HS 3310 Troy University Perspective of Theorist Erik Erikson Discussion Paper

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Directions:

I am going to assign you a short case scenario that will require you to incorporate three perspectives. This will include your own perspective, the perspective of theorist Erik Erikson, and the perspective of theorist James Marcia.

You are to address A, then B, and then C in this APA formatted paper.

This means you will have an APA cover page, and an APA reference page.

You will use the textbook on your reference page,

as well as TWO other creditable sources for EACH theorist.

This means you will have a total of at least 5 Creditable sources on your reference page. If you do not have 5 creditable references, deductions will occur.

Erik Erikson is a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory of Psychosocial Development. Erikson is addressed throughout this book and his psychoanalytic theory identifies a series of eight stages in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood.

You are to read and research Erik Erikson's theory of “Eight Stages of Development". Erickson’s 8 stages begin on page 321, chapter 7, however additional research will be required to ensure a comprehensive understanding of this theory.

James Marcia is a developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when they experience identity crises.

You are to read and research James Marcia’s theory on the Four Identity Statuses. Marcia’s 4 Identity Statuses are listed on page 326, in chapter 7.However, additional research will be required to ensure a comprehensive understanding of this theory.

If you are not familiar with APA guidelines you may contact the Writing Center on the Dothan campus for direction and guidance.


Instructions: Read the short case scenario below and answer the questions that follow. Your entry will be evaluated for clarity, integration of information from the text and scholarly literature, and for evidence of proofreading. Answer ALL questions. Due:

CASE SCENARO

“Rolando is the first born and only son of Luis and Maria and the hope of their family name. Luis has plans for Rolando to go into this new family business and looks forward to the many grandchildren that Rolando will give to the family. Rolando has great respect for his parents, family, and tradition and always wants to please everyone. Rolando wants to attend college and is struggling with his identity”.

  • You are their case manager. What areas of concern do YOU see for Rolando and his parents?After you state your concerns, back them up by providing examples from the case study that explain why you are concerned. Critically think about the possible ramifications/consequences, or pros and cons associated with your 3 valid concerns? This section requires that you employ critical thinking skills. Connect the dots for me!
  • Erikson’s theory: Address the following 4 stages from Erikson’s 8 stages and talk your way through how EACH INDIVIDUAL stage applies to this case. Address Intimacy, then Isolation, followed by Generativity, and lastly Stagnation.
  • Marcia’s theory. Address the following 4 stages from Marcia and talk your way through how each stage would or would not apply to Rolando.

You must provide 2 valid statements of concern. (.50 x 2 = 1)

You must provide 2 valid explanations of why you are concerned. (.50 x 2 = 1)

What are the concerns? What are potential outcomes? Discuss with me what you are thinking regarding each stage. Explain your reasoning for each.

Stage SIX:

Are any family members in these stages? Who? How?

(1) Intimacy - 1 point

(2) Isolation - 1 point

Stage SEVEN:

Are any family members in these stages? Who? How?

(3) Generativity -1 point

(4) Stagnation - 1 point

What are the concerns? What are potential outcomes? Discuss with me what you are thinking regarding each stage. Explain your reasoning for each.

  • Identity Achievement - 1 point
  • Foreclosure - 1 point
  • Identity Diffusion - 1 point
  • Moratorium - 1 point

How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.

How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.

How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.

How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain.

In this assignment you are to explain how Erikson's, and Marcia’s theories apply to Rolando, along with your own concerns. You should be able to express your thoughts and statements in a paper that is no less than three pages. If you submit a paper less than three full page’s deductions will occur.

DEDUCTIONS:

APA formatting is required in this assignment. This means all pages are to follow the guidelines of APA. (Title page, reference page, page numbers, body of submission, subtitles, etc. …)

If APA is not formatted deductions will occur.

.50 deduction per 3 grammatical errors. (Contractions are grammatical errors.)

1 - point deduction for every day late.

.50 - point deduction if cover page is not APA

.50 - point deduction if reference page is not APA

You must have 5 creditable APA references with one being the textbook.

Make sure your references are APA formatted in order to earn full credit.

.50- point deduction if subtitles are not used.

.15 deduction if page number missing and mut be positioned APA.

