 28 MNCs were chosen to take part in the study. In every case, a senior manager undertook the responsibility for distributing and collecting the survey instruments. To obtain a homogenous sample, these senior managers were careful to only distribute survey instruments to Anglo expatriate managers who had been transferred to China for long-term international assignments. Managers engaging in short business trips and managers of Chinese ethnic origin were excluded from the survey. Care was also taken to ensure that all subjects were working in a managerial context, performing functions and duties that were involving them in managing human and financial or materials-oriented organizational resources. Data collection was conducted over a 16-week period and was concentrated primarily in Beijing and Shanghai. Although this was a cross-sectional study, we were careful to ensure our sample was comprised of managers with different levels of assignment tenure to examine the effect of overseas work experience in China on expatriate managers’ learning and development. 2017 Armstrong and Li 9 Learning style AC-CE H2a AE-RO H3a Managerial tacit knowledge H3b H2b H1a H4 H1b Time in position H5 H6 Expatriate adjustment Adaptive flexibility FIGURE 2 Hypothesized Research Model Participants Two hundred Anglo expatriate managers were available for study. Each received a research pack containing a covering letter, survey instrument, and a return envelope. Completed questionnaires were received from 121 managers, representing a response rate of 60.5%. Participants were drawn from six IT companies (37%); eight manufacturing companies (36%); three finance companies (15%); and one logistics company (12%). Table 1 illustrates the demographic characteristics of study participants. Cultural differences can affect the nature of samples taken from different industry sectors. One-way analysis of variance revealed that there were no significant differences between the scores obtained for expatriate adjustment (general adjustment: F 5 2.10, df 5 3, p . .05; socialization adjustment: F 5 2.34, df5 3, p . .05; work adjustment: F 5 2.02, df 5 3, p . .05), learning style (AC-CE: F 5 2.28, df 5 3, p . .05; AE-RO: F 5 2.49, df 5 3, p . .05), adaptive flexibility (CEAF: F 5 2.54, df 5 3, p . .05; ROAF: F 5 2.11, df 5 3, p . .05; ACAF: F 5 1.63, df 5 3, p . .05; AEAF: F 5 1.87, df 5 3, p . .05), or managerial tacit knowledge (managing self: F 5 .49, df 5 3, p . .05; managing others: F 5 .58, df 5 3, p . .05) from groups of managers drawn from these four sectors. The effect sizes were assessed by means of the d statistic, an index of how many standard deviations two groups differ by. In all cases effect sizes fell short of Cohen’s (1992) threshold for the smallest effect size (d . 0.2). A fundamental requirement of the Tacit Knowledge Inventory for Managers used here is that a group of expert expatriate managers are needed to create a profile against which expatriate managers can be compared. The scoring system for the instrument requires scores from the expatriate managers to be compared against the profile scores of this expert group. Subjects with scores close to the scores of the expert profile are deemed to have a higher level of managerial tacit knowledge. Criteria for Selecting the Expert Group Previous studies of tacit knowledge have identified expert managers as those who are senior, highly successful, and very experienced (e.g., Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008; Wagner & Sternberg, 1987). Our selection criteria build on those previous studies. Our expert group consisted of 25 highly successful global managers assigned in China. We considered only those who operated in the same work context as the participants being studied and complying with the following strict criteria: They must have very high status in Anglo MNCs’ subsidiaries in China; they must have had a significant length of service at a senior position; they must have been assigned in China for more than 5 years. Managers in our expert group held the titles of Chief Executive Officer (CEO); Chief Operations Officer (COO); Chief Financial Officer (CFO); Chief Information Officer (CIO); Human Resource Director (HRD); Operations Director (OD); or Marketing Director (MD). The mean expert age was 44 years (84% male). Nationality and ethnicity of the expert managers were 40% U.K. (Caucasian); 32% U.S. (Caucasian); 20% Canada (Caucasian); and 8% Australia (Caucasian). Most of the expert group had a Master’s degree. Their length of service at a senior position ranged from 8 to 19 years (average of 13 years). Their experience of other international assignments ranged from 2 to 7 years (average of 4). 10 Academy of Management Learning & Education March TABLE 1 Demographic Characteristics of Survey Participants (N 5 121) Frequency Percent 43 36 26 11 5 35.5% 29.8% 21.5% 9.1% 4.1% 105 16 86.8% 13.2% 8 71 38 4 6.6% 58.7% 31.4% 3.3% Nationality U.K./Ireland U.S. Canada Australia New Zealand Gender Male Female Age 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–60 Time in position in China 1 year or less 1–3 years 4–5 years over 5 years 22 42 36 21 18% 35% 30% 17% Lengths of international assignment experience in China ranged from 6 to 20 years (average of 8). Measures Dependent Variables Expatriate adjustment. We adopted the scale developed by Black and Stephens (1989), which uses 14-item statements to measure managers’ selfestimated level of adjustment. Respondents indicated how well adjusted they were to their respective host locations in China on a scale ranging from 1 5 “not adjusted very well” to 5 5 ‘very well adjusted.” This instrument has been consistently validated (Shaffer et al., 1999) and has been found to be structurally equivalent with a good fit