1
Human Behavior One
CRITICAL THINKING ASSIGNMENT #3
Chapter 7
YOU/Marcia/Erikson: 10 points
I am going to assign you a short case scenario that will require you to incorporate three
perspectives. This will include your own perspective, the perspective of theorist Erik Erikson,
and the perspective of theorist James Marcia.
You are to address A, then B, and then C in this APA formatted paper.
This means you will have an APA cover page, and an APA reference page.
You will use the textbook on your reference page,
as well as TWO other creditable sources for EACH theorist.
This means you will have a total of at least 5 Creditable sources on your reference page. If
you do not have 5 creditable references, deductions will occur.
Erik Erikson is a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory of
Psychosocial Development. Erikson is addressed throughout this book and his psychoanalytic
theory identifies a series of eight stages in which a healthy developing individual should pass
through from infancy to late adulthood.
You are to read and research Erik Erikson's theory of “Eight Stages of Development".
Erickson’s 8 stages begin on page 321, chapter 7, however additional research will be required to
ensure a comprehensive understanding of this theory.
James Marcia is a developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent
development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when
they experience identity crises.
You are to read and research James Marcia’s theory on the Four Identity Statuses. Marcia’s 4
Identity Statuses are listed on page 326, in chapter 7. However, additional research will be
required to ensure a comprehensive understanding of this theory.
If you are not familiar with APA guidelines you may contact the Writing Center on the Dothan
campus for direction and guidance.
The Writing Center
Aimee Burr
Aburr62157@troy.edu
2
Instructions: Read the short case scenario below and answer the questions that follow. Your
entry will be evaluated for clarity, integration of information from the text and scholarly
literature, and for evidence of proofreading. Answer ALL questions.
Due:
CASE SCENARO
“Rolando is the first born and only son of Luis and Maria and the hope of their family name. Luis
has plans for Rolando to go into this new family business and looks forward to the many
grandchildren that Rolando will give to the family. Rolando has great respect for his parents,
family, and tradition and always wants to please everyone. Rolando wants to attend college and
is struggling with his identity”.
A. You are their case manager. What areas of concern do YOU see for Rolando and his
parents? After you state your concerns, back them up by providing examples from
the case study that explain why you are concerned. Critically think about the
possible ramifications/consequences, or pros and cons associated with your 3 valid
concerns? This section requires that you employ critical thinking skills. Connect the
dots for me!
You must provide 2 valid statements of concern. (.50 x 2 = 1)
You must provide 2 valid explanations of why you are concerned. (.50 x 2 = 1)
B. Erikson’s theory: Address the following 4 stages from Erikson’s 8 stages and talk
your way through how EACH INDIVIDUAL stage applies to this case. Address
Intimacy, then Isolation, followed by Generativity, and lastly Stagnation.
What are the concerns? What are potential outcomes? Discuss with me what you are
thinking regarding each stage. Explain your reasoning for each.
3
Stage SIX:
Are any family members in these stages? Who? How?
(1) Intimacy - 1 point
(2) Isolation - 1 point
Stage SEVEN:
Are any family members in these stages? Who? How?
(3) Generativity -1 point
(4) Stagnation - 1 point
C. Marcia’s theory. Address the following 4 stages from Marcia and talk your way
through how each stage would or would not apply to Rolando.
What are the concerns? What are potential outcomes? Discuss with me what you
are thinking regarding each stage. Explain your reasoning for each.
1. Identity Achievement - 1 point
How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.
2. Foreclosure - 1 point
How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.
3. Identity Diffusion - 1 point
How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.
4. Moratorium - 1 point
How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.
In this assignment you are to explain how Erikson's, and Marcia’s theories apply to Rolando,
along with your own concerns. You should be able to express your thoughts and statements in a
paper that is no less than three pages. If you submit a paper less than three full page’s deductions
will occur.
4
DEDUCTIONS:
APA formatting is required in this assignment. This means all pages are to follow the guidelines
of APA. (Title page, reference page, page numbers, body of submission, subtitles, etc. …)
If APA is not formatted deductions will occur.
.50 deduction per 3 grammatical errors. (Contractions are grammatical errors.)
1 - point deduction for every day late.
.50 - point deduction if cover page is not APA
.50 - point deduction if reference page is not APA
You must have 5 creditable APA references with one being the textbook.
Make sure your references are APA formatted in order to earn full credit.
.50- point deduction if subtitles are not used.
.15 deduction if page number missing and mut be positioned APA.
E-mail me if you have questions!
Mrs. V
Empowerment Series
11th EDITION
Understanding
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
and the
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
CHARLES H. ZASTROW | KAREN K. KIRST-ASHMAN SARAH L. HESSENAUER
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拉 L
Tipo
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A.
9
CENGAGE
AUTHENTIC CENGAGE PRODUCT
1
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322 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Stage 1: Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust
For infants up to 18 months of age, learning to trust
others is the overriding crisis. To develop trust, one
must understand that some people and some things
able for such learning. For instance, infants who
can be depended on. Parents provide a major vari-
consistently receive warm, loving care and nourish-
ment learn to trust that these things will be provided
to them. Later in life, people may apply this con-
cept of trust to friends, an intimate partner, or their
government.
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
The crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt
3 years. Children strive to accomplish things inde-
characterizes early childhood, from 18 months to
pendently. They learn to feed themselves and to use
the toilet. Accomplishing various tasks provides chil-
dren with feelings of self-worth and self-confidence.
On the other hand, if children of this age are con-
stantly downtrodden, restricted, or punished, shame
and doubt will emerge instead. Self-doubt will re-
place the self-confidence that should have developed
during this period.
SW Productions/Photodisc/Getty Images
Forming your identity is a process of serious reflection about who
you are and you want to became.
formation during adolescence. After the entire the-
ory is discussed, its application to adolescence will
be explored in greater depth.
Each stage of human development presents its
characteristic crises. Coping well with each crisis
makes an individual better prepared to cope with the
next. Although specific crises are most critical dur-
ing particular stages, related issues continue to arise
throughout a person's life. For example, the conflict
of trust versus mistrust is especially important in in-
fancy. Yet children and adults continue to struggle
with whether or not to trust others.
Resolution of each crisis is an ideal, not neces-
sarily a reality. The degree to which crises in earlier
stages are resolved will affect a person's ability to re-
solve crises in later stages. If an individual doesn't
learn how to trust in stage 1, that person will find it
very difficult to attain intimacy in stage 6.
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt
Preschoolers aged 3 to 6 years must face the crisis
of taking their own initiative. Children at this age
are extremely active physically; the world fascinates
them and beckons them to explore it. They have ac-
tive imaginations and are eager to learn. Preschool-
ers who are encouraged to take initiative to explore
and learn are likely to assimilate this concept for
use later in life. They will be more likely to feel con-
fident in initiating relationships, pursuing career
objectives, and developing recreational interests.
Preschoolers who are consistently restricted, pun.
ished, or treated harshly are more likely to experi
,
ence the emotion of guilt
. They want to explore and
experience, but they are not allowed to. Instead of
learning initiative, they are likely to feel guilty about
their tremendous desires to do so many things. In
reaction, they may become passive observers who
follow the lead of others instead of initiating their
own activities and ideas
Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority
the crisis of industry versus inferiority. Children in
School-age children 6 to 12 years old must address
this age group need to be productive and succeed
Psychological Development in Adolescence 323
Various types of intimate relationships and how
people experience them will be discussed in more de-
tail in Chapter 8.
inferiority.
cus of their lives is school. Therefore, mastering
in their activities. In addition to play, a major fo-
academic skills and material is important. Those
who do learn to be industrious master activities.
Comparison with peers becomes exceptionally im-
or even in peer relations, may develop a sense of
portant. Children who experience failure in school,
Stoge 5: Identity Versus Role Confusion
Adolescence is a time when young people explore
who they are and establish their identity. It is the
transition period from childhood to adulthood when
child, sibling, student, Catholic, Native American,
people examine the various roles they play (e.g.,
ception of self, an identity. Some people are unable
basketball star) and integrate these roles into a per-
to integrate their many roles and have difficulty cop-
role confusion. Such persons feel confused and un-
certain about their identity.
ing with conflicting roles; they are said to suffer from
Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation
Mature adulthood is characterized by the crisis of
generativity versus stagnation. During this time of
life, people become concerned with helping, produc-
ing for, or guiding the following generation. Gen-
erativity involves a genuine concern for the future
beyond one's own life track, although it does not
necessarily involve procreating one's own children.
Rather, it concerns a drive to be creative and pro-
ductive in a way that will aid people in the future.
Adults who lack generativity become self-absorbed.
They tend to focus primarily on their own concerns
and needs rather than on those of others. The result
is stagnation—a fixed, discouraging lack of progress
and productivity.
Stage 8: Ego Integrity Versus Despair
The crisis of ego integrity versus despair character-
izes old age. During this time of life, people tend
to look back over their years and reflect on them.
If they appreciate their life and are content with
their accomplishments, they are said to have ega
integrity—the ultimate form of identity integra-
tion. Such people enjoy a sense of peace and accept
the fact that life will soon be over. Others who have
failed to cope successfully with past life crises and
have many regrets experience despair.
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation
Young adulthood is characterized by a quest for inti-
macy, which involves more than the establishment of
a sexual relationship. Intimacy includes the ability to
share with and give to another person without being
afraid of sacrificing one's own identity. People who
do not attain intimacy are likely to suffer isolation.
These people have often been unable to resolve some
of the crises of earlier psychosocial development.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
Erikson's Eight Stages of Development
Important Event
Age
Stage
Crisis
Birth to 18 months
Basic trust versus basic mistrust
1.
18 months to 3 years
2.
3.
3 to 6 years
6 to 12 years
Adolescence
Feeding
Toileting
Locomoting
School
Peer relationship
Love relationship
Parenting and creating
Reflecting on and accepting one's life
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Industry versus inferiority
Identity versus role confusion
intimacy versus isolation
Generativity versus stagnation
Ego integrity versus despair
4.
Young adulthood
5.
6.
Maturity
7.
Old age
8.