****** I will upload the page with the directions and also the textbook

Unformatted Attachment Preview

1 Human Behavior One CRITICAL THINKING ASSIGNMENT #3 Chapter 7 YOU/Marcia/Erikson: 10 points I am going to assign you a short case scenario that will require you to incorporate three perspectives. This will include your own perspective, the perspective of theorist Erik Erikson, and the perspective of theorist James Marcia. You are to address A, then B, and then C in this APA formatted paper. This means you will have an APA cover page, and an APA reference page. You will use the textbook on your reference page, as well as TWO other creditable sources for EACH theorist. This means you will have a total of at least 5 Creditable sources on your reference page. If you do not have 5 creditable references, deductions will occur. Erik Erikson is a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory of Psychosocial Development. Erikson is addressed throughout this book and his psychoanalytic theory identifies a series of eight stages in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. You are to read and research Erik Erikson's theory of “Eight Stages of Development". Erickson’s 8 stages begin on page 321, chapter 7, however additional research will be required to ensure a comprehensive understanding of this theory. James Marcia is a developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when they experience identity crises. You are to read and research James Marcia’s theory on the Four Identity Statuses. Marcia’s 4 Identity Statuses are listed on page 326, in chapter 7. However, additional research will be required to ensure a comprehensive understanding of this theory. If you are not familiar with APA guidelines you may contact the Writing Center on the Dothan campus for direction and guidance. The Writing Center Aimee Burr Aburr62157@troy.edu 2 Instructions: Read the short case scenario below and answer the questions that follow. Your entry will be evaluated for clarity, integration of information from the text and scholarly literature, and for evidence of proofreading. Answer ALL questions. Due: CASE SCENARO “Rolando is the first born and only son of Luis and Maria and the hope of their family name. Luis has plans for Rolando to go into this new family business and looks forward to the many grandchildren that Rolando will give to the family. Rolando has great respect for his parents, family, and tradition and always wants to please everyone. Rolando wants to attend college and is struggling with his identity”. A. You are their case manager. What areas of concern do YOU see for Rolando and his parents? After you state your concerns, back them up by providing examples from the case study that explain why you are concerned. Critically think about the possible ramifications/consequences, or pros and cons associated with your 3 valid concerns? This section requires that you employ critical thinking skills. Connect the dots for me! You must provide 2 valid statements of concern. (.50 x 2 = 1) You must provide 2 valid explanations of why you are concerned. (.50 x 2 = 1) B. Erikson’s theory: Address the following 4 stages from Erikson’s 8 stages and talk your way through how EACH INDIVIDUAL stage applies to this case. Address Intimacy, then Isolation, followed by Generativity, and lastly Stagnation. What are the concerns? What are potential outcomes? Discuss with me what you are thinking regarding each stage. Explain your reasoning for each. 3 Stage SIX: Are any family members in these stages? Who? How? (1) Intimacy - 1 point (2) Isolation - 1 point Stage SEVEN: Are any family members in these stages? Who? How? (3) Generativity -1 point (4) Stagnation - 1 point C. Marcia’s theory. Address the following 4 stages from Marcia and talk your way through how each stage would or would not apply to Rolando. What are the concerns? What are potential outcomes? Discuss with me what you are thinking regarding each stage. Explain your reasoning for each. 1. Identity Achievement - 1 point How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain. 2. Foreclosure - 1 point How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain. 3. Identity Diffusion - 1 point How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain. 4. Moratorium - 1 point How does this stage apply to Rolando? Is he in this stage? Explain. In this assignment you are to explain how Erikson's, and Marcia’s theories apply to Rolando, along with your own concerns. You should be able to express your thoughts and statements in a paper that is no less than three pages. If you submit a paper less than three full page’s deductions will occur. 4 DEDUCTIONS: APA formatting is required in this assignment. This means all pages are to follow the guidelines of APA. (Title page, reference page, page numbers, body of submission, subtitles, etc. …) If APA is not formatted deductions will occur. .50 deduction per 3 grammatical errors. (Contractions are grammatical errors.) 1 - point deduction for every day late. .50 - point deduction if cover page is not APA .50 - point deduction if reference page is not APA You must have 5 creditable APA references with one being the textbook. Make sure your references are APA formatted in order to earn full credit. .50- point deduction if subtitles are not used. .15 deduction if page number missing and mut be positioned APA. E-mail me if you have questions! Mrs. V Empowerment Series 11th EDITION Understanding HUMAN BEHAVIOR and the SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT CHARLES H. ZASTROW | KAREN K. KIRST-ASHMAN SARAH L. HESSENAUER E 느 拉 L Tipo g A. 9 CENGAGE AUTHENTIC CENGAGE PRODUCT 1 DINO FQCOOAADC04404 322 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment Stage 1: Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust For infants up to 18 months of age, learning to trust others is the overriding crisis. To develop trust, one must understand that some people and some things able for such learning. For instance, infants who can be depended on. Parents provide a major vari- consistently receive warm, loving care and nourish- ment learn to trust that these things will be provided to them. Later in life, people may apply this con- cept of trust to friends, an intimate partner, or their government. Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt The crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt 3 years. Children strive to accomplish things inde- characterizes early childhood, from 18 months to pendently. They learn to feed themselves and to use the toilet. Accomplishing various tasks provides chil- dren with feelings of self-worth and self-confidence. On the other hand, if children of this age are con- stantly downtrodden, restricted, or punished, shame and doubt will emerge instead. Self-doubt will re- place the self-confidence that should have developed during this period. SW Productions/Photodisc/Getty Images Forming your identity is a process of serious reflection about who you are and you want to became. formation during adolescence. After the entire the- ory is discussed, its application to adolescence will be explored in greater depth. Each stage of human development presents its characteristic crises. Coping well with each crisis makes an individual better prepared to cope with the next. Although specific crises are most critical dur- ing particular stages, related issues continue to arise throughout a person's life. For example, the conflict of trust versus mistrust is especially important in in- fancy. Yet children and adults continue to struggle with whether or not to trust others. Resolution of each crisis is an ideal, not neces- sarily a reality. The degree to which crises in earlier stages are resolved will affect a person's ability to re- solve crises in later stages. If an individual doesn't learn how to trust in stage 1, that person will find it very difficult to attain intimacy in stage 6. Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt Preschoolers aged 3 to 6 years must face the crisis of taking their own initiative. Children at this age are extremely active physically; the world fascinates them and beckons them to explore it. They have ac- tive imaginations and are eager to learn. Preschool- ers who are encouraged to take initiative to explore and learn are likely to assimilate this concept for use later in life. They will be more likely to feel con- fident in initiating relationships, pursuing career objectives, and developing recreational interests. Preschoolers who are consistently restricted, pun. ished, or treated harshly are more likely to experi , ence the emotion of guilt . They want to explore and experience, but they are not allowed to. Instead of learning initiative, they are likely to feel guilty about their tremendous desires to do so many things. In reaction, they may become passive observers who follow the lead of others instead of initiating their own activities and ideas Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority the crisis of industry versus inferiority. Children in School-age children 6 to 12 years old must address this age group need to be productive and succeed Psychological Development in Adolescence 323 Various types of intimate relationships and how people experience them will be discussed in more de- tail in Chapter 8. inferiority. cus of their lives is school. Therefore, mastering in their activities. In addition to play, a major fo- academic skills and material is important. Those who do learn to be industrious master activities. Comparison with peers becomes exceptionally im- or even in peer relations, may develop a sense of portant. Children who experience failure in school, Stoge 5: Identity Versus Role Confusion Adolescence is a time when young people explore who they are and establish their identity. It is the transition period from childhood to adulthood when child, sibling, student, Catholic, Native American, people examine the various roles they play (e.g., ception of self, an identity. Some people are unable basketball star) and integrate these roles into a per- to integrate their many roles and have difficulty cop- role confusion. Such persons feel confused and un- certain about their identity. ing with conflicting roles; they are said to suffer from Stage 7: Generativity Versus Stagnation Mature adulthood is characterized by the crisis of generativity versus stagnation. During this time of life, people become concerned with helping, produc- ing for, or guiding the following generation. Gen- erativity involves a genuine concern for the future beyond one's own life track, although it does not necessarily involve procreating one's own children. Rather, it concerns a drive to be creative and pro- ductive in a way that will aid people in the future. Adults who lack generativity become self-absorbed. They tend to focus primarily on their own concerns and needs rather than on those of others. The result is stagnation—a fixed, discouraging lack of progress and productivity. Stage 8: Ego Integrity Versus Despair The crisis of ego integrity versus despair character- izes old age. During this time of life, people tend to look back over their years and reflect on them. If they appreciate their life and are content with their accomplishments, they are said to have ega integrity—the ultimate form of identity integra- tion. Such people enjoy a sense of peace and accept the fact that life will soon be over. Others who have failed to cope successfully with past life crises and have many regrets experience despair. Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation Young adulthood is characterized by a quest for inti- macy, which involves more than the establishment of a sexual relationship. Intimacy includes the ability to share with and give to another person without being afraid of sacrificing one's own identity. People who do not attain intimacy are likely to suffer isolation. These people have often been unable to resolve some of the crises of earlier psychosocial development. CONCEPT SUMMARY Erikson's Eight Stages of Development Important Event Age Stage Crisis Birth to 18 months Basic trust versus basic mistrust 1. 18 months to 3 years 2. 3. 3 to 6 years 6 to 12 years Adolescence Feeding Toileting Locomoting School Peer relationship Love relationship Parenting and creating Reflecting on and accepting one's life Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Industry versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Ego integrity versus despair 4. Young adulthood 5. 6. Maturity 7. Old age 8. 