when applied to culturally dissimilar samples (Selmer, 2006). The three subscales of general adjustment (sample item: “living conditions in general”), interaction adjustment (sample item: “interacting with host nationals on a day-to-day basis”), and work adjustment (sample item: “performance standards and expectations”) have consistently demonstrated high internal reliability (Selmer, 2006). Reliability of the three dimensions in the present study was: a 5 0.89; a 5 0.81; and a 5 0.90, respectively. Tacit knowledge. Sternberg et al.’s (2000) Tacit Knowledge Inventory for Managers (61 items) Overseas work experience Yes No Overseas study experience No Yes Educational achievement Master Bachelor Other Job position CEO/President Senior manager Middle manager Junior manager Function area HRM/general administration Operations/production Sales & marketing Engineering/design Finance/accounting Other Frequency Percent 42 79 34.7% 65.3% 89 32 73.6% 26.4% 51 69 1 42.1% 57% 0.8% 5 26 75 15 4.1% 21.5% 62% 12.4% 21 30 22 29 13 6 17.4% 24.8% 18.2% 24% 10.7% 5% was administered to all participants to determine their levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge. The critical incident technique is used to measure tacit knowledge based on a sequence of scenarios designed to elicit different responses from different individuals. Scenarios are based on work-related situations, each followed by a series of items that are relevant to handling that situation. Respondents briefly scan all of the items and then rate the quality of each item on a 7-point scale for all scenarios and situations. Instructions to respondents stressed that there were no “correct” answers, only different ways to respond to each situation. Expert managers are expected to respond differently from novices due to the content and organization of their tacit knowledge. The mean ratings for each item in the instrument are calculated for the expert group to form an expert manager profile. Then, participant’s scores on the tacit knowledge inventory are derived by subtracting their answer for each item from the expert manager profile for that item. This generates difference scores between the participants and the expert profile with lower scores representing higher levels of managerial tacit knowledge. This technique is often referred to as the “expert–novice comparison” (Wagner & Sternberg, 1985). A detailed account of the scoring method for the tacit 2017 Armstrong and Li knowledge inventory can be found in a recent article by Armstrong and Mahmud (2008). Internal reliability of the tacit knowledge inventory in the present study was as follows: managing self: a 5 0.85; managing others: a 5 0.88. Independent Variables Time in position. Since expatriate adjustment is a process over time (Black et al., 1991) participants were asked to indicate how long they have been living in China for their current international assignment (months). Learning style. Kolb’s (1999) Learning Style Inventory-3 (LSI-3;12 items) was employed to examine individuals’ learning styles. This is one of the most frequently used instruments to assess learning styles (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007) and has been widely used to examine learning in cross-cultural settings (Yamazaki, 2005). Learning styles measured by the LSI-3 (Kolb, 1999) are determined on the basis of the two nonipsative dimensional scores and not the four ipsative scale scores. Previous studies have demonstrated strong test–retest reliabilities with coefficients for the two learning dimensions reaching 0.90 to 0.95 (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007) and high internal consistencies: a 5 0.72 to 0.79. Internal reliability figures in our work here were a 5 0.74 (AC-CE) and a 5 0.72 (AE-RO). Adaptive flexibility. Boyatzis and Kolb’s (1993) Adaptive Style Inventory (ASI) was used to measure the extent to which participants’ learning styles change depending on the demands of different situations, referred to as adaptive flexibility. The ASI uses a 48-item, paired comparison method to rank learning preferences for the four learning modes in eight personalized learning contexts. Respondents are asked to think of personal examples for each of eight situations which describe four learning contexts (two situations per context): acting (e.g., “When I start to do something new;” “When I try to complete a task on time”); deciding (e.g., “When deciding between two alternatives;” “When evaluating an opportunity”); thinking (e.g., “When developing an idea,” “When systematically analyzing something”); valuing (e.g., “When I consider my feelings,” “When I try to see the world as another person sees it”). For each of these eight situations, respondents are provided with six paired sentences, which compare each learning mode with the other three. For example, RO 5 “I observe the situation,” AE “I try out 11 different ways of doing things,” CE 5 “I rely on my feelings to guide me,” and AC 5 “I set priorities.” Respondents are asked to choose from each pair the sentence that is most like what they would actually do in that situation. Precise details of the scoring regime for the ASI can be found in earlier articles by Mainemelis, Boyatzis, and Kolb (2002) and Boyatzis and Kolb (1993). The ASI yields an adaptive profile for the four different learning style environments and an average adaptive profile across all four situations. Internal reliability of the ASI in the present study was a 5 0.79. Control variables. Previous research indicates that expatriate demographics (i.e., nationality, age, gender, education level, job position, previous overseas experience) are likely to be associated with expatriate learning and adjustment (e.g., Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005; Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007). Hence, we control for these factors in this research. As an example, we controlled for whether expatriate managers had previous overseas experience. A dummy variable with a value of “1” indicates that the expatriate manager had previous overseas experience, and a value of “0” indicates no previous experience. ANALYSIS We took measures in our research to minimize the potential risk of common method bias. First, when designing the survey, we followed suggestions by previous researchers, such as conducting on-site interviews and a pilot study to avoid item ambiguity, providing clear instructions about completing the questionnaire, and offering confidentiality and anonymity to the respondents (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Second, the scoring of the tacit knowledge inventory for managers was based on expert–novice comparison, and as a result, it was obtained from different sources compared to other variables in our research. Moreover, the LSI-3 and the ASI have been designed to be theoretically commensurate while methodologically diverse to reduce spurious common method variance among them (Mainemelis et al., 2002). Third, we conducted Harman’s 1-factor test in which all our variables were simultaneously entered into an exploratory factor analysis (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Five factors were extracted, accounting for 71.3% of the variance, with factor one accounting for 18.1% of the variance. No single factor emerged that accounted for most of the variance. Fourth, we subjected the two learning dimensions, adaptive flexibility and expatriate 12 Academy of Management Learning & Education March conducted. The items in each research scale were fed into the measurement model. The convergent and discriminant validity of each measurement construct was established, and the final factors for each construct that will be brought in the structure model were identified. Table 2 presents the model fit statistics of all measurement models and each indicator’s loading factor. Given the acceptable fit of our measurement model, we next assessed the hypothesized structural model. In the structure model of this study, there are 5 latent variables consisting of 12 observed variables (Figure 3). The hypothesized 12-factor structural model provides a relatively good fit to the data (x 2/df 5 1.61, p , .01; RMSEA 5 .07, CFI 5 .94, GFI 5 .91, TLI 5 .92). Although the hypothesized structural model approached all fit indices, the modification indices indicated that a direct path from managerial tacit knowledge associated with managing-self to work adjustment was warranted. Given this path is consistent with past research (Sternberg et al., 2000), we included it and reran our model. This model fit the data better (x2/df 5 1.51, p , .01; RMSEA 5 .06, CFI 5 .96, GFI 5 .92, TLI 5 .93), and was thus retained for hypotheses testing. Subsequently, the standardized regression path coefficients for each of the model’s six hypothesized relationships were examined. Testing results with significance levels are also presented in Figure 3. adjustment, to confirmatory factor analyses. Model fit was assessed using the following indices suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999): (a) x-square goodness-of-fit to degrees of freedom ratio (x2/df); (b) Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI); (c) root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA); (d) goodness of fit index (GFI; Byrne, 2001); (e) adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI; Byrne, 2001); and (f) comparative fit index (CFI). Satisfactory model fit is indicated by TLI, GFI, and CFI values close to 0.95, AGFI value close to 0.90, RMSEA value no higher than 0.08, and x2/df value no greater than 2 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The fit of the 4-factor model (x2/df 5 5.58, p , .01; RMSEA 5 .07, CFI 5 .89, GFI 5 .88, TLI 5 .89) was better than that of the 1-factor model (x2/df 5 13.71, p , .01; RMSEA 5 .93, CFI 5 .37, GFI 5 .46, TLI 5 .37). Therefore, we concluded that common method bias was not a significant concern here. We used a structural equation model to test the proposed hypotheses, which allowed for the simultaneous evaluation of all hypothesized relationships and also provided an assessment of the model’s overall fit with the observed data. We evaluated our results by employing AMOS 16.0 analytical software and applying a 2-step procedure recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988): (1) validating the measurement model, and (2) fitting the structure model. Using the covariance matrix as input, parameters were estimated using maximum likelihood estimation. Before testing the hypothesized model, the measurement model for each construct was tested. The KMO values of all constructs in the study are greater than 0.60, which indicate that they are acceptable for factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analyses for each construct were then RESULTS Table 3 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlations of the measured variables. We first TABLE 2 Model Fit Statistics of the Measurement Models Construct/Indicators AC-CE learning dimension AE-RO learning dimension Adaptive flexibility (AF) CEAF ROAF ACAF AEAF LAMTK Managing self Managing others Expatriate adjustment General adjustment Socialization adjustment Work adjustment ** p , 0.01 (two-tailed). Loading factor x2/df TLI RMSEA CFI GFI 1.88 1.74 1.83 .83 .88 .92 .06 .06 .04 .91 .92 .98 .90 .90 .97 1.55 .91 .03 .94 .92 1.49 .90 .04 .93 .90 .83** .80** .77** .81** .81** .84** .88** .85** .87** 2017 Armstrong and Li 13 FIGURE 3 The Structural Model With Testing Results. n 5 121; C 5 Covariance; MTK 5 managerial tacit knowledge; * p , 0.05; ** p , 0.01; *** p , 0.001(two-tailed). Each of the four groups is placed based on their two learning dimensions’ (AC-CE, AE-RO) mean scores. considered demographic characteristics as part of our data analyses. Statistical analyses using independent-samples t tests revealed that female Anglo expatriate managers (n 5 16) had stronger learning preferences for CE over AC when working in China (t 5 4.07, p , .01) than did male Anglo managers (n 5 105). The effect size (d 5 0.4) exceeds Cohen’s (1992) threshold for the smallest effect size (d . 