324 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
“
Implications of Identity Formation
in Adolescence
Achieving genital maturity and rapid body growth sig-
nals young people that they will soon be adults. They
therefore begin to question their future roles as adults.
The most important task of adolescence is to develop a
poses some questions to help you explore and articu-
an important part of this search for identity.
HIGHLIGHT 7.1
How to Determine Who You Are
of dwelling, rural or urban setting, closeness to relatives
or friends, and characteristics of the neighborhood.)
9. What do I enjoy doing with my leisure time?
10. What kind of image do I want to project to others?
(Your image will be composed of your dressing style and
grooming
habits, your emotions, personality, assertiveness,
capacity to communicate, material possessions, moral
code, physical features, and voice patterns. You need to
assess your strengths and shortcomings honestly in this
area, and seek to make needed improvements.)
11. What type of people do I enjoy being with, and why?
12. Do I want to improve the quality of my life and that of
others? (If yes, in what ways, and how do you hope to
achieve these goals?)
13. What types of relationships do I want to have with relatives,
friends, neighbors, and people I meet for the first time?
14. What are my thoughts about death and dying?
15. What do I hope to be doing in 5 years, 10 years, 20 years?
you find
Forming an identity essentially involves thinking about, and
arriving at, answers to the following questions: (1) What do
I want out of life? (2) What kind of person do I want to be?
(3) Who am I? The most important decisions you make in
your life may well be in arriving at answers to these questions.
Answers to these questions are not easy to arrive at.
They require considerable contemplation and trial and error.
But if you are to lead a fulfilling life, it is imperative to find
answers to give direction and meaning to your life. Without
answers, you are apt to muddle through life by being a passive
responder to situations that arise, rather than a continual
achiever of your life's goals.
Knowing who you are and where you are going are
important both for clients and for you as a practitioner. The
following questions may be a useful tool in pursuing that quest:
1. What do I find satisfying, meaningful, and enjoyable?
(Only after you identify what is meaningful and gratifying
will you be able to consciously seek involvement in
activities that will make your life fulfilling, and avoid
those activities that are meaningless or stifling.)
2. What is my moral code? (One possible code is to seek
to fulfill your needs and to seek to do what
enjoyable, doing so in a way that does not deprive others
of the ability to fulfill their needs.)
3. What are my spiritual beliefs?
4. What are my employment goals? (Ideally, you should seek
employment that you find stimulating and satisfying, that
you are skilled at, and that provides you with enough
money to support your lifestyle.)
5. What are my sexual morals? (All of us should develop a
consistent code that we are comfortable with and that helps us
to meet our needs without exploiting others. There is no one
right code—what works for one may not work for another,
due to differences in lifestyles, life goals, and personal values.)
6. Do I want to have a committed relationship? (If yes, with
what type of person and when? How consistent are your
answers here with your other life goals?)
7. Do I want to have children? (If yes, how many and when?
How consistent are your answers here with your other life
goals?)
8. What area of the country or world do I want to live in?
(Variables to be considered are climate, geography, type
To have a fairly well-developed sense of identity, you need
to have answers to most, but not all, of these questions. Very
few people are able to arrive at rational, consistent answers
to all the questions. Having answers to most of them will
provide a reference for developing your views in the yet
unanswered areas.
Honest, well-thought-out answers to these questions will
go a long way toward defining who you are. Again, what you
want out of life, along with your motivation to achieve these
goals, will primarily determine your identity. These questions
are simple to state, but arriving at answers is a complicated,
ongoing process. In addition, expect some changes in your
life goals as time goes on. Environmental influences change
in
your
life
you are, you will be prepared to make changes
(e.g., changes in working conditions). Also, as personal
growth occurs, changes are apt to occur in activities that you
find enjoyable and also in your beliefs, attitudes, and values.
Accept such changes. If you have a fairly good idea of who
goals, which will give continued direction to your life. Your
make and decisions that are made for you. Without a sense
life is shaped by events that are the results of decisions you
of identity, you will not know what decisions are best for you.
With a sense of identity, you will be able to direct your life
toward goals you select and find personally meaningful.
Psychological Development in Adolescence 321
velopment
confronting adolescents. Psychological systems involve such aspects of growth and de-
psychological system interacts with biological and social systems to affect behavior.
psy-
A Perspective
This chapter will focus on some of the major psychological growth tasks and pitfalls
as forming an identity and developing a personal morality. An individual's
We have already addressed some of the interactions between biological and
chological systems. For example, maturation rate and body weight (which relate to an
individual's biological system) can affect body image and self-concept (which relate to
the psychological system). Knowledge of psychological milestones normally negotiated
during adolescence is important for the overall assessment of behavior and functioning.
Additionally, this chapter will discuss two categories of critical issues that affect many
individuals in this age group: assertiveness and suicide.
Learning Objectives
This chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Explore identity formation in adolescence (including Erikson's
psychosocial theory, Marcia's categories of identity, and Glasser's
Theories)
LO 2 Examine race, culture, ethnicity, and identity development
EP 6a LO 3 Explore moral development (including Kohlberg's theory,
EP 7b
Gilligan's approach, and a social learning perspective)
EP 8b
LO 4 Review Fowler's theory of faith development
LO 5 Assess empowerment through assertiveness and assertiveness
training
LO 6 Explore suicide in adolescence
LO 1 Explore Identity Formation
angol
in Adolescence
Personal identities crystallize during adolescence.
Through experimentation and evaluation of experi-
ence and ideas, the adolescent should establish some
sense of who he or she really is. In other words,
throughout life as a result of the interaction between
biologically based maturation and the demands of
society. The emphasis is on the role of the social envi-
ronment in personality development. The eight stages
are based partly on the stages proposed by Freud
and partly on Erikson's studies in a wide variety of
cultures. Erikson writes that the society in which one
lives makes certain psychic demands at each stage
of development. Erikson calls these demands crises.
During each psychosocial stage, the individual must
seek to adjust to the stresses and conflicts involved
in these crises. The search for identity is a crisis that
confronts people during adolescence.
Although Erikson's psychosocial theory ad-
dresses development throughout the life span, it is
included here because of the importance of identity
people get to know themselves during adolescence.
Explored here are Erikson's psychosocial theory and
Marcia's categories of identity.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
psychological development comprising eight stages.
Erik Erikson (1950, 1968) proposed a theory of
This theory focuses on how personalities evolve
Psychological Development in Adolescence 325
riety
of
way is
The primary danger during the identity devel-
opment process, according to Erikson, is identity
confusion. This confusion can be expressed in a va-
ways. One is to delay acting like a respon-
sible adult. Another is to commit oneself to poorly
thought-out courses of action. Still another
to regress into childishness to avoid assuming the
cliquishness of adolescence and its intolerance of
responsibilities of adulthood. Erikson views the
differences as defenses against identity confusion.
Falling in love is viewed as an attempt to define
identity. Through self-disclosing intimate thoughts
and feelings with another, the adolescent is articu-
lating and seeking to better understand his or her
identity. Through seeing the reactions of a loved
The crisis of identity versus role confusion is best
resolved through integrating earlier identifications,
present values, and future goals into a consistent
self-concept. A sense of identity is achieved only af-
ter a period of questioning, reevaluation, and experi-
mentation. Efforts to resolve questions of identity
may take the young person down paths of emotional
involvement, overzealous commitment, alienation,
rebellion, or playful wandering.
Many adolescents are idealistic. They see the evils
and negatives in our society and in the world. They
cannot understand why injustice and imperfection
exist. They yearn for a much better life for them-
selves and for others and have little understanding
of the resources and hard work it takes for advance-
ments. They often try to change the world, and their
efforts are genuine. If society can channel their en-
ergies constructively, adolescents can make mean-
ingful contributions. Unfortunately, some become
disenchanted and apathetic after being continually
frustrated with obstacles.boxer
one to one's intimate thoughts and feelings, the ado-
lescent is testing out values and beliefs and is better
able to clarify a sense of self.
Adolescents experiment with roles that represent
the many possibilities for their future identity. For
instance, students take certain courses to test out
their future career interests. They also experiment
with a variety of part-time jobs to test occupational
interests. They date and go steady to test relation-
ships with the opposite sex. They may struggle with
their sexual identity. Dating also allows for different
self-presentations with each new date. Adolescents
may also experiment with drugs-alcohol, tobacco,
marijuana, cocaine, and so on. Many are confused
about their religious beliefs and seek in a variety of
ways to develop a set of religious and moral beliefs
with which they can be comfortable. They also tend
to join, participate in, and then quit a variety of or-
ganizations. They experiment with a variety of in-
terests and hobbies. As long as no laws are broken
(and health is not seriously affected) in the process of
experimenting, our culture gives teenagers the free-
a sense of identity.
Importance of Achieving Identity
Adolescents struggle with developing a sense of
who they are, what they want out of life, and what
kind of people they want to be. Arriving at answers
to such questions is among the most important
tasks people face in life. Without answers, a person
will not be prepared to make such major decisions
as which career to select; deciding whether, when,
or whom to marry; deciding where to live; and de-
ciding what to do with leisure time. Unfortunately,
many people muddle through life and never arrive
at well-thought-out answers to these questions.
Those who do not arrive at answers are apt to be
depressed, anxious, indecisive, and unfulfilled. (See
Highlight 7.1.)
dom to experiment in a variety of ways in order to
develop
Erikson (1959) uses the term psychosocial mora-
torium to describe a period of free experimentation
before a final sense of identity is achieved. Gener-
ally, our society allows adolescents freedom from the
daily expectations of role performance. Ideally, this
moratorium allows young people the freedom to ex-
periment with values, beliefs, and roles so that they
sonal strengths and affords positive recognition from
can find a role in society that maximizes their per-
The Formation of Identity
Identity development is a lifelong process. During
the early years, one's sense of identity is largely de-
termined by the reactions of others. A long time ago,
Cooley (1902) coined this labeling process as result-
ing in the looking-glass self—that is, people develop
their self-concept in terms of how others relate to
them. For example, if a neighborhood identifies a
teenage male as being a troublemaker or delinquent,
neighbors are then apt to distrust him, accuse him
of delinquent acts, and label his behavior as such.
the community.