324 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment “ Implications of Identity Formation in Adolescence Achieving genital maturity and rapid body growth sig- nals young people that they will soon be adults. They therefore begin to question their future roles as adults. The most important task of adolescence is to develop a poses some questions to help you explore and articu- an important part of this search for identity. HIGHLIGHT 7.1 How to Determine Who You Are of dwelling, rural or urban setting, closeness to relatives or friends, and characteristics of the neighborhood.) 9. What do I enjoy doing with my leisure time? 10. What kind of image do I want to project to others? (Your image will be composed of your dressing style and grooming habits, your emotions, personality, assertiveness, capacity to communicate, material possessions, moral code, physical features, and voice patterns. You need to assess your strengths and shortcomings honestly in this area, and seek to make needed improvements.) 11. What type of people do I enjoy being with, and why? 12. Do I want to improve the quality of my life and that of others? (If yes, in what ways, and how do you hope to achieve these goals?) 13. What types of relationships do I want to have with relatives, friends, neighbors, and people I meet for the first time? 14. What are my thoughts about death and dying? 15. What do I hope to be doing in 5 years, 10 years, 20 years? you find Forming an identity essentially involves thinking about, and arriving at, answers to the following questions: (1) What do I want out of life? (2) What kind of person do I want to be? (3) Who am I? The most important decisions you make in your life may well be in arriving at answers to these questions. Answers to these questions are not easy to arrive at. They require considerable contemplation and trial and error. But if you are to lead a fulfilling life, it is imperative to find answers to give direction and meaning to your life. Without answers, you are apt to muddle through life by being a passive responder to situations that arise, rather than a continual achiever of your life's goals. Knowing who you are and where you are going are important both for clients and for you as a practitioner. The following questions may be a useful tool in pursuing that quest: 1. What do I find satisfying, meaningful, and enjoyable? (Only after you identify what is meaningful and gratifying will you be able to consciously seek involvement in activities that will make your life fulfilling, and avoid those activities that are meaningless or stifling.) 2. What is my moral code? (One possible code is to seek to fulfill your needs and to seek to do what enjoyable, doing so in a way that does not deprive others of the ability to fulfill their needs.) 3. What are my spiritual beliefs? 4. What are my employment goals? (Ideally, you should seek employment that you find stimulating and satisfying, that you are skilled at, and that provides you with enough money to support your lifestyle.) 5. What are my sexual morals? (All of us should develop a consistent code that we are comfortable with and that helps us to meet our needs without exploiting others. There is no one right code—what works for one may not work for another, due to differences in lifestyles, life goals, and personal values.) 6. Do I want to have a committed relationship? (If yes, with what type of person and when? How consistent are your answers here with your other life goals?) 7. Do I want to have children? (If yes, how many and when? How consistent are your answers here with your other life goals?) 8. What area of the country or world do I want to live in? (Variables to be considered are climate, geography, type To have a fairly well-developed sense of identity, you need to have answers to most, but not all, of these questions. Very few people are able to arrive at rational, consistent answers to all the questions. Having answers to most of them will provide a reference for developing your views in the yet unanswered areas. Honest, well-thought-out answers to these questions will go a long way toward defining who you are. Again, what you want out of life, along with your motivation to achieve these goals, will primarily determine your identity. These questions are simple to state, but arriving at answers is a complicated, ongoing process. In addition, expect some changes in your life goals as time goes on. Environmental influences change in your life you are, you will be prepared to make changes (e.g., changes in working conditions). Also, as personal growth occurs, changes are apt to occur in activities that you find enjoyable and also in your beliefs, attitudes, and values. Accept such changes. If you have a fairly good idea of who goals, which will give continued direction to your life. Your make and decisions that are made for you. Without a sense life is shaped by events that are the results of decisions you of identity, you will not know what decisions are best for you. With a sense of identity, you will be able to direct your life toward goals you select and find personally meaningful. Psychological Development in Adolescence 321 velopment confronting adolescents. Psychological systems involve such aspects of growth and de- psychological system interacts with biological and social systems to affect behavior. psy- A Perspective This chapter will focus on some of the major psychological growth tasks and pitfalls as forming an identity and developing a personal morality. An individual's We have already addressed some of the interactions between biological and chological systems. For example, maturation rate and body weight (which relate to an individual's biological system) can affect body image and self-concept (which relate to the psychological system). Knowledge of psychological milestones normally negotiated during adolescence is important for the overall assessment of behavior and functioning. Additionally, this chapter will discuss two categories of critical issues that affect many individuals in this age group: assertiveness and suicide. Learning Objectives This chapter will help prepare students to LO 1 Explore identity formation in adolescence (including Erikson's psychosocial theory, Marcia's categories of identity, and Glasser's Theories) LO 2 Examine race, culture, ethnicity, and identity development EP 6a LO 3 Explore moral development (including Kohlberg's theory, EP 7b Gilligan's approach, and a social learning perspective) EP 8b LO 4 Review Fowler's theory of faith development LO 5 Assess empowerment through assertiveness and assertiveness training LO 6 Explore suicide in adolescence LO 1 Explore Identity Formation angol in Adolescence Personal identities crystallize during adolescence. Through experimentation and evaluation of experi- ence and ideas, the adolescent should establish some sense of who he or she really is. In other words, throughout life as a result of the interaction between biologically based maturation and the demands of society. The emphasis is on the role of the social envi- ronment in personality development. The eight stages are based partly on the stages proposed by Freud and partly on Erikson's studies in a wide variety of cultures. Erikson writes that the society in which one lives makes certain psychic demands at each stage of development. Erikson calls these demands crises. During each psychosocial stage, the individual must seek to adjust to the stresses and conflicts involved in these crises. The search for identity is a crisis that confronts people during adolescence. Although Erikson's psychosocial theory ad- dresses development throughout the life span, it is included here because of the importance of identity people get to know themselves during adolescence. Explored here are Erikson's psychosocial theory and Marcia's categories of identity. Erikson's Psychosocial Theory psychological development comprising eight stages. Erik Erikson (1950, 1968) proposed a theory of This theory focuses on how personalities evolve Psychological Development in Adolescence 325 riety of way is The primary danger during the identity devel- opment process, according to Erikson, is identity confusion. This confusion can be expressed in a va- ways. One is to delay acting like a respon- sible adult. Another is to commit oneself to poorly thought-out courses of action. Still another to regress into childishness to avoid assuming the cliquishness of adolescence and its intolerance of responsibilities of adulthood. Erikson views the differences as defenses against identity confusion. Falling in love is viewed as an attempt to define identity. Through self-disclosing intimate thoughts and feelings with another, the adolescent is articu- lating and seeking to better understand his or her identity. Through seeing the reactions of a loved The crisis of identity versus role confusion is best resolved through integrating earlier identifications, present values, and future goals into a consistent self-concept. A sense of identity is achieved only af- ter a period of questioning, reevaluation, and experi- mentation. Efforts to resolve questions of identity may take the young person down paths of emotional involvement, overzealous commitment, alienation, rebellion, or playful wandering. Many adolescents are idealistic. They see the evils and negatives in our society and in the world. They cannot understand why injustice and imperfection exist. They yearn for a much better life for them- selves and for others and have little understanding of the resources and hard work it takes for advance- ments. They often try to change the world, and their efforts are genuine. If society can channel their en- ergies constructively, adolescents can make mean- ingful contributions. Unfortunately, some become disenchanted and apathetic after being continually frustrated with obstacles.boxer one to one's intimate thoughts and feelings, the ado- lescent is testing out values and beliefs and is better able to clarify a sense of self. Adolescents experiment with roles that represent the many possibilities for their future identity. For instance, students take certain courses to test out their future career interests. They also experiment with a variety of part-time jobs to test occupational interests. They date and go steady to test relation- ships with the opposite sex. They may struggle with their sexual identity. Dating also allows for different self-presentations with each new date. Adolescents may also experiment with drugs-alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and so on. Many are confused about their religious beliefs and seek in a variety of ways to develop a set of religious and moral beliefs with which they can be comfortable. They also tend to join, participate in, and then quit a variety of or- ganizations. They experiment with a variety of in- terests and hobbies. As long as no laws are broken (and health is not seriously affected) in the process of experimenting, our culture gives teenagers the free- a sense of identity. Importance of Achieving Identity Adolescents struggle with developing a sense of who they are, what they want out of life, and what kind of people they want to be. Arriving at answers to such questions is among the most important tasks people face in life. Without answers, a person will not be prepared to make such major decisions as which career to select; deciding whether, when, or whom to marry; deciding where to live; and de- ciding what to do with leisure time. Unfortunately, many people muddle through life and never arrive at well-thought-out answers to these questions. Those who do not arrive at answers are apt to be depressed, anxious, indecisive, and unfulfilled. (See Highlight 7.1.) dom to experiment in a variety of ways in order to develop Erikson (1959) uses the term psychosocial mora- torium to describe a period of free experimentation before a final sense of identity is achieved. Gener- ally, our society allows adolescents freedom from the daily expectations of role performance. Ideally, this moratorium allows young people the freedom to ex- periment with values, beliefs, and roles so that they sonal strengths and affords positive recognition from can find a role in society that maximizes their per- The Formation of Identity Identity development is a lifelong process. During the early years, one's sense of identity is largely de- termined by the reactions of others. A long time ago, Cooley (1902) coined this labeling process as result- ing in the looking-glass self—that is, people develop their self-concept in terms of how others relate to them. For example, if a neighborhood identifies a teenage male as being a troublemaker or delinquent, neighbors are then apt to distrust him, accuse him of delinquent acts, and label his behavior as such. the community. 