0.2). Results also revealed that Anglo expatriate managers who had been in China longer were more concrete and less abstract (t 5 8.39, p , .01; d 5 0.9), more reflective and less active (t 5 3.53, p , .05; d 5 0.4), and exhibited greater levels of adaptive flexibility (t 5 5.71, p , .01; d 5 0.6) if they have previous TABLE 3 Means, Standard Deviations and Intercorrelations for Key Study Variables (N 5 121) 1. Gender 2. Tenure 3. Previous IA 4. Job position 5. AC-CE 6. AE-RO 7. CE 8. RO 9. AC 10. AE 11. EA 12. MTK 13. AF M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 — -.01 .16 .03 -.35** -.10 .23** .07 -.13* -.01 .15 -.15 .13 1.13 .34 — .05 -.20* -.21* -.43** .29** .16** -.16* -.14* .59** -.23** .31** 36.50 26.34 — -.26* -.49** -.23** .33** .14* -.17** -.13 .26** -.23** .50** .50 .77 — .06 .14 .07 .05 .01 .05 -.14* .27** -.08 2.83 .69 (.77) .37** -.85** .27** .90** -.46** -.43** .20** -.55** 7.26 5.97 (.74) .26** -.85** -.45** .90** -.34** .21** -.45** 10.89 5.86 (.77) -.39** -.55** .09 .47** -.28** .57** 24.58 4.22 (.74) .07 -.48** .38** -.29** .51** 26.31 4.24 (.72) -.52** -.22** .15** -.39** 31.83 3.97 (.73) -.16** .18** -.44** 37.12 3.92 (.90) -.12* .39** 4.02 .74 (.88) -.16* 1.07 .13 (.79) 16.03 2.58 Notes: IA 5 international assignment; CE 5 concrete experience; RO 5 reflective observation; AC 5 abstract conceptualization; AE 5 active experimentation; EA 5 expatriate adjustment; MTK 5 managerial tacit knowledge; AF 5 adaptive flexibility; SD 5 standard deviation; Gender: 1 5 male, 2 5 female; Internal reliability coefficients appear in parentheses along the main diagonal. * p , 0.05; ** p , 0.01 (two-tailed). 14 Academy of Management Learning & Education experience of overseas assignments (n 5 42). The effect size for the AC-CE learning dimension exceeds Cohen’s criteria for large effect (d . 0.8). These managers also adjusted to their work in China significantly more effectively than those with no prior international assignment experiences (t 5 6.52, p , .01; d 5 0.9). Finally, 1-way analysis of variance revealed a statistically significant difference (F 5 16.839, df 5 2, p , .01; d 5 0.6) between the three groups of managers (senior, middle, junior) with regard to managerial tacit knowledge. Post hoc comparisons using Duncan’s multiple range tests revealed that senior managers accumulated significantly higher levels of managerial tacit knowledge than either the junior or the middle level managers; middle managers accumulated significantly higher levels of managerial tacit knowledge than junior level managers. To examine our framework of expatriate learning for success, we first examined the antecedents to expatriates’ learning styles during their international assignment. The results of the structural equation modeling analysis, as shown in Figure 3, indicated that the length of Anglo expatriate managers’ time in position in China was significantly negatively related to their two learning dimensions (AC-CE: b 5 -.38, p , .001; AE-RO: b 5 -.55, p , .001) indicating that those with March longer time in position are more diverging in their learning style. Thus, Hypotheses 2a and 2b were supported. We further examined the possibility of a transition in learning styles by dividing the sample of 121 Anglo expatriate managers into four groups based on the duration of their assignment in China: 0–1 year (n 5 22); 1–3 years (n 5 42); 3–5 years (n 5 36); greater than 5 years (n 5 21). Figure 4 shows clear differences in learning styles for the four groups. Each of the four groups is positioned according to their two learning dimensions’ (AC-CE, AE-RO) mean score: first group (10.18, 15.27); second group (6.76, 13.10); third group (6.44, 8.06); and fourth group (6.57, 6.76). As the three arrows in the diagram indicate, there is a possibility that the orientation of Anglo expatriate managers’ learning styles shifting from abstract conceptualization toward concrete experience in their preference for grasping new experiences, and from active experimentation toward reflective observation in their preference for transforming new experiences as a result of acculturation. However, these observations need to be treated with some caution because the possible temporal effects on learning style and adaptability alluded to here are not based on longitudinal data. This is discussed in more detail in our Limitations section. FIGURE 4 Anglo Expatriate Managers’ Learning Style As a Function of Assignment Tenure. Each of the four groups is placed based on their two learning dimensions’ (AC-CE, AE-RO) mean scores. 