326 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Foreclosure
cerning
This labeling process, the youth begins to realize,
also results in a type of prestige and status, at least
from his peers. In the absence of objective ways to
gauge whether he is in fact a delinquent, the youth
will rely on the subjective evaluations of others.
Thus, he is apt to begin to gradually perceive him-
self as a delinquent, and to begin to enact the delin-
quent role.
Labels have a major impact on our lives. If a child
is frequently called stupid by his or her parents, that
child is apt to develop a low self-concept, anticipate
failure in many areas (particularly academic), put
forth little effort in school and in competitive inter-
actions with others, and end up failing.
Because identity development is a lifelong pro-
cess, positive changes are probably possible even for
those who view themselves as failures. In identity
formation, it is important to remember that what
we want out of the future is more important than
past experience in determining what the future will
be. The past is fixed and cannot be changed, but the
present and the future can be. Although the past
may have been painful and traumatic, it does not fol-
low that the present and the future must be so. We
are in control of our lives, and we largely determine
what our future will be.
People who fall into the foreclosure category are the
as such. They glide into adulthood without experi-
encing much turbulence or anxiety. Decisions con-
early in life. These decisions are often based on their
parents' values and ideas rather than their own. For
example, a woman might become a mother and a
part-time waitress as her own mother had done,
not because she makes a conscious choice, but be-
cause she assumes it's what she is expected to do.
Likewise, a man might become an auto mechanic
an accountant just because his father was an auto
mechanic or an accountant, and it seemed a good
OT
way of life.
It's interesting that the term foreclosure is used
to label this category. Foreclosure involves shutting
someone out from involvement, as one would fore-
close a mortgage and bar a person who mortgaged
his or her property from reclaiming it. To foreclose
Marcia's Categories of Identity
James Marcia (1980, 1991, 2002; Marcia & Carpen-
dale, 2004) has done a substantial amount of re-
search on the Eriksonian theory of psychosocial
development. He identifies four major ways in which
people cope with identity crises: (1) identity achieve-
ment, (2) foreclosure, (3) identity diffusion, and
(4) moratorium. People may be classified into these
categories on the basis of three primary criteria:
First, whether the individual experiences a major cri-
sis during identity development; second, whether the
person expresses a commitment to some type of oc-
cupation; and third, whether there is commitment to
some set of values or beliefs.
one's identity implies shutting off various other
OP-
portunities to grow and change.
GIỌNG HÁT
Identity Diffusion di
People who experience identity diffusion suffer from
a serious lack of decision and direction. Although
they go through an identity crisis, they never re-
solve it. They are not able to make clear decisions
concerning either their personal ideology or their
career choice. These people tend to be characterized
by low self-esteem and lack of resolution. For exam-
ple, such a person might be a drifter who never stays
more than a few months in any one place and defies
any serious commitments.
Moratorium
The moratorium category includes people who exper
values or a career choice. However, moratorium peo-
Identity Achievement
To reach the stage of identity achievement, people
undergo a period of intense decision making. After
much effort, they develop a personalized set of val-
ues and make their career decisions. The attainment
of identity is usually thought of as the most benefi-
cial of the four status categories.
rience intense anxiety during their identity crisis, yet
have not made decisions regarding either personal
to resolve these issues. Instead of avoiding the deci-
ple experience a more continuous, intense struggle
sion-making issue, they address it almost constantly.
They are characterized by strong, conflicting feelings
about what they should believe and do. For example,
a moratorium person might struggle intensely with a
religious issue, such as whether there is a God. Mor-
atorium people tend to have many critical, but as y
unresolved, issues.
Psychological Development in Adolescence 327
Ethical Questions 7.1
To what extent is there on ideal
identity everyone should strive to
acquire? How much individuality
should be allowed or encouraged
in identity formation?
EP 1
Critical Thinking: The Evaluation of Theory
and Application to Client Situations
Both Erikson's and Marcia's theories provide inter-
esting insights into people's behavior and their in-
teraction with others. Both provide a framework for
better understanding “normal” life crises and events.
For example, stage 2 of Erikson's psychosocial the-
ory focuses on ages 18 months to 3 years. Most of
this period is frequently referred to as the “terrible
twos.” Understanding that children in this age group
are striving to achieve some autonomy and control
over their environment during this time helps us also
understand that their behavior is full of action and
exploration. Children should not be reprimanded for
the types of behavior that are normal and natural
during this stage of development. Such insight can
better prepare social workers for helping parents
develop age-appropriate expectations and behavior
management techniques.
Marcia's emphasis on the acquisition of coping
skills also provides insights for work with clients.
Those people who are trapped in foreclosure, iden-
tity diffusion, or moratorium identity crises may
become independent. Knowing that these are natural
Occurrences provides clues to insights social workers
can give to clients regarding their feelings and behav-
iors. The struggle for control can be identified and
discussed. Parental restrictiveness and adolescent
rebelliousness can be examined. New behavioral op-
tions for interaction can be explored. preras
Traditional theories of identity development such
as Erickson's and Marcia's have limitations due to
their Westernized perspective on how people should
develop. For example, traditional Asian and Native
American cultures generally emphasize interdepen-
dence instead of stressing the development of an
independent identity. A subsequent section explores
some of the issues concerning cultural background
and identity development. Spotlight 7.1 addresses
the special issues involved in identity development
for lesbian and
gay adolescents.
We established in an earlier chapter that social
workers need to evaluate theory and determine for
themselves what theoretical concepts and frame-
works are most suited for their own practice with
clients. Questions to keep in mind while doing this
include the following:
1. How does the theory apply to client situations?
2. What research supports the theory?
3. To what extent does the theory coincide with so-
cial work values and ethics?
4. Are other theoretical frameworks or concepts avail-
able that are more relevant to practice situations?
benefit from help in the resolution of these crises.
Social workers can give feedback in addition to help-
ing people formulate and evaluate new alternatives.
Acknowledgment of the existence of such crises and
understanding their dynamics are the first steps to-
ward resolution.
Both Marcia's and Erikson's theories emphasize
adolescence with some understanding of the forces
the importance of identity formation. Looking at
at work can help social workers better understand
environment. For instance, strife between parents
the dynamics of human behavior within the social
and children is common during adolescence. It is
also understandable. Parents try to maintain some
control with their leadership roles. Adolescents
struggle to define themselves as individuals and to
Glasser's Theories on Identity
William Glasser asserts that there is a single basic
psychological need faced by everyone: the need for
an identity. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 302) define
the need for an identity as
[t]he need to feel that each of us is somehow
separate and distinct from every other living being
on the face of this earth and that no other person
thinks, looks, acts, and talks exactly as we do.
Although identity can be viewed from several
viewpoints, Glasser believes from a therapeutic van-
tage point it is most useful to conceptualize identity
in terms of people who develop a success identity
versus those who develop a failure identity.
People who develop a success identity do so
through the pathways of love and worth. People who
view themselves as a success must feel that at least
328 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
delusion of the so-called schizophrenic provide
support or solace for him.
pect of those who decide to become "crazy":
Glasser (1976, pp. 19–20) describes the choice as-
Crazy, psychotic, nuts, loony, bonkers, schizo-
phrenic. There are a dozen popular, as well as
pseudoscientific, words for this condition. I happen
one other person loves them, and that they also love
at least one other person. They must also feel that at
least one other person feel they are worthwhile, and
they must feel they (themselves) are worthwhile.
In order to develop a success identity a person
must experience both love and worth. Glasser and
Zunin (1979, p. 312) state,
We see worth and love as two very different
elements, consider, for example, the extreme case
of the “spoiled” child. One may fantasize that a
child, if showered with “pure love," whose parents'
"goal” was never to frustrate on stress or strain
this child in any way, and when he was faced with
a task or difficulty always had his parents to
perform this task for him, this child always relieved
of responsibility would develop into an individual
who would feel loved but would not experience
worth. Worth comes through accomplishing tasks
and achieving success in the accomplishment of
those tasks.
Salotos dovlemon
A person can also feel worthwhile through ac-
complishing tasks (for example, a successful busi-
ness person), but believe s/he is unloved because
s/he cannot name someone who "I love and who
loves me.” Experiencing only one of these elements
(worth or love) without the other can lead to a fail-
SROOL
ure identity.
A failure identity is likely to develop when a child
has received inadequate love or been made to feel
worthless. People with failure identities express their
sense of failure by becoming mentally ill, by delin-
quency, or by withdrawal. Almost everyone with a
failure identity is lonely.
Why do some people become “mentally ill”?
Glasser indicates that people who are labeled men-
tally ill are those who deny or distort reality. They
change the world in their minds, in order to seek to
feel important, significant, and meaningful. Having
a failure identity is experienced by a person as be-
ing intensely discomforting, and changing reality
through fantasying is one way of dealing with this
discomfort. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 313) fur-
ther elaborate:
ور
to prefer "crazy” because it is understandable; it
doesn't have the pseudoscientific connotation of
schizophrenia, it is not technical
, and it emphasizes
much better than any of the other terms the choice
aspect of this category. Schizophrenia sounds
so much like a disease that prominent scientists
delude themselves into searching for its cure, when
the "cure” is within each crazy person who has
chosen it. If he can find love or worth he will give
up the choice readily—a big “if,” I will admit, but
hundreds do each day as they are discharged from
good hospitals and clinics. With adequate treatment
they learn to become strong enough to stop
to choosing to be crazy. Becoming crazy is actually a
fairly sensible choice of the weak because no one
expects a crazy person to fulfill his needs in the real
world for the obvious reason that he is no longer in
1 it. He now lives in the world of his mind, and there
within his own mind, crazy as it may be, he tries to
find, and to some extent usually succeeds in finding,
a substitute for the adequacy he can't find in reality.
Within his own mind, within his own imagination,
out of his own thought processes, he may be able to
reduce the pain of his failure and find a little relief.
-For inadequacy he provides delusions of grandeur,
for loneliness, hallucinations to keep him company.
He may have a delusion that everybody loves
him or that he is an overwhelmingly omnipotent
person, which does relieve his pain. Every mental
hospital has one or two Jesus Christs, the acme of
omnipotence and power. When all of this is created
within a person's own mind we call it crazy, but it
makes sense to him because it doesn't hurt as much
as being lucid but miserably inadequate.