326 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment Foreclosure cerning This labeling process, the youth begins to realize, also results in a type of prestige and status, at least from his peers. In the absence of objective ways to gauge whether he is in fact a delinquent, the youth will rely on the subjective evaluations of others. Thus, he is apt to begin to gradually perceive him- self as a delinquent, and to begin to enact the delin- quent role. Labels have a major impact on our lives. If a child is frequently called stupid by his or her parents, that child is apt to develop a low self-concept, anticipate failure in many areas (particularly academic), put forth little effort in school and in competitive inter- actions with others, and end up failing. Because identity development is a lifelong pro- cess, positive changes are probably possible even for those who view themselves as failures. In identity formation, it is important to remember that what we want out of the future is more important than past experience in determining what the future will be. The past is fixed and cannot be changed, but the present and the future can be. Although the past may have been painful and traumatic, it does not fol- low that the present and the future must be so. We are in control of our lives, and we largely determine what our future will be. People who fall into the foreclosure category are the as such. They glide into adulthood without experi- encing much turbulence or anxiety. Decisions con- early in life. These decisions are often based on their parents' values and ideas rather than their own. For example, a woman might become a mother and a part-time waitress as her own mother had done, not because she makes a conscious choice, but be- cause she assumes it's what she is expected to do. Likewise, a man might become an auto mechanic an accountant just because his father was an auto mechanic or an accountant, and it seemed a good OT way of life. It's interesting that the term foreclosure is used to label this category. Foreclosure involves shutting someone out from involvement, as one would fore- close a mortgage and bar a person who mortgaged his or her property from reclaiming it. To foreclose Marcia's Categories of Identity James Marcia (1980, 1991, 2002; Marcia & Carpen- dale, 2004) has done a substantial amount of re- search on the Eriksonian theory of psychosocial development. He identifies four major ways in which people cope with identity crises: (1) identity achieve- ment, (2) foreclosure, (3) identity diffusion, and (4) moratorium. People may be classified into these categories on the basis of three primary criteria: First, whether the individual experiences a major cri- sis during identity development; second, whether the person expresses a commitment to some type of oc- cupation; and third, whether there is commitment to some set of values or beliefs. one's identity implies shutting off various other OP- portunities to grow and change. GIỌNG HÁT Identity Diffusion di People who experience identity diffusion suffer from a serious lack of decision and direction. Although they go through an identity crisis, they never re- solve it. They are not able to make clear decisions concerning either their personal ideology or their career choice. These people tend to be characterized by low self-esteem and lack of resolution. For exam- ple, such a person might be a drifter who never stays more than a few months in any one place and defies any serious commitments. Moratorium The moratorium category includes people who exper values or a career choice. However, moratorium peo- Identity Achievement To reach the stage of identity achievement, people undergo a period of intense decision making. After much effort, they develop a personalized set of val- ues and make their career decisions. The attainment of identity is usually thought of as the most benefi- cial of the four status categories. rience intense anxiety during their identity crisis, yet have not made decisions regarding either personal to resolve these issues. Instead of avoiding the deci- ple experience a more continuous, intense struggle sion-making issue, they address it almost constantly. They are characterized by strong, conflicting feelings about what they should believe and do. For example, a moratorium person might struggle intensely with a religious issue, such as whether there is a God. Mor- atorium people tend to have many critical, but as y unresolved, issues. Psychological Development in Adolescence 327 Ethical Questions 7.1 To what extent is there on ideal identity everyone should strive to acquire? How much individuality should be allowed or encouraged in identity formation? EP 1 Critical Thinking: The Evaluation of Theory and Application to Client Situations Both Erikson's and Marcia's theories provide inter- esting insights into people's behavior and their in- teraction with others. Both provide a framework for better understanding “normal” life crises and events. For example, stage 2 of Erikson's psychosocial the- ory focuses on ages 18 months to 3 years. Most of this period is frequently referred to as the “terrible twos.” Understanding that children in this age group are striving to achieve some autonomy and control over their environment during this time helps us also understand that their behavior is full of action and exploration. Children should not be reprimanded for the types of behavior that are normal and natural during this stage of development. Such insight can better prepare social workers for helping parents develop age-appropriate expectations and behavior management techniques. Marcia's emphasis on the acquisition of coping skills also provides insights for work with clients. Those people who are trapped in foreclosure, iden- tity diffusion, or moratorium identity crises may become independent. Knowing that these are natural Occurrences provides clues to insights social workers can give to clients regarding their feelings and behav- iors. The struggle for control can be identified and discussed. Parental restrictiveness and adolescent rebelliousness can be examined. New behavioral op- tions for interaction can be explored. preras Traditional theories of identity development such as Erickson's and Marcia's have limitations due to their Westernized perspective on how people should develop. For example, traditional Asian and Native American cultures generally emphasize interdepen- dence instead of stressing the development of an independent identity. A subsequent section explores some of the issues concerning cultural background and identity development. Spotlight 7.1 addresses the special issues involved in identity development for lesbian and gay adolescents. We established in an earlier chapter that social workers need to evaluate theory and determine for themselves what theoretical concepts and frame- works are most suited for their own practice with clients. Questions to keep in mind while doing this include the following: 1. How does the theory apply to client situations? 2. What research supports the theory? 3. To what extent does the theory coincide with so- cial work values and ethics? 4. Are other theoretical frameworks or concepts avail- able that are more relevant to practice situations? benefit from help in the resolution of these crises. Social workers can give feedback in addition to help- ing people formulate and evaluate new alternatives. Acknowledgment of the existence of such crises and understanding their dynamics are the first steps to- ward resolution. Both Marcia's and Erikson's theories emphasize adolescence with some understanding of the forces the importance of identity formation. Looking at at work can help social workers better understand environment. For instance, strife between parents the dynamics of human behavior within the social and children is common during adolescence. It is also understandable. Parents try to maintain some control with their leadership roles. Adolescents struggle to define themselves as individuals and to Glasser's Theories on Identity William Glasser asserts that there is a single basic psychological need faced by everyone: the need for an identity. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 302) define the need for an identity as [t]he need to feel that each of us is somehow separate and distinct from every other living being on the face of this earth and that no other person thinks, looks, acts, and talks exactly as we do. Although identity can be viewed from several viewpoints, Glasser believes from a therapeutic van- tage point it is most useful to conceptualize identity in terms of people who develop a success identity versus those who develop a failure identity. People who develop a success identity do so through the pathways of love and worth. People who view themselves as a success must feel that at least 328 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment delusion of the so-called schizophrenic provide support or solace for him. pect of those who decide to become "crazy": Glasser (1976, pp. 19–20) describes the choice as- Crazy, psychotic, nuts, loony, bonkers, schizo- phrenic. There are a dozen popular, as well as pseudoscientific, words for this condition. I happen one other person loves them, and that they also love at least one other person. They must also feel that at least one other person feel they are worthwhile, and they must feel they (themselves) are worthwhile. In order to develop a success identity a person must experience both love and worth. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 312) state, We see worth and love as two very different elements, consider, for example, the extreme case of the “spoiled” child. One may fantasize that a child, if showered with “pure love," whose parents' "goal” was never to frustrate on stress or strain this child in any way, and when he was faced with a task or difficulty always had his parents to perform this task for him, this child always relieved of responsibility would develop into an individual who would feel loved but would not experience worth. Worth comes through accomplishing tasks and achieving success in the accomplishment of those tasks. Salotos dovlemon A person can also feel worthwhile through ac- complishing tasks (for example, a successful busi- ness person), but believe s/he is unloved because s/he cannot name someone who "I love and who loves me.” Experiencing only one of these elements (worth or love) without the other can lead to a fail- SROOL ure identity. A failure identity is likely to develop when a child has received inadequate love or been made to feel worthless. People with failure identities express their sense of failure by becoming mentally ill, by delin- quency, or by withdrawal. Almost everyone with a failure identity is lonely. Why do some people become “mentally ill”? Glasser indicates that people who are labeled men- tally ill are those who deny or distort reality. They change the world in their minds, in order to seek to feel important, significant, and meaningful. Having a failure identity is experienced by a person as be- ing intensely discomforting, and changing reality through fantasying is one way of dealing with this discomfort. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 313) fur- ther elaborate: ور to prefer "crazy” because it is understandable; it doesn't have the pseudoscientific connotation of schizophrenia, it is not technical , and it emphasizes much better than any of the other terms the choice aspect of this category. Schizophrenia sounds so much like a disease that prominent scientists delude themselves into searching for its cure, when the "cure” is within each crazy person who has chosen it. If he can find love or worth he will give up the choice readily—a big “if,” I will admit, but hundreds do each day as they are discharged from good hospitals and clinics. With adequate treatment they learn to become strong enough to stop to choosing to be crazy. Becoming crazy is actually a fairly sensible choice of the weak because no one expects a crazy person to fulfill his needs in the real world for the obvious reason that he is no longer in 1 it. He now lives in the world of his mind, and there within his own mind, crazy as it may be, he tries to find, and to some extent usually succeeds in finding, a substitute for the adequacy he can't find in reality. Within his own mind, within his own imagination, out of his own thought processes, he may be able to reduce the pain of his failure and find a little relief. -For inadequacy he provides delusions of grandeur, for loneliness, hallucinations to keep him company. He may have a delusion that everybody loves him or that he is an overwhelmingly omnipotent person, which does relieve his pain. Every mental hospital has one or two Jesus Christs, the acme of omnipotence and power. When all of this is created within a person's own mind we call it crazy, but it makes sense to him because it doesn't hurt as much as being lucid but miserably inadequate. Other individuals seek to handle the discomfort of a failure identity through withdrawal. Still oth- ers seek to handle the discomfort by ignoring reality , even though they are aware of the real world. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 313) describe these people: These individuals are referred to as delinquents , The person who is mentally ill has distorted the real world in his own fantasy to make himself feel more comfortable. He denies reality to protect himself from facing the feeling of being meaningless and insignificant in the world around him. For example, both the grandiose delusion and the persecutory criminals, "sociopaths," "personality disorders," Psychological Development in Adolescence 329 and so on. They are basically the anti-social ignoring reality. individuals who choose to break the rules and regulations of society on a regular basis, thereby teacher, adult friend, and adult relative should have the value system of doing what they can to convey “love” and “worth” to children/adolescents, and to the adults they interact with. A success identity or a failure identity is not mea- sured by finances or labels, but rather in terms of how a person perceives him/herself. It is possible for individuals to regard themselves as failures, while others view them as being successful. Formation of a failure identity usually begins during the years age (five or six) that children develop the social and when children first enroll in school. It is at about this verbal skills, and the thinking capacities to define themselves as being either successful or unsuccessful. LO 2 Examine Race Culture, Questions might be raised regard- ing the extent to which Erikson's and Marcia's theories apply to all people. Children, as they grow older, then tend to associate This includes various racial and eth- with others having a similar identity; those with fail- EP 2a nic groups. For instance, some cultures ure identities associating with others having a failure EP 2c emphasize respect for and deference to identity, and success identities associating with other older family members. Young people successful people. As the years pass the two groups are expected to conform until they too become older associate less and less with each other. Glasser and and “wiser.” To what extent, then, is it important for Zunin (1979, p. 312) note: each individual to struggle to achieve a strikingly unique and independent personality? Must this For example, it is indeed rare for a person with a particular aspect of behavior be stressed to a great success identity to have, as a close and personal extent? Or should the ability to assume a strong friend, someone who is a known criminal, felon, identification with the family and cultural group be heroin addict, and so forth. given precedence? Approximately one-third of adolescents in the People with success identities tend to compete constructively, meeting and seeking new chal- United States belong to an ethnic group that is a racial or ethnic “minority," which, of course, in- lenges. Also, they tend to reinforce one another's cludes such groups as African Americans, Native successes. On the other hand, people with failure Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans (Kail identities find facing the real world to be uncom- & Cavanaugh, 2013). It is very important that these fortable and anxiety-producing, and therefore young people establish an ethnic identity along with choose either to withdraw, to distort reality, or to their individual identity (Hendricks, 2005; Kail & ignore reality. Cavanaugh, 2014; Phinney, 2005). This involves identifying with their ethnic group, feeling that they Comments on Glasser's Theories on Identity belong, and appreciating their cultural heritage. Glasser is undoubtedly accurate that every child/ Older adolescents are more likely to have established an ethnic identity than are younger ones (French, they are “worthwhile” in order to develop a success Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). The former appar- ently have had more time to explore aspects of their culture, develop their cognitive ability, and think about who they are. Phinney (1989) suggests a parallel development for children from diverse ethnic groups that coin- cides with Marcia's four coping strategies for iden- tity development. A person with a diffused identity demonstrates little or no involvement with his or her ethnic and cultural heritage and may be unaware of or disinterested in cultural issues. A person with adolescent needs to receive "love" and a sense that or financially) to convey sufficient (emotionally identity. In fact, it is also important that every adult receive love and someone to convey that are worth- while. Many parents simply do not have the resources "love" and "worth” to their children. Therefore, “it takes a village to raise a child.” There are a number of established programs to help convey "love" and "worth”, such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters, Boys and Girls clubs, Special Olympics, and Youth mentor- ing programs in schools. In a very real sense every obo Psychological Development in Adolescence 331 integral part of his or her life. Cross and Fhagen- lates to ethnic identity development: Smith (1996) summarize how Phinney's model re- The. minorities enter adolescence with poorly developed model states that ethnic and racial ethnic identities (diffusion) or with an identity "given” to them by their parents (foreclosure). They may sink into an identity crisis , during which the conflicts and challenges associated with their minority status are sorted out (moratorium), and should all go well, they achieve an ethnic identity that is positive and gives high salience to ethnicity (achieved ethnicity). (p. III) Moratorium is reflected in the thoughtful words of a Mexican American adolescent who stated, “I want to know what we do and how our culture is different from others. Going to festivals and cul- tural events helps me to learn more about my own culture and about myself” (Phinney, 1989, p. 44). Likewise, an Asian American teen describes his feelings about his ethnic identity achievement: "I have been born Filipino and am bora to be Filipino. . . I'm here in America, and people of many different cultures are here, too. So I don't consider myself only Filipino, but also American” (Phinney, 1989, p. 44). moledores combine do in loaden Wolves An Alternative Model of Racial and Cultural Identity Development As an alternative approach to understanding racial and cultural identity development, Howard-Hamilton and Frazier (2005) describe the five-phase Racial/ Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID) ini- tially developed by Sue and Sue (1990). To some degree, this model parallels the stages proposed by Marcia, but it centers on racial and cultural identity development. Stages range from having little or no development of ethnic and cultural identity to having complete integration of such identity. The model asks: “(a) who do you identify with and why; (b) what minor- ity cultural attitudes and beliefs do you accept or reject and why; (c) what dominant cultural attitudes and be- liefs do you accept or reject and why; and (d) how do your current attitudes and beliefs affect your interac- tion with other minorities and people of the dominant culture?” (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005, p. 78). R/CID proposes that people progress through the fol- lowing five stages to establish an integrated racial or cultural identity (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005, pp. 78–82; Sue & Sue, 2008, pp. 242–252): ?? 1. Conformity stage. During this stage, people iden- tify closely with the dominant white society. “Physical and cultural characteristics that are Jo lavdiovoorb Bebe bol Paul Chesley/The Image Bank/Getty Images It is very important that young people establish an ethnic and cultural identity along with their individual identity . This involves identifying with their racial and ethnic group, feeling that they belong, and appreciating their cultural heritage. Here, Native American Blackfoot children participate in cultural events. , more 332 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment considered desirable to them. Attitudes and be liefs toward self are self-appreciating. A positive self-image and a feeling of self-worth emerge. An integrated concept of racial pride in identity and culture also develops. The individual sees himself or herself as a unique person who belongs to a specific minority group, a member of a larger so- The person begins to view those in the dominant ciety, and a member of the human race” (p. 81). culture in a selective manner, allowing trust and relationships to develop with those who denounce the oppression of minority groups. وو common to the individual's racial or cultural group are perceived negatively and as something to be avoided, denied, or changed. In this stage, the person may attempt to mimic ‘White' speech patterns, dress, and goals. A person at this stage has low internal self-esteem” (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005, p. 79). 2. Dissonance stage. Usually initiated by some cri- sis or negative experience, the person during this stage "becomes aware that racism does exist, and that not all aspects of minority or majority cul- ture are good or bad. For the first time, the in- dividual begins to entertain thoughts of possible positive attributes" of his or her own culture and “a sense of pride in self” (p. 79). Suspicion about the values inherent in the dominant culture grows. 3. Resistance and immersion stage. “Movement into this stage is characterized by the resolution of the conflicts and confusions that occurred in the previous stage” (p. 79). The person's aware- ness of social issues grows along with a growing appreciation of his or her own culture. “A large amount of anger and hostility is also directed to- ward White society. There in turn is a feeling of dislike and distrust for all members of the domi- nant group” (p. 80). 4. Introspection stage. During this stage, the individ- ual “discovers that this level of intensity of feel- ings is psychologically draining and does not allow time to devote energy into understanding one's ra- cial/cultural group; the individual senses the need for positive self-definition and a proactive sense of awareness. A feeling of disconnection emerges with minority group views that may be rigid. Group views may start to conflict with individual views... The person experiences conflict because she or he discovers there are many aspects of American culture that are desirable and functional, yet the confusion lies in how to incorporate these elements into the minority culture” (pp. 80–81). 