2017 Armstrong and Li We then examined the antecedent to the development of adaptive flexibility. As shown in Figure 3, results showed that support was found for the relationship between time in position and adaptive flexibility (b 5 .31, p , .001). Thus Hypothesis 5 was supported. Next, we examined how expatriates’ learning styles impacted upon managerial tacit knowledge. Results revealed that Anglo expatriate managers’ learning styles significantly influenced their accumulation of managerial tacit knowledge during their international assignments (AC-CE: b 5 .32, p , .01; AE-RO: b 5 .14, p , .05). Thus Hypotheses 3a and 3b were supported. We also compared Anglo expatriate managers’ levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge according to their learning styles using 1-way analysis of variance. Results indicated that those with diverging learning styles had accumulated significantly higher levels of managerial tacit knowledge than those with assimilating, converging, or accommodating learning styles (F 5 8.644, df 5 3, p , .001; d 5 0.4). Finally, we examined how expatriate learning and managerial tacit knowledge helped model the variance in the dependent variable of expatriate adjustment. Results showed that support was found for the relationship with the two learning dimensions (AC-CE: b 5 -.52, p , .001; AE-RO: b 5 -.47, p , .001), adaptive flexibility (b 5 .27, p , .001), and expatriate adjustment, thereby lending direct support for Hypotheses 1a, 1b, and 6. Results showed that the relationship between managerial tacit knowledge and expatriate adjustment was not supported (b 5 -.11, p . .05). Hypothesis 4 was therefore refuted. However, based on results from the covariance, the relationship between managerial tacit knowledge associated with managing-self and expatriate work adjustment was significant (Covariance 5 .22, p , .001). A summary of the results of our hypotheses testing is also provided in Figure 3. DISCUSSION Expatriation literature has burgeoned over the past 2 decades. According to Furuya et al. (2009), investigative efforts have mainly focused on expatriate commitment, expatriation as a socialization or coordination mechanism, effective expatriate management, and expatriate self-adjustment. Our work here extended the study of expatriate selfadjustment, believed to be one of the most frequent reasons for expatriate failure (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011). We accomplished this by examining how 15 expatriate managers learn, adapt, and acquire new knowledge during international work assignments in China. This was done through the lens of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, recently highlighted as a particularly fertile area for investigation of expatriate adjustment (Yamazaki, 2010). Our study also sought to extend the adjustment model proposed by Black et al. (1991) that has already galvanized a large body of evidence and is believed to be the most influential theoretical treatment of expatriate experiences (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). With regard to factors associated with anticipatory adjustment in Black et al.’s (1991) model, our results revealed that managers with prior experience of working abroad had a positive association with their level of work adjustment in the host culture. This was to be expected because previous overseas work experiences have been shown to foster accurate assessment of future stressors (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005) and provide more information from which uncertainties can be reduced and problems anticipated more clearly (Black et al., 1991). Also important, our results revealed that managers’ previous overseas work experiences significantly influenced expatriate adjustment during their current international assignments in China by way of expatriate learning. Expatriate managers with previous experiences of overseas assignments found it easier to adjust to a host culture’s dominant learning style (e.g., diverging). This may be due to shifting from their previous dominant preferred learning styles (e.g., converging) to becoming more balanced learners, thereby enabling them to adapt their learning style toward the demands of the host country. Such reasoning would fit with Kolb’s (1984) assertion that flexibility of a person’s learning style is related to the degree to which one integrates the dual dialectics of the learning process: abstraction/ experience (AC-CE) and action/reflection (AE-OR; Kolb, 1984). Individuals with balanced learning profiles on these learning dimensions will be more flexible learners than those with specialized learning styles (Mainemelis et al., 2002). With regard to individual skills associated with Black et al.’s model, these were categorized by Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) into the three dimensions of self (e.g., self-efficacy), relational (e.g., fostering relationships with host nationals), and perception (e.g., cognitive abilities associated with correctly perceiving and evaluating the host environment and its actors). All are positively related to expatriate adjustment (Black et al., 1991). 16 Academy of Management Learning & Education More recently, authors have strongly suggested that to fully understand expatriate adjustment processes we need to also consider the importance of individual learning characteristics for developing and exhibiting culturally appropriate behaviors to “fit in” with the host culture (Maertz et al., 2009; Berry, 1997). Our study drew on previous research associated with Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory to demonstrate that Anglo managers’ dominant preferred learning orientations are skewed toward Abstract Conceptualization (AC) when grasping new experiences and Active Experimentation (AE) when transforming those new experiences (e.g., converging learning style). In contrast, preferred learning orientations of Chinese managers are skewed toward Concrete Experience (CE) and Reflective Observation (RO), respectively, (diverging learning style). Dissonances of this kind are likely to impede cross-cultural adjustment. Results of the study revealed that degrees of adjustment were higher when expatriates’ learning styles were congruent and lower when they were incongruent with the host culture. This suggests that the diverging learning style needs to be adopted by Anglo expatriate managers