Other individuals seek to handle the discomfort
of a failure identity through withdrawal. Still oth-
ers seek to handle the discomfort by ignoring reality
,
even though they are aware of the real world. Glasser
and Zunin (1979, p. 313) describe these people:
These individuals are referred to as delinquents
,
The person who is mentally ill has distorted the real
world in his own fantasy to make himself feel more
comfortable. He denies reality to protect himself
from facing the feeling of being meaningless and
insignificant in the world around him. For example,
both the grandiose delusion and the persecutory
criminals, "sociopaths," "personality disorders,"
Psychological Development in Adolescence 329
and so on.
They are basically the anti-social
ignoring reality.
individuals who choose to break the rules and
regulations of society on a regular basis, thereby
teacher, adult friend, and adult relative should have
the value system of doing what they can to convey
“love” and “worth” to children/adolescents, and to
the adults they interact with.
A success identity or a failure identity is not mea-
sured by finances or labels, but rather in terms of
how a person perceives him/herself. It is possible for
individuals to regard themselves as failures, while
others view them as being successful. Formation
of a failure identity usually begins during the years
age (five or six) that children develop the social and
when children first enroll in school. It is at about this
verbal skills, and the thinking capacities to define
themselves as being either successful or unsuccessful.
LO 2 Examine Race Culture,
Questions might be raised regard-
ing the extent to which Erikson's and
Marcia's theories apply to all people.
Children, as they grow older, then tend to associate
This includes various racial and eth-
with others having a similar identity; those with fail- EP 2a
nic groups. For instance, some cultures
ure identities associating with others having a failure EP 2c
emphasize respect for and deference to
identity, and success identities associating with other
older family members. Young people
successful people. As the years pass the two groups
are expected to conform until they too become older
associate less and less with each other. Glasser and
and “wiser.” To what extent, then, is it important for
Zunin (1979, p. 312) note:
each individual to struggle to achieve a strikingly
unique and independent personality? Must this
For example, it is indeed rare for a person with a particular aspect of behavior be stressed to a great
success identity to have, as a close and personal extent? Or should the ability to assume a strong
friend, someone who is a known criminal, felon, identification with the family and cultural group be
heroin addict, and so forth.
given precedence?
Approximately one-third of adolescents in the
People with success identities tend to compete
constructively, meeting and seeking new chal-
United States belong to an ethnic group that is a
racial or ethnic “minority," which, of course, in-
lenges. Also, they tend to reinforce one another's
cludes such groups as African Americans, Native
successes. On the other hand, people with failure
Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans (Kail
identities find facing the real world to be uncom-
& Cavanaugh, 2013). It is very important that these
fortable and anxiety-producing, and therefore
young people establish an ethnic identity along with
choose either to withdraw, to distort reality, or to
their individual identity (Hendricks, 2005; Kail &
ignore reality.
Cavanaugh, 2014; Phinney, 2005). This involves
identifying with their ethnic group, feeling that they
Comments on Glasser's Theories on Identity belong, and appreciating their cultural heritage.
Glasser is undoubtedly accurate that every child/ Older adolescents are more likely to have established
an ethnic identity than are younger ones (French,
they are “worthwhile” in order to develop a success
Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). The former appar-
ently have had more time to explore aspects of their
culture, develop their cognitive ability, and think
about who they are.
Phinney (1989) suggests a parallel development
for children from diverse ethnic groups that coin-
cides with Marcia's four coping strategies for iden-
tity development. A person with a diffused identity
demonstrates little or no involvement with his or her
ethnic and cultural heritage and may be unaware
of or disinterested in cultural issues. A person with
adolescent needs to receive "love" and a sense that
or financially) to convey sufficient
(emotionally
identity. In fact, it is also important that every adult
receive love and someone to convey that are worth-
while. Many parents simply do not have the resources
"love" and "worth” to their children. Therefore, “it
takes a village to raise a child.” There are a number
of established programs to help convey "love" and
"worth”, such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters, Boys and
Girls clubs, Special Olympics, and Youth mentor-
ing programs in schools. In a very real sense every
obo
Psychological Development in Adolescence 331
integral part of his or her life. Cross and Fhagen-
lates to ethnic identity development:
Smith (1996) summarize how Phinney's model re-
The.
minorities enter adolescence with poorly developed
model states that ethnic and racial
ethnic identities (diffusion) or with an identity
"given” to them by their parents (foreclosure).
They may sink into an identity crisis
, during which
the conflicts and challenges associated with their
minority status are sorted out (moratorium), and
should all go well, they achieve an ethnic identity
that is positive and gives high salience to ethnicity
(achieved ethnicity). (p. III)
Moratorium is reflected in the thoughtful words
of a Mexican American adolescent who stated, “I
want to know what we do and how our culture is
different from others. Going to festivals and cul-
tural events helps me to learn more about my own
culture and about myself” (Phinney, 1989, p. 44).
Likewise, an Asian American teen describes his
feelings about his ethnic identity achievement:
"I have been born Filipino and am bora to be
Filipino. . . I'm here in America, and people of
many different cultures are here, too. So I don't
consider myself only Filipino, but also American”
(Phinney, 1989, p. 44).
moledores combine
do in loaden Wolves
An Alternative Model of Racial and Cultural
Identity Development
As an alternative approach to understanding racial
and cultural identity development, Howard-Hamilton
and Frazier (2005) describe the five-phase Racial/
Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID) ini-
tially developed by Sue and Sue (1990). To some
degree, this model parallels the stages proposed by
Marcia, but it centers on racial and cultural identity
development. Stages range from having little or no
development of ethnic and cultural identity to having
complete integration of such identity. The model asks:
“(a) who do you identify with and why; (b) what minor-
ity cultural attitudes and beliefs do you accept or reject
and why; (c) what dominant cultural attitudes and be-
liefs do you accept or reject and why; and (d) how do
your current attitudes and beliefs affect your interac-
tion with other minorities and people of the dominant
culture?” (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005, p. 78).
R/CID
proposes that people progress through the fol-
lowing five stages to establish an integrated racial or
cultural identity (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005,
pp. 78–82; Sue & Sue, 2008, pp. 242–252):
??
1. Conformity stage. During this stage, people iden-
tify closely with the dominant white society.
“Physical and cultural characteristics that are
Jo lavdiovoorb
Bebe
bol
Paul Chesley/The Image Bank/Getty Images
It is very important that young people establish an ethnic and cultural identity along with their individual
identity
. This involves identifying with their racial and ethnic group, feeling that they belong, and
appreciating their cultural heritage. Here, Native American Blackfoot children participate in cultural events.
, more
332 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
considered desirable to them. Attitudes and be
liefs toward self are self-appreciating. A positive
self-image and a feeling of self-worth emerge. An
integrated concept of racial pride in identity and
culture also develops. The individual sees himself
or herself as a unique person who belongs to a
specific minority group, a member of a larger so-
The person begins to view those in the dominant
ciety, and a member of the human race” (p. 81).
culture in a selective manner, allowing trust and
relationships to develop with those who denounce
the oppression of minority groups.
وو
common to the individual's racial or cultural
group are perceived negatively and as something
to be avoided, denied, or changed. In this stage,
the person may attempt to mimic ‘White' speech
patterns, dress, and goals. A person at this stage
has low internal self-esteem” (Howard-Hamilton
& Frazier, 2005, p. 79).
2. Dissonance stage. Usually initiated by some cri-
sis or negative experience, the person during this
stage "becomes aware that racism does exist, and
that not all aspects of minority or majority cul-
ture are good or bad. For the first time, the in-
dividual begins to entertain thoughts of possible
positive attributes" of his or her own culture and
“a sense of pride in self” (p. 79). Suspicion about
the values inherent in the dominant culture grows.
3. Resistance and immersion stage. “Movement
into this stage is characterized by the resolution
of the conflicts and confusions that occurred in
the previous stage” (p. 79). The person's aware-
ness of social issues grows along with a growing
appreciation of his or her own culture. “A large
amount of anger and hostility is also directed to-
ward White society. There in turn is a feeling of
dislike and distrust for all members of the domi-
nant group” (p. 80).
4. Introspection stage. During this stage, the individ-
ual “discovers that this level of intensity of feel-
ings is psychologically draining and does not allow
time to devote energy into understanding one's ra-
cial/cultural group; the individual senses the need
for positive self-definition and a proactive sense of
awareness. A feeling of disconnection emerges with
minority group views that may be rigid. Group
views may start to conflict with individual views...
The person experiences conflict because she or
he discovers there are many aspects of American
culture that are desirable and functional, yet the
confusion lies in how to incorporate these elements
into the minority culture” (pp. 80–81).
5. Integrative awareness stage. Persons of color in
this stage “have developed an inner sense of se-
curity and can appreciate various aspects of their
culture that make them unique. Conflicts and
discomforts experienced in the previous stage are
not resolved, hence greater control and flexibility
are attained. Individuals in this stage recognize
there are acceptable and unacceptable aspects of
all cultures and that it is important for them to
accept or reject aspects of a culture that are not
Communities and Schools Can Strengthen
Racial and Cultural Identity Development
for Adolescents
A positive social environment that celebrates cul-
tural strengths can enhance the development of
a positive I racial and cultural identity and pride
(Delgado, 1998a, 1998b, 20006, 2007). Both schools
and the community-at-large can stress cultura
strengths of resident groups. School curricula car
have relevant historical and cultural content inte-
grated throughout. Assignments can focus on learn
ing and appreciating cultural strengths. “A socia
studies teacher, for example, might assign a studen
to interview an elder member of his or her family o
community about life in his or her place of origin a
part of a lesson on ethnic origins” (Delgado, 1998a
p. 210). Schools and recreational facilities can de
velop programs that emphasize cultural pride an
help adolescents “come to terms with their newl
developing [racial and cultural] identities as indi
viduals and as participants in an increasingly mụ.
ticultural society while preserving essential link
to their history, families, and culture” (Delgado
1998b, p. 213).