5. Integrative awareness stage. Persons of color in this stage “have developed an inner sense of se- curity and can appreciate various aspects of their culture that make them unique. Conflicts and discomforts experienced in the previous stage are not resolved, hence greater control and flexibility are attained. Individuals in this stage recognize there are acceptable and unacceptable aspects of all cultures and that it is important for them to accept or reject aspects of a culture that are not Communities and Schools Can Strengthen Racial and Cultural Identity Development for Adolescents A positive social environment that celebrates cul- tural strengths can enhance the development of a positive I racial and cultural identity and pride (Delgado, 1998a, 1998b, 20006, 2007). Both schools and the community-at-large can stress cultura strengths of resident groups. School curricula car have relevant historical and cultural content inte- grated throughout. Assignments can focus on learn ing and appreciating cultural strengths. “A socia studies teacher, for example, might assign a studen to interview an elder member of his or her family o community about life in his or her place of origin a part of a lesson on ethnic origins” (Delgado, 1998a p. 210). Schools and recreational facilities can de velop programs that emphasize cultural pride an help adolescents “come to terms with their newl developing [racial and cultural] identities as indi viduals and as participants in an increasingly mụ. ticultural society while preserving essential link to their history, families, and culture” (Delgado 1998b, p. 213). For example, one such program, called Nuev Puente (New Bridge), was designed initially to ao dress substance abuse by Puerto Rican youth. Sta developed an educational curriculum areas were identified through... (a survey.); that involved obtaining input from all secto of the Puerto Rican community. Major conte interviews, focus groups, meetings, and discussio with community leaders, parents, and educators / focus group (discussed in Chapter 8) is a special assembled collection of people who respor Psychological Development in Adolescence 333 through a semi-structured or structured discussion to the concerns and interests of the person, group, r organization that invited the participants. ] . The curriculum included knowledge development and skills building that were culturally relevant for Puerto Rican youths. Participants received 72 hours of training over a seven-month period in cultural pride (Puerto Rican history, values, culture, arts, significant locations. Their content generally focuses on the trials and tribulations associated with urban living, issues of oppression, or simply a "signature" of the artist. Murals represent a much higher level of organi- zation, and the community often participates in their design and painting; their location within the community also reflects the degree of community sanctioning—those that are prominently located enjoy a high degree of community acceptance, whereas those in less prominent locations do not. Murals provide communities of color with an important outlet for expressing their cultural pride. . Among Latino groups, for example, murals allow subgroups to express the uniqueness of their history and culture. (Delgado, 2000a, pp. 78–80) “Pre-Columbian themes, intended to remind Chicanos of their noble origins, are common. There are motifs from the Aztec. . . [ancient manuscripts], gods from the Aztec [temples and mythology,]. allusions to the Spanish conquest and images of the Virgin of Guadalupe, a cherished Mexican icon” (Treguer, 1992, p. 23, cited in Delgado, 1998b, • • p. 80). and traditions); group leadership skills (recruiting and leading groups); self-sufficiency and self- determination; communication and relationship skills (conflict resolution and identifying situations that lead to violence and other risk-taking behaviors); [and] strategies to deal with substance abuse (increased awareness of alcohol and other drugs)... As a whole, the curriculum had a significant impact on the participants. However, the greatest effect was achieved by the module on identity and culture, which was measured by the participants' interest and pride in speaking Spanish; awareness of Puerto Rican cuisine, history, geography, and folklore; willingness to participate in Puerto Rican folk dancing; interest in and willingness to celebrate Puerto Rican holidays; interest in learning the lyrics to the Puerto Rican anthem; and eagerness to learn about their ancestors. (Delgado, 1998b, p. 217) Community festivals such as African American Fest or German Fest can provide other avenues through which community residents of all ages can learn about and appreciate various facets of their and others' cultures. Such events can celebrate his- tory, arts, crafts, music, and food. The following explains how murals in urban set- tings can portray cultural symbols and honor ethnic traditions: A mural is an art form that is expressed on a building's walls as opposed to a canvas. . Murals represent a community effort to utilize cultural symbols as a way of creating an impact internally and externally. Murals should not be confused with graffiti. A mural represents an artistic impression that is not only sanctioned by a community, but often commissioned by it. . . and invariably involve a team of artists. Graffiti, on the other hand, represent an artistic impression... that is individual centered and manifested on subway trains, doors, LO 3 Explore Moral Development Young adulthood is filled with avid quests for inti- mate relationships and other major commitments involving career and life goals. A parallel pursuit is the formulation of a personal set of moral values. Morality involves a set of principles regarding what is right and what is wrong. Often, these principles are not clearly defined in black or white, but involve various shades of gray. There is no one absolute answer. For example, is the death penalty right or wrong? Is it good or bad to have sexual intercourse before marriage? Moral issues range from very major to minor day-to-day decisions. Although moral development can take place throughout life, it is especially critical during adolescence. These are the times when people gain the right to make independent decisions and choices. Often the values developed during this stage remain operative for life. Explored here are theo- retical perspectives proposed by Kohlberg and by Gilligan, in addition to a social learning outlook on moral development. mailboxes, buses, public settings, and other less 334 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment Ethical Questions 7.2 Moral Development: Kohlberg's Theory Lawrence Kohlberg (1963, 1968, 1969, 1981a, 1981b) has proposed a series of three levels, and six stages, moral framework. These six stages are clustered within three distinct levels, as shown in the Concept Summary box below. EP 1 What are the major principles in your personal code of morality? How would you answer the following moral questions regarding what is right and what is wrong: Should there be a death penalty for monstrous crimes and, if so, how monstrous? Why or why not? Should there be national health insurance under which all people receive medical services regardless of their level of wealth? If so, who should pay for it? Should corporal punishment be allowed in schools? Why or why not? Should prayer be allowed in schools? Why or why not? Level 1: The Preconventional or Premoral Level The first level, the preconventional or premoral level, is characterized by giving precedence to self- interest. People usually experience this level from ages 4 to 10. Moral decisions are based on exter- nal standards. Behavior is governed by whether a child will receive a reward or punishment. The first stage in this level is based on avoiding punishment . Children do what they are told in order to avoid negative consequences. The second stage focuses on rewards instead of punishment. In other words , children do the “right" thing in order to receive a reward or compensation. Sometimes this involves brunos desolatos HO CONCEPT SUMMARY Kohlberg's Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development wo Level/Stage Level 1: Preconventional (Self-interest) no Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation Stage 2: Naive instrumental hedonism Level 2: Conventional (Role Conformity) Stage 3: "Good boy/girl morality" Description Controls are external. Behavior is governed by receiving rewards or punishments. Het mer Decisions concerning what is good or bad are made in order to avoid receiving punishmentos Rules are obeyed in order to receive rewards. Often favors are exchanged. The opinions of others become important. Behavior is governed by conforming to social expectations. Good behavior is considered to be what pleases others. There is a strong desire to please and gain the approval of others. The belief in law and order is strong. Behavior conforms to law and higher authority. Social order is important. Moral decisions are finally internally controlled. Morality involves higher-level principles beyond law and even beyond self-interest. Laws are considered necessary . However, they are subject to ratio Stage 4: Authority-maintaining morality Level 3: Postconventional (Self-Accepted Moral Principles) Stage 5: Morality of contract, of individual rights, and of democratically accepted law Stage 6: Morality of individual principles and Conscience nal thought and interpretation. Community welfare is important. Behavior is based on internal ethical principles. Decisions are made according to what is right rather than what is written into law. SOURCE: Adapted from Kohlberg (1968, 1981a, 1981b). Psychological Development in Adolescence 335 you'll scratch mine." an exchange of favors: "I'll scratch your back if Level 2: The Conventional Level Level 2 of Kohlberg's theory is the conventional level, in which moral thought is based on conforming to conventional roles. Frequently, this level occurs from ages 10 to 13. There is a strong desire to please oth- ers and to receive social approval. Although moral standards have begun to be internalized, they are still based on what others dictate, rather than on Within Level 2, stage 3 focuses on gaining the proval of others. Good relationships become portant. Stage 4, "authority-maintaining morality," what is personally decided. another matter. Richard Nixon espoused high moral standards but was forced to resign after his cover-up of the Watergate break-in and theft of Democratic Party documents was brought to light. Many times, difficult moral decisions must be made in crisis situa- tions. If you find yourself in a burning building with a crowd of people, how much effort will you expend to save others before yourself? What is the discrep- ancy between what you think is right and what you would really do in such a situation? A second criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it is culturally biased (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013; Santrock, 2012a). Even Kohlberg (1978) himself has conceded that stage 6 may not apply across all cultures, societ- ies, and situations. Snarey (1987) studied research on moral development in 27 countries and found that Kohlberg's schema does not incorporate the higher moral ideals that some cultures embrace. Examples of higher moral reasoning that would not be consid- ered such within Kohlberg's framework include “prin- ciples of communal equity and collective happiness in Israel, the unity and sacredness of all life forms in India, and the relation of the individual to the com- munity in New Guinea” (Santrock, 2008, p. 361). ap- Very im- LOG emphasizes the need to adhere to law. Higher authori- ties are generally respected. “Law and order” are con- sidered necessary in order to maintain the social order. Level 3: The Postconventional Level Level 3, the postconventional level, involves develop- ing a moral conscience that goes beyond what others say. At this level, people contemplate laws and ex- pectations and decide on their own what is right and what is wrong. They become autonomous, indepen- dent thinkers. Behavior is based on principles instead of laws. This level progresses beyond selfish concerns. The needs and well-being of others become very im- portant. At this level, true morality is achieved. Within Level 3, stage 5 involves adhering to so- cially accepted laws and principles. Law is considered good for the general public welfare. However, laws are subject to interpretation and change. Stage 6 is the ultimate attainment. During this stage, one becomes free of the thoughts and opinions expressed by oth- ers . Morality is completely internalized. Decisions are based on one's personal conscience, transcending laws and regulations. Examples of people who attained this level include Martin Luther King Jr. and Gandhi. goo 1500 to go hoolib boor NO Moral Development and Women: Gilligan's Approach A major criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that virtu- ally all of the research on which it is based used only men as subjects. Gilligan (1982; Gilligan & Attanucci, 1988; Gilligan, Brown, & Rogers, 1990) maintains that women fare less well according to Kohlberg's lev- els of moral development because they tend to view moral dilemmas differently than men do. Kohlberg's theory centers on a justice perspective, in which each person functions independently and makes moral de- cisions on an individual basis (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Newman & Newman, 2012; Santrock, 2016, p. 231). In contrast, Gilligan maintains that women are more likely to adopt a “care perspective, which views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others” (Santrock, 2012a, p. 231). In other words, women tend to view morality in terms of personal situations. Women often have trouble moving from a very personalized interpretation of morality to a focus on law and order. This bridge involves a generaliza- tion from the more personal aspects of what is right Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory . Many questions have been raised concerning the va- lidity and application of Kohlberg's theory (Helwig & Turiel, 2011; Killin & Smetana, 2008; Santrock, 2016; Walker & Frimer, 2011). For one thing, Kohl- berg places primary emphasis on how people think, loftiest moral standards, but what they do is often not what they do. Presidents and kings talk about the On Ethical Applications of Gilligan's Theory to Client Situations Social work has a sound foundation of professional values expressed in the National Association of Social Work- ers (NASW) Code of Ethics. Ethics involve making decisions about what EP 1 is right and what is wrong. Ethics pro- vide social workers with guidelines for practice with clients. Gilligan emphasizes the relationship between responsibility and morality. People develop mor- ally as they gradually become more capable and willing to assume responsibility. Morality provides the basis for making ethical decisions. Gilligan “bases the highest stage of decision making on care for and sensitivity to the needs of others, on responsibility for others, and on nurturance” (Rhodes, 1985, p. 101). This principle is central to the NASW Code of Ethics. Gilligan's theory can provide some general ethical guidelines to which we can aspire in our day-to-day practice with cli- ents. Social workers should strive to be sensitive to the needs of their clients. They should assume responsibility for effective practice with clients. Fi- nally, they should provide help and nurturance to meet their clients' needs. 