to adjust more successfully to their MNCs’ business context in China. Recall that while learning style refers to a person’s preference for grasping and transforming new experiences, adaptive style refers to the flexibility of a person’s learning styles when dealing with changing circumstances, competing demands, and environmental complexity (Kolb, 1984). Our results demonstrated that expatriate managers with greater levels of adaptive flexibility adjust significantly better to their international assignments in the host country. Expatriate managers’ learning styles and their degree of adaptive flexibility are therefore critically important individual characteristics when considering international adjustment to host cultures. This result supports Yamazaki and Kaye’s (2007) assertion that developing greater adaptive flexibility is a key component of successful crosscultural adjustment. On the basis that successful adjustment of expatriates will hinge on how well they learn from experiences during their international assignments (e.g., Li et al., 2013; Ng et al., 2009), we were also interested to determine the extent to which individuals’ learning styles might adapt to the host culture. We therefore examined the relationship between expatriate managers’ learning styles and the duration of their assignment in China. Results (see Figure 4) appear to indicate a transition in March learning styles from converging to diverging, although this observation needs to be treated with some caution because data were collected in a cross-sectional and not a longitudinal manner. This potential phenomenon needs to be subjected to further research of a longitudinal nature. Nevertheless, it does raise the interesting possibility of a developmental change brought about by challenging new learning situations as managers adapt to cross-cultural differences. Such a possibility has been previously alluded to by Kolb and Kolb (2009), who suggest that a consequence of developmental change of learning styles will lead to greater degrees of adaptive flexibility when people face different learning situations. Results of our study also revealed that Anglo expatriate managers with higher levels of managerial tacit knowledge associated with managing-self adjusted significantly better during their international work assignments. This partly confirms that managerial tacit knowledge is a predictor of success in work environments in cross-cultural contexts and contributes to an increasing body of literature linking learning styles to tacit knowledge and enhanced work performance (e.g., Sternberg et al., 2000; Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008). Our results also demonstrated that managerial tacit knowledge was higher when expatriate managers’ learning styles were matched with the host culture (e.g., diverging) and lower among those who’s learning styles were incongruent with the host culture (e.g., converging). With regard to the three different hierarchical management groups within this cross-cultural context, our results revealed significant differences in managerial tacit knowledge with each successive group in the hierarchy, demonstrating significantly higher levels of tacit knowledge in senior than more junior groups. This is entirely consistent with previous research in the field (conducted in domestic contexts) where successful-novice groups within the same profession have been shown to differ in this way (Wagner & Sternberg, 1985, 1987; Nestor-Baker, 1999; Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008). This, in part, confirms the validity of this study. Results from our demographic data suggested that female managers may be more adept at transitioning from AC toward CE learning modes during their assignments in the host culture. Also, the study revealed that managerial tacit knowledge is unrelated to the length of expatriate’s completed assignment tenure. This finding lends support to the belief that it may be how people learn from experience rather than the length of experience that 2017 Armstrong and Li matters (Ng et al., 2009). This also corroborates the findings of Armstrong and Mahmud (2008), who suggest that accumulation of tacit knowledge is independent of the length of peoples’ general work experience, but closely associated with matching work functions to the work context. They further argue that “tacit knowledge acquired through experiential learning may be influenced by managers’ individual learning styles, and the degree to which these are consonant with the work context” (p. 201). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS There is limited understanding of how expatriate managers develop through international assignments to become successful global managers. Most previous empirical research associated with expatriate success has focused on expatriates’ performance and adjustment (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). Few have considered the importance of assessing the effectiveness of international assignments in the context of expatriate management learning. MNCs clearly believe in international assignments to enhance global management effectiveness (Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007). Our research provides new insights into ways of making global manager development more effective both prior to and during their international assignments by considering individuals’ learning styles, managerial tacit knowledge, and adaptive flexibility. The results of our study have revealed a number of important findings and these have a range of implications for both theory and practice. First, the field of research exploring managerial tacit knowledge in expert–novice groups in a variety of professions has previously been confined to domestic contexts. Our