For example, one such program, called Nuev
Puente (New Bridge), was designed initially to ao
dress substance abuse by Puerto Rican youth. Sta
developed an educational curriculum
areas were identified through... (a survey.);
that involved obtaining input from all secto
of the Puerto Rican community. Major conte
interviews, focus groups, meetings, and discussio
with community leaders, parents, and educators /
focus group (discussed in Chapter 8) is a special
assembled collection of people who respor
Psychological Development in Adolescence 333
through a semi-structured or structured discussion
to the concerns and interests of the person, group,
r organization that invited the participants. ]
.
The curriculum included knowledge development
and skills building that were culturally relevant for
Puerto Rican youths. Participants received 72 hours
of training over a seven-month period in cultural
pride (Puerto Rican history, values, culture, arts,
significant locations. Their content generally
focuses on the trials and tribulations associated
with urban living, issues of oppression, or simply a
"signature" of the artist.
Murals represent a much higher level of organi-
zation, and the community often participates in
their design and painting; their location within the
community also reflects the degree of community
sanctioning—those that are prominently located
enjoy a high degree of community acceptance,
whereas those in less prominent locations do
not.
Murals provide communities of color with
an important outlet for expressing their cultural
pride. .
Among Latino groups, for example, murals
allow subgroups to express the uniqueness of their
history and culture. (Delgado, 2000a, pp. 78–80)
“Pre-Columbian themes, intended to remind
Chicanos of their noble origins, are common. There
are motifs from the Aztec. . . [ancient manuscripts],
gods from the Aztec [temples and mythology,].
allusions to the Spanish conquest and images of
the Virgin of Guadalupe, a cherished Mexican
icon” (Treguer, 1992, p. 23, cited in Delgado, 1998b,
• •
p. 80).
and traditions); group leadership skills (recruiting
and leading groups); self-sufficiency and self-
determination; communication and relationship
skills (conflict resolution and identifying situations
that lead to violence and other risk-taking
behaviors); [and] strategies to deal with substance
abuse (increased awareness of alcohol and other
drugs)...
As a whole, the curriculum had a significant
impact on the participants. However, the greatest
effect was achieved by the module on identity and
culture, which was measured by the participants'
interest and pride in speaking Spanish; awareness
of Puerto Rican cuisine, history, geography, and
folklore; willingness to participate in Puerto
Rican folk dancing; interest in and willingness
to celebrate Puerto Rican holidays; interest in
learning the lyrics to the Puerto Rican anthem; and
eagerness to learn about their ancestors. (Delgado,
1998b, p. 217)
Community festivals such as African American
Fest or German Fest can provide other avenues
through which community residents of all ages can
learn about and appreciate various facets of their
and others' cultures. Such events can celebrate his-
tory, arts, crafts, music, and food.
The following explains how murals in urban set-
tings can portray cultural symbols and honor ethnic
traditions:
A mural is an art form that is expressed on a
building's walls as opposed to a canvas. .
Murals
represent a community effort to utilize cultural
symbols as a way of creating an impact internally
and externally. Murals should not be confused with
graffiti. A mural represents an artistic impression
that is not only sanctioned by a community, but
often commissioned by it. . . and invariably involve
a team of artists. Graffiti, on the other hand,
represent an artistic impression... that is individual
centered and manifested on subway trains, doors,
LO 3 Explore Moral Development
Young adulthood is filled with avid quests for inti-
mate relationships and other major commitments
involving career and life goals. A parallel pursuit is
the formulation of a personal set of moral values.
Morality involves a set of principles regarding what
is right and what is wrong. Often, these principles
are not clearly defined in black or white, but involve
various shades of gray. There is no one absolute
answer. For example, is the death penalty right or
wrong? Is it good or bad to have sexual intercourse
before marriage?
Moral issues range from very major to minor
day-to-day decisions. Although moral development
can take place throughout life, it is especially critical
during adolescence. These are the times when people
gain the right to make independent decisions and
choices. Often the values developed during this stage
remain operative for life. Explored here are theo-
retical perspectives proposed by Kohlberg and by
Gilligan, in addition to a social learning outlook on
moral development.
mailboxes, buses, public settings, and other less
334 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Ethical Questions 7.2
Moral Development: Kohlberg's Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg (1963, 1968, 1969, 1981a, 1981b)
has proposed a series of three levels, and six stages,
moral framework. These six stages are clustered
within three distinct levels, as shown in the Concept
Summary box below.
EP 1
What are the major principles in
your personal code of morality?
How would you answer the
following moral questions
regarding what is right and what
is wrong: Should there be a death
penalty for monstrous crimes and,
if so, how monstrous? Why or
why not? Should there be national
health insurance under which all
people receive medical services
regardless of their level of wealth?
If so, who should pay for it? Should
corporal punishment be allowed in
schools? Why or why not? Should
prayer be allowed in schools? Why
or why not?
Level 1: The Preconventional or Premoral Level
The first level, the preconventional or premoral
level, is characterized by giving precedence to self-
interest. People usually experience this level from
ages 4 to 10. Moral decisions are based on exter-
nal standards. Behavior is governed by whether a
child will receive a reward or punishment. The first
stage in this level is based on avoiding punishment
.
Children do what they are told in order to avoid
negative consequences. The second stage focuses
on rewards instead of punishment. In other words
,
children do the “right" thing in order to receive a
reward or compensation. Sometimes this involves
brunos
desolatos
HO
CONCEPT SUMMARY
Kohlberg's Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development
wo
Level/Stage
Level 1: Preconventional
(Self-interest)
no
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
Stage 2: Naive instrumental hedonism
Level 2: Conventional
(Role Conformity)
Stage 3: "Good boy/girl morality"
Description
Controls are external. Behavior is governed by receiving rewards or
punishments. Het mer
Decisions concerning what is good or bad are made in order to
avoid receiving punishmentos
Rules are obeyed in order to receive rewards. Often favors are
exchanged.
The opinions of others become important. Behavior is governed by
conforming to social expectations.
Good behavior is considered to be what pleases others. There is a
strong desire to please and gain the approval of others.
The belief in law and order is strong. Behavior conforms to law and
higher authority. Social order is important.
Moral decisions are finally internally controlled. Morality involves
higher-level principles beyond law and even beyond self-interest.
Laws are considered necessary
. However, they are subject to ratio
Stage 4: Authority-maintaining morality
Level 3: Postconventional
(Self-Accepted Moral Principles)
Stage 5: Morality of contract, of individual
rights, and of democratically accepted law
Stage 6: Morality of individual principles and
Conscience
nal thought and interpretation. Community welfare is important.
Behavior is based on internal ethical principles. Decisions are made
according to what is right rather than what is written into law.
SOURCE: Adapted from Kohlberg (1968, 1981a, 1981b).
Psychological Development in Adolescence 335
you'll scratch mine."
an exchange of favors: "I'll scratch your back if
Level 2: The Conventional Level
Level 2 of Kohlberg's theory is the conventional level,
in which moral thought is based on conforming to
conventional roles. Frequently, this level occurs from
ages 10 to 13. There is a strong desire to please oth-
ers and to receive social approval. Although moral
standards have begun to be internalized, they are
still based on what others dictate, rather than on
Within Level 2, stage 3 focuses on gaining the
proval of others. Good relationships become
portant. Stage 4, "authority-maintaining morality,"
what is personally decided.
another matter. Richard Nixon espoused high moral
standards but was forced to resign after his cover-up
of the Watergate break-in and theft of Democratic
Party documents was brought to light. Many times,
difficult moral decisions must be made in crisis situa-
tions. If you find yourself in a burning building with
a crowd of people, how much effort will you expend
to save others before yourself? What is the discrep-
ancy between what you think is right and what you
would really do in such a situation?
A second criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it is
culturally biased (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013; Santrock,
2012a). Even Kohlberg (1978) himself has conceded
that stage 6 may not apply across all cultures, societ-
ies, and situations. Snarey (1987) studied research on
moral development in 27 countries and found that
Kohlberg's schema does not incorporate the higher
moral ideals that some cultures embrace. Examples
of higher moral reasoning that would not be consid-
ered such within Kohlberg's framework include “prin-
ciples of communal equity and collective happiness
in Israel, the unity and sacredness of all life forms in
India, and the relation of the individual to the com-
munity in New Guinea” (Santrock, 2008, p. 361).
ap-
Very
im-
LOG
emphasizes the need to adhere to law. Higher authori-
ties are generally respected. “Law and order” are con-
sidered necessary in order to maintain the social order.
Level 3: The Postconventional Level
Level 3, the postconventional level, involves develop-
ing a moral conscience that goes beyond what others
say.
At this level, people contemplate laws and ex-
pectations and decide on their own what is right and
what is wrong. They become autonomous, indepen-
dent thinkers. Behavior is based on principles instead
of laws. This level progresses beyond selfish concerns.
The needs and well-being of others become very im-
portant. At this level, true morality is achieved.
Within Level 3, stage 5 involves adhering to so-
cially accepted laws and principles. Law is considered
good for the general public welfare. However, laws are
subject to interpretation and change. Stage 6 is the
ultimate attainment. During this stage, one becomes
free of the thoughts and opinions expressed by oth-
ers
. Morality is completely internalized. Decisions are
based on one's personal conscience, transcending laws
and regulations. Examples of people who attained
this level include Martin Luther King Jr. and Gandhi.
goo 1500 to
go
hoolib boor
NO
Moral Development and Women:
Gilligan's Approach
A major criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that virtu-
ally all of the research on which it is based used only
men as subjects. Gilligan (1982; Gilligan & Attanucci,
1988; Gilligan, Brown, & Rogers, 1990) maintains
that women fare less well according to Kohlberg's lev-
els of moral development because they tend to view
moral dilemmas differently than men do. Kohlberg's
theory centers on a justice perspective, in which each
person functions independently and makes moral de-
cisions on an individual basis (Hyde & Else-Quest,
2013; Newman & Newman, 2012; Santrock, 2016,
p. 231). In contrast, Gilligan maintains that women
are more likely to adopt a “care perspective, which
views people in terms of their connectedness with
others and emphasizes interpersonal communication,
relationships with others, and concern for others”
(Santrock, 2012a, p. 231). In other words, women
tend to view morality in terms of personal situations.