338 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment that we gradually learn how to behave morally. Early The social learning perspective, then, indicates on, young children receive reinforcement for behaving They also see their parents and others as models correctly and punishment for behaving incorrectly. for doing what is right or wrong. As children grow older, they gradually internalize these expectations and standards of conduct. Then as they encounter situations in which they must make moral decisions on how to behave, they use these internalized values. Additionally, as learning theory also predicts, they potential consequences they might encounter. respond to the circumstances of the moment and the For example, the following example illustrates to predict whether a teenager, arbitrarily called how social learning theory principles might be used Waldo, will cheat on his upcoming math test. Social learning theory would focus on 00 Bota the moral habits Waldo has learned, the expectation he has formed about the probable consequences of his actions, his ability to self-regulate his behavior , and his ultimate behavior (choice). If Waldo's parents have consistently reinforced him when he has behaved morally and punished him when he has misbehaved; if he has been exposed to models of morally acceptable behavior rather than brought up in the company of liars, cheaters, and thieves; and if he has well- developed self-regulatory mechanisms that cause him to take responsibility for his actions rather than to disengage morally, he is likely to behave in morally acceptable ways. Yet Bandura and other social learning theorists believe in the power of situational influences and predict that Waldo may still cheat on the math test if he sees his classmates cheating and getting away with it or if he is under pressure to get a B in math. (Sigelman & Rider, 2006, pp. 364–365) .. libin Moral Development: A Social Learning Theory Perspective Social learning theorists including Albert Bandura (1991, 2002; Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Pas- torelli, & Regalia, 2001) apply many of the princi- ples of learning theory (discussed in Chapter 4) to moral actions. They have been primarily interested in the behavioral component of morality—in what we actually do when faced with temptation or with an opportunity to behave prosocially. These theorists say that moral behavior is learned in the same way that other social behaviors are learned: through observational learning and reinforcement and punishment principles. They also consider moral behavior to be strongly influenced by situational factors for example, by how closely a professor watches exam takers, by whether jewelry items are on the counter or behind glass in a department store. (Sigelman & Rider, 2012, p. 428) bodo CON Ethical Questions 7.3 What do you think is the moral thing for Waldo to do concerning his upcoming math test? What do you think Waldo would do? if you were EP 1 Waldo, to what extent would y tempted to cheat on the math test? would influence your decision? What aspects in your upbringing Psychological Development in Adolescence Instead, they begin to take into account the well-being of everyone concerned, including themselves. Some of returns, but in a more objective manner. the concern for personal survival apparent in level 1 Level 3: The Morality of Nonviolent Responsibility Level 3 involves women thinking in terms of the re- level, a woman's thinking has progressed beyond percussions of their decisions and actions. At this mere concern for what others will think about what she does. Rather, it involves accepting responsibility for making her own decisions. She places herself on an equal plane with others, weighs the various con- sequences of her potential actions, and accepts that she will be responsible for these consequences. The important principle operating here is that of mini- mizing hurt, both to herself and to others. Gilligan's sequence of moral development pro- vides a good example of how morality can be viewed from different perspectives. It is especially beneficial in emphasizing the different strengths manifested by men and women. The emphasis on feelings, such as direct concern for others, is just as important as the ability to decisively make moral judgments.com However, yet another study found “that girls' moral orientations are ‘somewhat more likely to focus on care for others than on abstract principles of jus- tice, but they can use both moral orientations when needed (as can boys. . .)?” (Blakemore, Berenbaum, & Liben, 2009, p. 132; cited in Santrock, 2012a, p. 231). Other research has found that little if any differ- ence exists between the moral reasoning of men and women (Blakemore et al., 2009; Glover, 2001; Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Walker, 1995; Wilson, 1995). One mega-analysis involved examining the results of 113 studies focusing on moral decision-making. Results question the accuracy of Gilligan's belief in significant gender differences concerning moral devel- opment (Hyde, 2007; Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Jaffee & Hyde, 2000). This study found that the overall pic- ture revealed only small differences in how females and males made moral decisions. Although females were slightly more likely than males to use Gilligan's caring- based approach instead of Kohlberg's justice-based perspective, this disparity was larger in adolescence than adulthood. Whether caring- or justice-based ap- proaches were used depended more on the situation being evaluated. For example, both females and males were more likely to emphasize caring when addressing interpersonal issues and justice when assessing more global social issues. Coon and Mitterer (2013) comment: Indeed, both men and women may use caring and justice to make moral decisions. The moral yard- stick they use appears to depend on the situation they face (Work & Krebs, 1996). Just the same, Gilligan deserves credit for identifying a second major way in which moral choices are made. It can be argued that our best moral choices combine justice and caring, reason and emotion—which may be what we mean by wisdom. (Pasupathi & Staudinger, 2001, pp. 110–111) Critical Thinking: Evaluation, of Gilligan's Theory more Some research has established support for Gilligan's proposed gender-based differences in moral reason- ing. For example, some studies have found that fe- males consider moral dilemmas concerning caring aspects of social relationships more important and a greater moral dilemma than males do (Eisenberg & Morris, 2004; Wark & Krebs, 2000). Another study found that girls were more likely than boys to use Gilligan's caring-based approaches when ad- dressing dating predicaments (Weisz & Black, 2002). TOID CONCEPT SUMMARY Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development for Women Level 1: Orientation to personal Survival Level 2: Goodness as self-sacrifice Transition 1: Transition from personal selfishness to responsibility Transition 2: From goodness to reality Level 3: The morality of nonviolent responsibility Psychological Development in Adolescence 339 LO 4 Review Fowler's Theory of Faith Development sense of purpose and direction, and a kind of striv- Chapter 3 defined spirituality as “one's values, be- liefs, mission, awareness, subjectivity, experience, ing toward something greater than oneself. It may or may not include a deity. . . Religion, on the other hand,. . . refers to a set of beliefs and practices of an organized religious institution” (e.g., organized churches under Roman Catholic, Muslim, or Meth- odist denominations) (Frame, 2003, p. 3). James Fowler (1981) proposed a theory of faith development in which people progress through seven stages that focus on the formation and transformation of faith throughout the life cycle. · [B]y faith Fowler meant 'the pattern of our relatedness to self, others, and our world in light of our relatedness to ultimacy' (1996, p. 21). “Ultimacy' refers to that which a person gives a sense of first importance and greatest profundity in orienting his or her life with fundamental values, beliefs, and meanings. . . [F]aith may take religious or nonreligious forms. Fowler depicted faith as a universal aspect of human nature that gives coherence and meaning to life, connects individuals together in shared concerns, relates people to a larger cosmic frame of reference, and enables us to deal with suffering and mortality. (Canda & Furman, 2010, p. 256; Fowler, 1981, 1996) novadora During each faith stage, an individual grows closer to a higher power and becomes more con- cerned about the welfare of other people. onalar mellom BUG cepts. Frame (2003) explains: Spirituality and religion are two separate con- Many followers of religion find that its organization, doctrine, rituals, programs, and community are means through which their spirituality is supported and enhanced. Likewise, many persons who think of themselves as spiritual, rather than religious, find that the institutions of religion interfere with their private experiences of spirituality. It is possible, therefore, for these two constructs to be related in a variety of ways and played out differently in individual lives. For example, a person may care very deeply about the meaning of life, may be very committed to her purpose and direction, may even engage in spiritual practices such as meditation, and yet not be involved in a religious organization. Thus, one may be spiritual without being religious. Another person may be a member of a synagogue, keep a kosher kitchen, be faithful to Torah, and never really take these Jewish practices to heart. He may go through the motions of being religious without being spiritual. Yet another person may be an active member of a church, attend worship regularly, read the Bible, and pray, finding great inspiration in these activities and support through the institutional church. Therefore, one may be religious and spiritual simultaneously. (p. 4) (Chapter 15 discusses several predominant reli- Fowler's Seven Stages of Faith Development Fowler based his seven-stage theory on “a study conducted from 1972 to 1981 to determine how people viewed their personal history, how they worked through problems to solutions, and how they formed moral and religious commitments. He and his collaborators conducted 359 in-depth inter- views with mostly White men and women, primar- ily Christian and Jewish, ranging in age from early childhood to past age 61” (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2012, p. 283). The following explains each of the seven stages. gions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism, more thoroughly.) Spirituality is an important aspect of human di- versity. It shapes major dimensions of many people's lives and can provide a significant source of strength. Stage 1: Primal or Undifferentiated Faith (Birth to 2 Years) All people begin to develop their views of faith and the world from scratch. Infants learn early on whether their environment is safe or not, whether they can trust or not. Are they being cared for in warm, safe, secure family environments? Or are they being hurt, neglected, and abused? People begin to develop their use of language to express thought and distinguish between themselves and others. They start to develop relationships and ideas about what those relationships mean. As a later section explains, spirituality can serve as a major source of empowerment that social workers Den must address. 