study extends that research by demonstrating that managers’ level and content of managerial tacit knowledge are able to also predict success in work environments in crosscultural contexts. Increased levels of managerial tacit knowledge were also shown to have a positive influence on cross-cultural adjustment in a work context. This has implications for cross-cultural training of staff, deemed to be a necessity and not a luxury for the improvement of cross-cultural assignments (Black et al., 1991). Currently, only 25% of MNCs make cross-cultural training mandatory, with the majority relying heavily on formal factual training methods, which are effective in transferring explicit knowledge but not tacit knowledge (Lenartowicz et al., 2014). When training is provided in formal, organized, time-bounded, and structured 17 ways, these programs are often divorced from managerial reality. Most learning to manage occurs through practice (Sternberg et al., 2000) in an informal context, emphasizing on-the-job learning that occurs experientially in culturally embedded ways leading to greater acquisition of managerial tacit knowledge (Armstrong & Fukami, 2009). A blend of formal learning approaches to understanding the host culture, with informal approaches that take place in work-based or simulated work-based problem scenarios are likely to lead to a greater understanding of the art and craft of cross-cultural management (Kenworthy-U’Ren & Peterson, 2005), as well as more effectively facilitating the accumulation of managerial tacit knowledge prior to embarking on overseas assignments. Kolb’s (1984) learning theory provides a useful theoretical framework for routine inclusion of these types of training methods. Second, our study found that learning styles are a significant factor influencing expatriate adjustment. Managers with diverging learning styles, congruent with the demands of the host culture, not only accumulate higher levels of managerial tacit knowledge during their assignment tenure, but they also adjust better to their international assignments in China. Few previous studies have examined reasons why there are often significant variations in managers’ ability to learn from experience that lead to concomitant differences in content and levels of accumulated tacit knowledge. This is despite knowing that expert managers acquire more tacit knowledge than other managers even though their intellectual abilities and general work experiences may sometime be similar (Colonia-Willner, 1998). Our findings demonstrate that the degree of match between managers’ learning styles and the demands of the learning context may account for some of these differences. The implications of this for MNCs is that they may benefit from considering learning style theory as one criteria against which to base their recruitment and selection criteria when choosing staff for overseas assignments. In the case of this study, it would seem that choosing staff whose learning styles are congruent with the demands of the host culture would lead to an acceleration in their adjustment to the host culture and their levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge. However, although matching the person to the environment in this way may lead to more effective short-term results due to the degree of consonance between the learner and the learning context, this may have a negative effect on the longer term expatriate manager development process. Kolb and 18 Academy of Management Learning & Education Kolb (2009) highlighted the potential long-term value of intentionally mismatching individuals’ learning styles with their learning environments to increase adaptability, help learners overcome weaknesses in their learning style, and develop a more integrated approach to learning. Our study went some way toward providing empirical support for this theory by demonstrating that when MNCs expose their managers to a mismatched learning environment where cultural differences are high, the managers appear to subsequently develop a wider repertoire of coping behaviors and learning strategies that help them to adjust to the host culture more effectively. Cross-cultural assignments were shown to have the potential to facilitate management development by shaping managers’ underdeveloped modes of learning and enabling enhanced levels of adaptive flexibility as they wrestled to adjust themselves to challenging new environments. This is derived from our results associated with Anglo expatriate managers’ learning style as a function of assignment tenure (Figure 4). However, further research is needed in this area, because these findings were based on cross-sectional rather than longitudinal observations, and the implications of this are considered in more detail in the next section. Third, our study also revealed that those expatriate managers who are able to learn to use a variety of problem-solving and learning strategies (high adaptive flexibility), and apply them in situations that do not match with their natural learning style, adjusted better to their international assignments in China. This opens up the possibility of restructuring training and modifying instructional treatments and strategies as a means of addressing individual learner differences and developing more rounded learners. Such approaches may help ensure that managers are more capable of performing effectively across a wider range of situations than managers with limited stylistic versatility—enabling them to “think globally.” Fourth, with regard to gender differences, our study showed that female expatriate managers have more of a preference for grasping new experiences that are more attuned to Confucian cultures than do male managers. This also has potential implications for