Women often have trouble moving from a very
personalized interpretation of morality to a focus
on law and order. This bridge involves a generaliza-
tion from the more personal aspects of what is right
Critical Thinking: Evaluation
of Kohlberg's Theory
.
Many questions have been raised concerning the va-
lidity and application of Kohlberg's theory (Helwig
& Turiel, 2011; Killin & Smetana, 2008; Santrock,
2016; Walker & Frimer, 2011). For one thing, Kohl-
berg places primary emphasis on how people think,
loftiest moral standards, but what they do is often
not what they do. Presidents and kings talk about the
On
Ethical Applications of Gilligan's Theory
to Client Situations
Social work has a sound foundation
of professional values expressed in the
National Association of Social Work-
ers (NASW) Code of Ethics. Ethics
involve making decisions about what
EP 1
is right and what is wrong. Ethics pro-
vide social workers with guidelines for practice
with clients.
Gilligan emphasizes the relationship between
responsibility and morality. People develop mor-
ally as they gradually become more capable and
willing to assume responsibility. Morality provides
the basis for making ethical decisions. Gilligan
“bases the highest stage of decision making on
care for and sensitivity to the needs of others,
on responsibility for others, and on nurturance”
(Rhodes, 1985, p. 101). This principle is central to
the NASW Code of Ethics. Gilligan's theory can
provide some general ethical guidelines to which
we can aspire in our day-to-day practice with cli-
ents. Social workers should strive to be sensitive
to the needs of their clients. They should assume
responsibility for effective practice with clients. Fi-
nally, they should provide help and nurturance to
meet their clients' needs.
338 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
that we gradually learn how to behave morally. Early
The social learning perspective, then, indicates
on, young children receive reinforcement for behaving
They also see their parents and others as models
correctly and punishment for behaving incorrectly.
for doing what is right or wrong. As children grow
older, they gradually internalize these expectations
and standards of conduct. Then as they encounter
situations in which they must make moral decisions
on how to behave, they use these internalized values.
Additionally, as learning theory also predicts, they
potential consequences they might encounter.
respond to the circumstances of the moment and the
For example, the following example illustrates
to predict whether a teenager, arbitrarily called
how social learning theory principles might be used
Waldo, will cheat on his upcoming math test. Social
learning theory would focus on
00
Bota
the moral habits Waldo has learned, the expectation
he has formed about the probable consequences of his
actions, his ability to self-regulate his behavior
, and
his ultimate behavior (choice). If Waldo's parents
have consistently reinforced him when he has behaved
morally and punished him when he has misbehaved; if
he has been exposed to models of morally acceptable
behavior rather than brought up in the company
of liars, cheaters, and thieves; and if he has well-
developed self-regulatory mechanisms that cause him
to take responsibility for his actions rather than to
disengage morally, he is likely to behave in morally
acceptable ways. Yet Bandura and other social
learning theorists believe in the power of situational
influences and predict that Waldo may still cheat on
the math test if he sees his classmates cheating and
getting away with it or if he is under pressure to get
a B in math. (Sigelman & Rider, 2006, pp. 364–365)
..
libin
Moral Development: A Social Learning
Theory Perspective
Social learning theorists including Albert Bandura
(1991, 2002; Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Pas-
torelli, & Regalia, 2001) apply many of the princi-
ples of learning theory (discussed in Chapter 4) to
moral actions. They
have been primarily interested in the behavioral
component of morality—in what we actually do
when faced with temptation or with an opportunity
to behave prosocially. These theorists say that
moral behavior is learned in the same way that other
social behaviors are learned: through observational
learning and reinforcement and punishment
principles. They also consider moral behavior to
be strongly influenced by situational factors for
example, by how closely a professor watches exam
takers, by whether jewelry items are on the counter
or behind glass in a department store. (Sigelman &
Rider, 2012, p. 428)
bodo
CON
Ethical Questions 7.3
What do you think is the moral thing
for Waldo to do concerning his
upcoming math test? What do you
think Waldo would do? if you were
EP 1
Waldo, to what extent would y
tempted to cheat on the math test?
would influence your decision?
What aspects in your upbringing
Psychological Development in Adolescence
Instead, they begin to take into account the well-being
of everyone concerned, including themselves. Some of
returns, but in a more objective manner.
the concern for personal survival apparent in level 1
Level 3: The Morality of Nonviolent
Responsibility
Level 3 involves women thinking in terms of the re-
level, a woman's thinking has progressed beyond
percussions of their decisions and actions. At this
mere concern for what others will think about what
she does. Rather, it involves accepting responsibility
for making her own decisions. She places herself on
an equal plane with others, weighs the various con-
sequences of her potential actions, and accepts that
she will be responsible for these consequences. The
important principle operating here is that of mini-
mizing hurt, both to herself and to others.
Gilligan's sequence of moral development pro-
vides a good example of how morality can be viewed
from different perspectives. It is especially beneficial
in emphasizing the different strengths manifested by
men and women. The emphasis on feelings, such as
direct concern for others, is just as important as the
ability to decisively make moral judgments.com
However, yet another study found “that girls' moral
orientations are ‘somewhat more likely to focus on
care for others than on abstract principles of jus-
tice, but they can use both moral orientations when
needed (as can boys. . .)?” (Blakemore, Berenbaum, &
Liben, 2009, p. 132; cited in Santrock, 2012a, p. 231).
Other research has found that little if any differ-
ence exists between the moral reasoning of men and
women (Blakemore et al., 2009; Glover, 2001; Hyde
& Else-Quest, 2013; Walker, 1995; Wilson, 1995).
One mega-analysis involved examining the results
of 113 studies focusing on moral decision-making.
Results question the accuracy of Gilligan's belief in
significant gender differences concerning moral devel-
opment (Hyde, 2007; Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Jaffee
& Hyde, 2000). This study found that the overall pic-
ture revealed only small differences in how females and
males made moral decisions. Although females were
slightly more likely than males to use Gilligan's caring-
based approach instead of Kohlberg's justice-based
perspective, this disparity was larger in adolescence
than adulthood. Whether caring- or justice-based ap-
proaches were used depended more on the situation
being evaluated. For example, both females and males
were more likely to emphasize caring when addressing
interpersonal issues and justice when assessing more
global social issues.
Coon and Mitterer (2013) comment:
Indeed, both men and women may use caring and
justice to make moral decisions. The moral yard-
stick they use appears to depend on the situation
they face (Work & Krebs, 1996). Just the same,
Gilligan deserves credit for identifying a second
major way in which moral choices are made. It
can be argued that our best moral choices combine
justice and caring, reason and emotion—which
may be what we mean by wisdom. (Pasupathi &
Staudinger, 2001, pp. 110–111)
Critical Thinking: Evaluation,
of Gilligan's Theory
more
Some research has established support for Gilligan's
proposed gender-based differences in moral reason-
ing. For example, some studies have found that fe-
males consider moral dilemmas concerning caring
aspects of social relationships more important and
a greater moral dilemma than males do (Eisenberg
& Morris, 2004; Wark & Krebs, 2000). Another
study found that girls were more likely than boys
to use Gilligan's caring-based approaches when ad-
dressing dating predicaments (Weisz & Black, 2002).
TOID
CONCEPT SUMMARY
Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development for Women
Level 1: Orientation to personal Survival
Level 2: Goodness as self-sacrifice
Transition 1: Transition from personal selfishness to
responsibility
Transition 2: From goodness to reality
Level 3: The morality of nonviolent responsibility
Psychological Development in Adolescence 339
LO 4 Review Fowler's Theory
of Faith Development
sense
of
purpose and direction, and a kind of striv-
Chapter 3 defined spirituality as “one's values, be-
liefs, mission, awareness, subjectivity, experience,
ing toward something greater than oneself. It may
or may not include a deity. . . Religion, on the other
hand,. . . refers to a set of beliefs and practices of
an organized religious institution” (e.g., organized
churches under Roman Catholic, Muslim, or Meth-
odist denominations) (Frame, 2003, p. 3).
James Fowler (1981) proposed a theory of faith
development in which people progress through seven
stages that focus
on the formation and transformation of faith
throughout the life cycle.
· [B]y faith Fowler
meant 'the pattern of our relatedness to self,
others, and our world in light of our relatedness to
ultimacy' (1996, p. 21). “Ultimacy' refers to that
which a person gives a sense of first importance
and greatest profundity in orienting his or her life
with fundamental values, beliefs, and meanings. . .
[F]aith may take religious or nonreligious forms.
Fowler depicted faith as a universal aspect of
human nature that gives coherence and meaning
to life, connects individuals together in shared
concerns, relates people to a larger cosmic frame of
reference, and enables us to deal with suffering and
mortality. (Canda & Furman, 2010, p. 256; Fowler,
1981, 1996)
novadora
During each faith stage, an individual grows
closer to a higher power and becomes more con-
cerned about the welfare of other people. onalar
mellom
BUG
cepts. Frame (2003) explains:
Spirituality and religion are two separate con-
Many followers of religion find that its
organization, doctrine, rituals, programs, and
community are means through which their
spirituality is supported and enhanced. Likewise,
many persons who think of themselves as spiritual,
rather than religious, find that the institutions of
religion interfere with their private experiences
of spirituality. It is possible, therefore, for these
two constructs to be related in a variety of ways
and played out differently in individual lives. For
example, a person may care very deeply about
the meaning of life, may be very committed to
her purpose and direction, may even engage in
spiritual practices such as meditation, and yet not
be involved in a religious organization. Thus, one
may be spiritual without being religious. Another
person may be a member of a synagogue, keep
a kosher kitchen, be faithful to Torah, and never
really take these Jewish practices to heart. He
may go through the motions of being religious
without being spiritual. Yet another person may
be an active member of a church, attend worship
regularly, read the Bible, and pray, finding great
inspiration in these activities and support through
the institutional church. Therefore, one may be
religious and spiritual simultaneously. (p. 4)
(Chapter 15 discusses several predominant reli-
Fowler's Seven Stages of Faith Development
Fowler based his seven-stage theory on “a study
conducted from 1972 to 1981 to determine how
people viewed their personal history, how they
worked through problems to solutions, and how
they formed moral and religious commitments. He
and his collaborators conducted 359 in-depth inter-
views with mostly White men and women, primar-
ily Christian and Jewish, ranging in age from early
childhood to past age 61” (Robbins, Chatterjee, &
Canda, 2012, p. 283).
The following explains each of the seven stages.
gions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and
Buddhism, more thoroughly.)
Spirituality is an important aspect of human di-
versity. It shapes major dimensions of many people's
lives and can provide a significant source of strength.
Stage 1: Primal or Undifferentiated Faith
(Birth to 2 Years)
All people begin to develop their views of faith
and the world from scratch. Infants learn early on
whether their environment is safe or not, whether
they can trust or not. Are they being cared for in
warm, safe, secure family environments? Or are they
being hurt, neglected, and abused? People begin to
develop their use of language to express thought and
distinguish between themselves and others. They
start to develop relationships and ideas about what
those relationships mean.
As a later section explains, spirituality can serve as a
major source of empowerment that social workers
Den
must address.
340 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
more abstractly and, in some ways, view the world
from new perspectives. On the other hand, they
strive to conform. They have not yet critically eval-
uated the fundamental basis of their faith. Rather,
they adhere to conventional ideology. Duffey (2005)
reflects on stage 4:
Stage 2: Intuitive-Projective Faith (Ages 2 to 6)
Children aged 2 to 6 continue developing their abil-
ity to glean meaning from their environments. What
children are exposed to in terms of spiritual lan-
guage and experiences is what they conceptualize
about their faith. During stage 2, children are ego-
centric and manifest preoperational thought pat-
terns. Their view of faith and religion lacks in-depth
conceptualization and application to life experi-
ences. Their view of faith is that it is out there some-
place; it is whatever they're exposed to. For instance,
to Herman, whose parents adhere to strict Wiscon-
sin Synod Lutheran Church beliefs, faith is going
to church, singing hymns, attending Sunday school,
and saying bedtime prayers every night. If asked
where God is, he says, “Everywhere,” because that's
what he's been told.
Faith is seen as that which brings people together
and provides a unifying concept and sense of
belonging for family, congregation, and society. For
many, this is the terminal stage of development.
In this stage, individuals do not acknowledge
differences in faith practices of others and view
their faith as the “one right, true, only way.” An
example of this stage can be seen in adolescents
who form groups based on fitting in: if you wear
these clothes, listen to this type of music, like these
people, etc., then you are part of the group. At this
stage, any image of deity is seen as a companion
and ally. Faith is rule bound and hierarchical with
no questioning of the group's norms and beliefs.
(pp. 323–324)
Stage 3: Mythic-Literal Faith (Ages 6 to 12)
Development of conceptual thought continues over
this period. Stories are especially important as ways
to help children develop their thinking about life and
relationships. Individuals can be deeply moved by
dramatic representations and spiritual symbolism,
such as religious ceremonies. The concrete opera-
tions period helps children distinguish between what
is real and what is not. During this stage, children
think more seriously about aspects related to faith,
although their “beliefs are literal and one dimen-
sional”; Frame (2003) explains:
von bolow
20
People in this stage often develop a concept of
God... as a cosmic ruler who acts with fairness and
moral reciprocity (Fowler, 1987). Persons in the
mythic-literal stage often assume that God rewards
goodness and punishes evil. They might exhibit a
kind of perfectionism in their efforts to be rewarded
for their goodness. On the other hand, they could be
self-abasing, assuming that because they have been
abused or neglected by significant others, they are
inherently bad and will be punished. (p. 41)
Stage 5: Individuative-Reflective Faith
(Early Adulthood and Beyond).
Critical thinking about the meaning of life charac-
terizes stage 5. “The focus of faith moves away from
being viewed as the unifying concept of the group
and more as making sense of the individual” (Duffey,
2005, p. 324). People confront conflicts in values and
ideas, and they strive to establish their individualized
belief system. For example, a young woman will seri-
ously consider the extent to which her own personal
beliefs coincide with conventional religious practices
and beliefs. If her church condemns abortion, does
she agree or not? If her church denies membership
to lesbian and gay people, does she support this or
not? Stage 5 marks the construction of a more de-
tailed internal spiritual belief system that reflects an
individual's critical evaluation of the physical and
spiritual world. “This stage may occur in those who
Stage 4: Synthetic-Conventional Faith
(Ages 12 and Older)
During this stage, individuals develop their abil-
ity to conceptualize and apply information in new
ways. They are exposed to much more of the world
through social, school, and media experiences. They
no longer perceive the world as literally as they did
in stage 3. On the one hand, people begin to think
stay within organized religious practice, as well as in
those who leave” (Duffey, 2005, p. 324).
Stage 6: Conjunctive Faith
(Midlife and Beyond)
reached stage 6, conjunctive faith, and then never
Only one-sixth of all respondents in Fowler's study
before age 30. The concept that characterizes this
phase is integration. Individuals have confronted the
Psychological Development in Adolescence 341
conflicts between their own views and conventional
ones and have accepted that such conflicts exist.
ception of the physical and spiritual universe. They
They have integrated their own beliefs into their per-
have accepted that diversity and opposites character-
ize life. Good exists along with evil. Happiness dwells
beside sadness. Strength subsists alongside weakness.
Spiritual beliefs assume a deeper perspective. Duffey
(2005) explains: “The individual becomes more open
to religious and spiritual traditions different from
one's own. An example of someone at this stage is
a person willing to respect the validity of another's
truth' even when it contradicts one's own, while si-
multaneously being able to communicate one's own
authentic "truth” (p. 324). Frame (2003) notes that
people “develop a passion for justice that is beyond
the claims of race, class, culture, nation, or reli-
gious community. These convictions enable people
in the conjunctive stage to lay down their defenses
and to tolerate differences in belief while staying
firmly grounded in their own personal faith systems”
(pp. 42–43).
Stage 7: Universalizing Faith (Midlife
and Beyond)
Universalizing faith is characterized by selfless com-
mitment to justice on behalf of others. In stage 6,
people confront discrepancies and unfairness, inte-
grating them into their perception of how the world
operates. However, the self remains the primary refer-
nce point. An individual accepts and appreciates his
own vulnerability, and seeks his own continued exis-
ence and salvation. Stage 7, however, reflects a deeply
piritual concern for the greater good, the benefit of
he masses, above oneself. Such commitment may
volve becoming a martyr on behalf of or devoting
ne's life to some great cause at the expense of per-
onal pleasure and well-being. Only a tiny minority of
eople may reach this point. Martin Luther King Jr.,
Mother Teresa, and Joan of Arc are examples.
However, at least three criticisms of the theory
come to mind. First, the sample on which it was
based is very limited in terms of race and religious
orientation. Questions can be raised regarding the
extent to which it can be applied universally to non-
Christian faiths worldwide.
Second, concepts of human diversity, oppres-
sion, and discrimination are not taken into account.
There is an inherent assumption that all people
start out with a clean slate. In reality, some are born
richer, some poorer, some in high-tech societies, oth-
ers in third-world environments. To what extent do
people's exposure to more ideas and greater access
to the world's activities and resources affect the de-
velopment of faith? Are all people provided an equal
opportunity to develop faith? Do oppression and
discrimination affect one's spirituality and the evolu-
tion of faith?
A third criticism is the difficulty of applying
Fowler's theory to macro situations. How does the
development of faith from an individual perspec-
tive fit into the overall scheme of the macro environ-
ment? How does faith development potentially affect
organizational, community, and political life?
Ethical Questions 7.4
What are your personal beliefs
about spirituality and religion?
To what extent do
you
believe
all people should also hold your
views?
EP 1
ritical Thinking: Evaluation of Fowler's Theory
owler provides a logically organized theory con-
erning the development of faith. It follows Piaget's
coposed levels of cognitive development, advanc-
g from the more concrete to the more abstract.
makes sense that people increase their ability to
ink critically, integrate more difficult concepts, and
evelop deeper, more committed ideas and beliefs as
eir lives and thinking progress.
100
TONDA
it so brons in
Social Work Practice and Empowerment
Through Spiritual Development
Spirituality rises above concern over
worldly things such as possessions and
expands consciousness to a realm be-
yond the physical environment. It is a
EP 2a
“universal aspect of human culture”
EP 2c
(Canda, 1989; Cowley & Derezotes,
1994) that concerns “developing a
sense of meaning, purpose, and morality” (Canda,
1989, p. 39). It can provide people with strength to
withstand pain and guidance to determine what life
paths to take.
Psychological Development in Adolescence 343
密
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 7.2
Evidence-Based Practice and Spirituality
The social work profession and its accreditation standards
emphasize the importance of employing evidence-based
interventions, evaluating practice effectiveness, and using
research results to improve service delivery (CSWE, 2015).
meditation, and spiritually oriented cognitive-behavioral
therapy are also showing promise” (p. 22). Other research
results indicate that spiritual well-being is related to people's
ability to respond resiliently to sickness and other crises, and
to lower incidences of family violence (Canda, 2008).
Canda and Furman (2010) reflect that
Rubin and Babbie (2014) explain:
Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a process in which
practitioners make practice decisions in light of the
best research evidence available. But rather than
rigidly constrict practitioner options, the EBP model
encourages practitioners to integrate scientific evidence
with their practice expertise and knowledge of the
idiosyncratic circumstances bearing on specific practice
decisions. (p. 28)
There has not been much empirical research in social work
regarding the effectiveness of practices involving spirituality;
however, research conducted in other helping professions
in establishing positive relationships “between religious
participation and well-being” (Canda, 2008, p. 416; Canda
& Furman, 2010). Canda and Furman (2010) conclude that
"empirical research is showing through hundreds of studies
in several disciplines that positive sense of spiritual meaning
and religious participation are related to reduced levels of
depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and risk behaviors along
with an increased sense of well-being and mutual support.