selection of staff in situations that would require expatriates to adapt more quickly to the host culture. Fifth, managers with previous overseas assignments, irrespective of location, adjusted to their work in China more effectively than those with no prior international assignment experiences. Past March international assignments have been previously shown to facilitate all dimensions of adjustment because “seasoned veterans adjust easier as they are able to anticipate problems more clearly, given their accumulated knowledge from prior experiences of living and working overseas” (BhaskarShrinivas et al., 2005: 260). MNCs would clearly benefit from having a pool of these seasoned veterans from which to select to satisfy the requirements of future overseas assignments. Finally, the duration of time in position in China was of greater significance, and was positively related to Anglo managers’ adaptive flexibility. This meant they were more able to adjust their learning style to manage competing demands and environmental complexity. Developing greater adaptive flexibility has been identified as a key component of successful cross-cultural adjustment (Yamazaki & Kayes, 2007) and should be a major focus in any predeparture expatriate management training initiative. Based on our findings here, training based on experiential learning as a source of learning and development would be a sensible option. In a predeparture training situations, learning styles are best interpreted through actual dialogue with participants to help them to assess their strengths and weaknesses in learning and problem solving. It will also be useful to explore relationships between participants’ learning styles and those demanded by the host culture. To improve participants diverging learning style skills, training could be designed in such a way as to enable them to be sensitive to people’s feelings; be sensitive to values; listen with an open mind; gather information; and imagine the implications of ambiguous situations (Kolb, 1999). Activities to support this kind of skill development might include information-gathering exercises that utilize nonquantitative information by looking at situations from different perspectives; engaging in exercises that involve listening and observing nonjudgmentally; getting involved in more brainstorming activities and small-group discussions. Similar approaches are put forward by Kolb (1984) to develop other learning styles, leading to the development of more “rounded learners” referred to above who have equal abilities in the four areas of CE, RO, AC, and AE, resulting in increased levels of adaptive flexibility. This requires learners to “be able to involve themselves fully, openly, and without bias in new experiences (CE); to view these experiences from many perspectives (RO); to create concepts that integrate their observations into 2017 Armstrong and Li logically sound theories (AC); and to use these theories to make decisions and solve problems” (AE; Kolb, 1984: 2). If cross-cultural training methods are adopted in a way that takes account of the outcomes identified here relating to management learning theory and the facilitation and transfer of tacit knowledge, then we remain confident that expatriate adjustment during overseas assignments in China (and beyond) will improve. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH The contribution of our study must be assessed in the light of its limitations, of which there are several. First, our study investigates Anglo expatriate managers’ learning, knowledge acquisition, and adjustment to the host culture when working in MNCs operating in a Confucian culture. Due to constraints over time and resources, our samples were limited to Anglo expatriate managers working in MNCs in mainland China. The extent to which our findings can be generalized to other Confucian cultures should therefore be interpreted with caution. Future studies should be conducted with Anglo expatriate managers working in MNCs in other Confucian cultures such as Japan, Singapore, South Korea, or Taiwan to further confirm the validity and generalizability of the present findings. Second, our conclusions and implications considered ways in which cross-cultural training might better prepare managers for overseas assignments by developing alternative learning style abilities to those associated with their dominant preferred learning style. The viability of this depends on the extent to which learning styles are stable or open to change. Although there are theoretical arguments to suggest the latter (Mainemelis et al., 2002), further empirical research is needed to determine the extent to which a person’s learning style is malleable. Third, one element of our research considered Anglo expatriate managers’ learning style as a function of time in position (Figure 4). Care must be taken not to interpret this particular result as meaning a transition of learning styles had taken place over time, because data were collected on a cross-sectional basis. It is therefore not clear whether the managers sampled had the same (or different) learning styles when they began their assignment. Our observations in that section of the data analysis may therefore be a selection rather than a development effect. Future research would benefit from measuring learning styles in a longitudinal manner at various points in 19 time across the duration of their assignment. Collecting qualitative data would also add to the richness of future studies. Finally, our theoretical argument that Confucian cultures are congruent with diverging learning styles, whereas Anglo cultures are congruent with converging learning styles was based on limited empirical research. 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