Specific spiritually based practices, such as forgiveness,
[t]he concept of spirituality includes certain quantifiable
and measurable aspects (such as frequency of church
attendance or level of self-assessed sense of meaning)
[and] various processes, experiences, and systems
that are best explored through qualitative methods
of observation (such as the subjective experience
of meditation or the communal patterns of mutual
support in religious groups). . . While we recognize the
utility of the scientific method as it has derived from
European and American cultures, we also respect the
forms of knowledge and wisdom found among the elders,
mentors, and adepts of religious traditions and culturally
specific healing systems around the world We value
understanding that comes from a convergence of sensory,
rational, emotional, and intuitive ways of knowing. Foro
a truly integral approach we need to combine inquiry
approaches that address both the subjective and objective
dimensions of individual and collective phenomena of
spirituality (Wilber, 2006). (p. 23)
self-serving aggression, on the other, can be damag-
ing and nonproductive. Young lives terminated at an
early age represent tragic and regrettable losses of
potential. 12
rotide berschule
Each of these issues may be viewed from either a
psychological or a social perspective. They will arbi-
trarily be addressed in this chapter, which focuses on
the psychological aspects of adolescence. bivad
mo
TOS
sim
LO 5 Assess Empowerment W
Through Assertiveness andoque
iliwa
people appropriate assertiveness is difficult to mas-
ter. For instance, consider the two people sitting
in front of you in a movie theater who are talk-
ing loudly. How should you react? Should you ig-
nore them even though it's the scariest portion of
the latest horror film? Should you scream, “Shut
up!”? Or should you tap one of them gently on
the shoulder and politely ask the person to please
be quiet?
US
Your best friend asks to borrow your car. Your
friend emphasizes it'll only be for one time and it's
needed for such an important reason. You happen to
know that your friend is not a very good driver, has
gotten two speeding tickets in the past six months,
and sometimes drives after drinking. Should you
say, “No way! You know what a horrible driver you
are”? Should you say, “Sure”? Should you say, “Well,
okay, I guess so"? Or should you say, “No. You know
I don't let other people drive my car. Would it help if
I drive you somewhere?"
Assertiveness Training
Assertiveness involves behavior that is straight-
forward, yet not offensive. The behavior can be
either verbal or nonverbal. Assertiveness involves
taking into account both your own rights and the
rights of others. It sounds simple, but for many
HIGHLIGHT 7.2
Each of Us Has Certain Assertive Rights
4. You have the right to stand up for yourself without
unwarranted anxiety and make choices that are good
Part of becoming assertive involves believing that we are
worthwhile people. It's easy to criticize ourselves for our
in because we're afraid that we will hurt someone else's
for you.
are held in too long will burst out in an aggressive tirade. This
mistakes and imperfections. And it's easy to hold our feelings
feelings or that someone will reject us. Sometimes feelings that
applies to anyone, including our clients.
A basic principle in social work is that each individual is a
valuable human being. Everyone, therefore, has certain basic rights.
The following are eight of your, and your clients', assertive
5. You have the right not to be liked by everyone. (Do you
like everyone you know?)
6. You have the right to make requests and to refuse them
without feeling guilty.
7. You have the right to ask for information if you need it.
8. Finally, you have the right to decide not to exercise your
assertive rights. In other words, you have the right to
choose not to be assertive.
rights:
1. You have the right to express your ideas and opinions
openly and honestly.
2. You have the right to be wrong. Everyone makes
mistakes.
3. You have the right to direct and govern your own life. In
other words, you have the right to be responsible for yourself.
SOURCE: Most of these rights are adapted from Lynn Z. Bloom,
Karen Coburn, and Joan Pearlman, The New Assertive Woman
(New York: Dell, 1976), and from Kathryn Apgar and Betsy
Nicholson Callahan, Four One-Day Workshops (Boston: Resource
Communications, Inc., and Family Service Association of Greater
Boston, 1980).
ansatte: 5
ord
Aggressive communication involves bold and
dominant verbal and nonverbal behavior in which
a speaker presses his or her point of view as tak-
ing precedence over all others. Aggressive speakers
consider only their views as important and devalue
what the receiver has to say. Aggressive behaviors are
demanding and most often annoying. Consider, for
example, the man who barges in at the return desk
in front of 17 other people standing in line and de-
mands service!
Nonassertive communication is the opposite of
aggressive. Speakers devalue themselves. They feel
that what the other person involved thinks is much
more important than their own thoughts. For ex-
ample, for lunch, one day Cassie orders a hamburger
well done. The waitress brings her a burger that's
Situation 1
A 16-year-old girl is on her first date with a young
man she likes. After a movie and pizza, they drive
around a bit and find a secluded spot in the country
where he pulls over and parks. The girl does not want
to get sexually involved with the young man. She
thinks this is too soon in their relationship. What will
he think of her? She doesn't know him well enough
yet to become intimate. What can she say?
ov
1 Nonassertive response: She says nothing and lets
him make his sexual advances.
Aggressive response: “Get your slimy hands off
me, you pervert!”
Assertive response: “I like you, Harry, but I don't
think we know each other well enough yet to
get involved this way. Would you please take me
home now?” 0012
practically dripping blood. However, Cassie is afraid
of what the waitress will think if she complains. She
doesn't want to be seen as a “bitch.” So, instead of
assertively telling the waitress that the hamburger is
much too rare, Cassie douses it in ketchup and forces
herself to eat half of it.
There is no perfect recipe for what to say to be
assertive in any particular situation. The important
thing is to take into consideration both your own
rights and the rights of the person you are talking to.
Situation 2
Biff, Clay's supervisor at Stop 'n' Shop, tells Clay
that he needs him to work several extra hours during
the upcoming weekend. Biff has often asked Clay to
work extra time on weekends. However, he doesn't
ask any of the other workers to do so. Clay thinks
this is unfair. He needs his job, but he hates to work
extra hours on weekends. What can he say?
Following
are a few examples.
346 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
The Advantages of Assertiveness
interpersonal environment. Assertiveness
may hello
For one thing, you can gain more control over your
Developing assertiveness skills has many benefits.
you avoid uncomfortable or hostile interactions with
others. You will probably feel that other people un-
concept can be enhanced as the result of your gain
derstand you better than they did before. Your self-
in control and interpersonal effectiveness. Appropri-
ate assertiveness helps to alleviate building up undue
tension and stress and diminish such psychosomatic
reactions as headaches or stomach upsets. Finally,
other people may gain respect for you, your strength,
and your own demonstration of respect for others.
People may even begin to use you as a role model for
their own development of assertive behavior.
Rubber Ball/Alamy Stock Photo
Assertiveness Training
Assertiveness training leads people to realize, feel,
and act on the assumption that they have the right to
be themselves and express their feelings freely. Asser-
tive responses generally are not aggressive responses.
The distinction between these two types of interac-
tions is important. For example, a woman has an
excessively critical father-in-law. Intentionally doing
things that will bother him (bringing up topics that
she knows will upset him, forgetting Father's Day
and his birthday, not visiting) and getting into loud
arguments with him would be considered aggressive
behavior.
An effectively assertive response, however, would
be to counter criticism by saying, “Dad, your criti-
cism deeply hurts me. I know you're trying to help
when you give advice, but I feel that you're criticizing
me. I'm an adult, and I have the right to make my
Aggressive behavior reflects the dominance of the aggressor and
devalues the rights and needs of others.
10 Dabulous
voor ons
Nonassertive response: “Okay."
Aggressive response: “No way, Jose! Get off my
butt, Biff!”
obor
lado
Assertive response: “You know I like my job here,
Biff. However, I'm sorry, but I can't work extra
hours next weekend. I've already made other
plans.
Situation 3
Dinah Lee and Hannah, both 18, hang around with
the same group of friends. However, they don't like
each other very much. Dinah Lee approaches Han-
nah one day and says, “It's too bad you're gaining so
much weight.” What can Hannah say?
Nonassertive response: “Yes, you're right. I'm try-
ing to go on a diet.”
Aggressive response: "I'm not nearly as fat or ugly
as you are, Buzzard Breath!”
000
Assertive response: “No, I haven't gained any
weight. I think that was a very inappropriate
thing to say. It sounded as if you were just trying
to hurt my feelings.”
own decisions and mistakes. The type of relationship
that I'd like to have with you is a close adult relation-
ship and not a father-child relationship.
As we know, social work is practical. Therefore,
you can use the suggestions provided to enhance
both your client's assertiveness and your own.
Alberti and Emmons (1976a, 1976b, 2001, 2008)
developed the following 13 steps to help establish
assertive behavior:
in situations requiring assertiveness? Do you
1. Examine your own actions. How do you behave
think you tend to be nonassertive, assertive, or
ত
aggressive in most of your communications?
Psychological Development in Adolescence 347
2. Make a record of those situations in which you
felt you could have behaved more effectively, ei-
ther more assertively or less aggressively.
3. Select and focus on some specific instance when
you felt you could have been more appropriately
actly was said? How did
assertive. Visualize the specific details. What ex-
?
4. Analyze how you reacted. Examine closely your
verbal and nonverbal behavior. Alberti and
Emmons (2008, pp. 71-81) cite the following
seven aspects of behavior that are important to
monitor:
a. Eye contact. Did you look the person in the
eye? Or did you find yourself avoiding eye
contact when you were uncomfortable?
b. Body posture. Were you standing up straight,
or were you slouching? Were you leaning
away from the person sheepishly? Were you
holding your head up straight as you looked
the person in the eye? De
Dos do SIC-
c. Gestures. Were your hand gestures fitting
for the situation? Did you feel at ease? Or
were you tapping your feet or cracking your
knuckles? In the beginning of his term, peo-
ple often criticized President George H. W.
Bush for moving his arms and hands around
during his public speeches. This tended to
give the public the impression that he was
frantic. Professional coaches helped him gain
control of this behavior and present a calmer
public image.iso old Sca
d. Facial expressions. Did you have a serious ex-
pression on your face? Were you smiling or
giggling uncomfortably, thereby giving the
impression that you were not really serious?
e. Voice tone, inflection, volume. Did you speak
in a normal voice tone? Did you whisper tim-
idly? Did you raise your voice to the point of
stressful screeching? Did you sound as if you
were winning?
f. Timing. It is best to make an appropriately as-
g. Content. What you say in your assertive re-
sponse is obviously important. Did you
choose your words carefully? Did your re-
sponse have the impact you wanted it to have?
Why or why not?
5. Identify a role model, and examine how he or
she handled a situation requiring assertiveness.
What exactly happened during the incident?
What words did your model use that were
particularly effective? Wha...
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