340 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment more abstractly and, in some ways, view the world from new perspectives. On the other hand, they strive to conform. They have not yet critically eval- uated the fundamental basis of their faith. Rather, they adhere to conventional ideology. Duffey (2005) reflects on stage 4: Stage 2: Intuitive-Projective Faith (Ages 2 to 6) Children aged 2 to 6 continue developing their abil- ity to glean meaning from their environments. What children are exposed to in terms of spiritual lan- guage and experiences is what they conceptualize about their faith. During stage 2, children are ego- centric and manifest preoperational thought pat- terns. Their view of faith and religion lacks in-depth conceptualization and application to life experi- ences. Their view of faith is that it is out there some- place; it is whatever they're exposed to. For instance, to Herman, whose parents adhere to strict Wiscon- sin Synod Lutheran Church beliefs, faith is going to church, singing hymns, attending Sunday school, and saying bedtime prayers every night. If asked where God is, he says, “Everywhere,” because that's what he's been told. Faith is seen as that which brings people together and provides a unifying concept and sense of belonging for family, congregation, and society. For many, this is the terminal stage of development. In this stage, individuals do not acknowledge differences in faith practices of others and view their faith as the “one right, true, only way.” An example of this stage can be seen in adolescents who form groups based on fitting in: if you wear these clothes, listen to this type of music, like these people, etc., then you are part of the group. At this stage, any image of deity is seen as a companion and ally. Faith is rule bound and hierarchical with no questioning of the group's norms and beliefs. (pp. 323–324) Stage 3: Mythic-Literal Faith (Ages 6 to 12) Development of conceptual thought continues over this period. Stories are especially important as ways to help children develop their thinking about life and relationships. Individuals can be deeply moved by dramatic representations and spiritual symbolism, such as religious ceremonies. The concrete opera- tions period helps children distinguish between what is real and what is not. During this stage, children think more seriously about aspects related to faith, although their “beliefs are literal and one dimen- sional”; Frame (2003) explains: von bolow 20 People in this stage often develop a concept of God... as a cosmic ruler who acts with fairness and moral reciprocity (Fowler, 1987). Persons in the mythic-literal stage often assume that God rewards goodness and punishes evil. They might exhibit a kind of perfectionism in their efforts to be rewarded for their goodness. On the other hand, they could be self-abasing, assuming that because they have been abused or neglected by significant others, they are inherently bad and will be punished. (p. 41) Stage 5: Individuative-Reflective Faith (Early Adulthood and Beyond). Critical thinking about the meaning of life charac- terizes stage 5. “The focus of faith moves away from being viewed as the unifying concept of the group and more as making sense of the individual” (Duffey, 2005, p. 324). People confront conflicts in values and ideas, and they strive to establish their individualized belief system. For example, a young woman will seri- ously consider the extent to which her own personal beliefs coincide with conventional religious practices and beliefs. If her church condemns abortion, does she agree or not? If her church denies membership to lesbian and gay people, does she support this or not? Stage 5 marks the construction of a more de- tailed internal spiritual belief system that reflects an individual's critical evaluation of the physical and spiritual world. “This stage may occur in those who Stage 4: Synthetic-Conventional Faith (Ages 12 and Older) During this stage, individuals develop their abil- ity to conceptualize and apply information in new ways. They are exposed to much more of the world through social, school, and media experiences. They no longer perceive the world as literally as they did in stage 3. On the one hand, people begin to think stay within organized religious practice, as well as in those who leave” (Duffey, 2005, p. 324). Stage 6: Conjunctive Faith (Midlife and Beyond) reached stage 6, conjunctive faith, and then never Only one-sixth of all respondents in Fowler's study before age 30. The concept that characterizes this phase is integration. Individuals have confronted the Psychological Development in Adolescence 341 conflicts between their own views and conventional ones and have accepted that such conflicts exist. ception of the physical and spiritual universe. They They have integrated their own beliefs into their per- have accepted that diversity and opposites character- ize life. Good exists along with evil. Happiness dwells beside sadness. Strength subsists alongside weakness. Spiritual beliefs assume a deeper perspective. Duffey (2005) explains: “The individual becomes more open to religious and spiritual traditions different from one's own. An example of someone at this stage is a person willing to respect the validity of another's truth' even when it contradicts one's own, while si- multaneously being able to communicate one's own authentic "truth” (p. 324). Frame (2003) notes that people “develop a passion for justice that is beyond the claims of race, class, culture, nation, or reli- gious community. These convictions enable people in the conjunctive stage to lay down their defenses and to tolerate differences in belief while staying firmly grounded in their own personal faith systems” (pp. 42–43). Stage 7: Universalizing Faith (Midlife and Beyond) Universalizing faith is characterized by selfless com- mitment to justice on behalf of others. In stage 6, people confront discrepancies and unfairness, inte- grating them into their perception of how the world operates. However, the self remains the primary refer- nce point. An individual accepts and appreciates his own vulnerability, and seeks his own continued exis- ence and salvation. Stage 7, however, reflects a deeply piritual concern for the greater good, the benefit of he masses, above oneself. Such commitment may volve becoming a martyr on behalf of or devoting ne's life to some great cause at the expense of per- onal pleasure and well-being. Only a tiny minority of eople may reach this point. Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, and Joan of Arc are examples. However, at least three criticisms of the theory come to mind. First, the sample on which it was based is very limited in terms of race and religious orientation. Questions can be raised regarding the extent to which it can be applied universally to non- Christian faiths worldwide. Second, concepts of human diversity, oppres- sion, and discrimination are not taken into account. There is an inherent assumption that all people start out with a clean slate. In reality, some are born richer, some poorer, some in high-tech societies, oth- ers in third-world environments. To what extent do people's exposure to more ideas and greater access to the world's activities and resources affect the de- velopment of faith? Are all people provided an equal opportunity to develop faith? Do oppression and discrimination affect one's spirituality and the evolu- tion of faith? A third criticism is the difficulty of applying Fowler's theory to macro situations. How does the development of faith from an individual perspec- tive fit into the overall scheme of the macro environ- ment? How does faith development potentially affect organizational, community, and political life? Ethical Questions 7.4 What are your personal beliefs about spirituality and religion? To what extent do you believe all people should also hold your views? EP 1 ritical Thinking: Evaluation of Fowler's Theory owler provides a logically organized theory con- erning the development of faith. It follows Piaget's coposed levels of cognitive development, advanc- g from the more concrete to the more abstract. makes sense that people increase their ability to ink critically, integrate more difficult concepts, and evelop deeper, more committed ideas and beliefs as eir lives and thinking progress. 100 TONDA it so brons in Social Work Practice and Empowerment Through Spiritual Development Spirituality rises above concern over worldly things such as possessions and expands consciousness to a realm be- yond the physical environment. It is a EP 2a “universal aspect of human culture” EP 2c (Canda, 1989; Cowley & Derezotes, 1994) that concerns “developing a sense of meaning, purpose, and morality” (Canda, 1989, p. 39). It can provide people with strength to withstand pain and guidance to determine what life paths to take. Psychological Development in Adolescence 343 密 SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 7.2 Evidence-Based Practice and Spirituality The social work profession and its accreditation standards emphasize the importance of employing evidence-based interventions, evaluating practice effectiveness, and using research results to improve service delivery (CSWE, 2015). meditation, and spiritually oriented cognitive-behavioral therapy are also showing promise” (p. 22). Other research results indicate that spiritual well-being is related to people's ability to respond resiliently to sickness and other crises, and to lower incidences of family violence (Canda, 2008). Canda and Furman (2010) reflect that Rubin and Babbie (2014) explain: Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a process in which practitioners make practice decisions in light of the best research evidence available. But rather than rigidly constrict practitioner options, the EBP model encourages practitioners to integrate scientific evidence with their practice expertise and knowledge of the idiosyncratic circumstances bearing on specific practice decisions. (p. 28) There has not been much empirical research in social work regarding the effectiveness of practices involving spirituality; however, research conducted in other helping professions in establishing positive relationships “between religious participation and well-being” (Canda, 2008, p. 416; Canda & Furman, 2010). Canda and Furman (2010) conclude that "empirical research is showing through hundreds of studies in several disciplines that positive sense of spiritual meaning and religious participation are related to reduced levels of depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and risk behaviors along with an increased sense of well-being and mutual support. Specific spiritually based practices, such as forgiveness, [t]he concept of spirituality includes certain quantifiable and measurable aspects (such as frequency of church attendance or level of self-assessed sense of meaning) [and] various processes, experiences, and systems that are best explored through qualitative methods of observation (such as the subjective experience of meditation or the communal patterns of mutual support in religious groups). . . While we recognize the utility of the scientific method as it has derived from European and American cultures, we also respect the forms of knowledge and wisdom found among the elders, mentors, and adepts of religious traditions and culturally specific healing systems around the world We value understanding that comes from a convergence of sensory, rational, emotional, and intuitive ways of knowing. Foro a truly integral approach we need to combine inquiry approaches that address both the subjective and objective dimensions of individual and collective phenomena of spirituality (Wilber, 2006). (p. 23) self-serving aggression, on the other, can be damag- ing and nonproductive. Young lives terminated at an early age represent tragic and regrettable losses of potential. 12 rotide berschule Each of these issues may be viewed from either a psychological or a social perspective. They will arbi- trarily be addressed in this chapter, which focuses on the psychological aspects of adolescence. bivad mo TOS sim LO 5 Assess Empowerment W Through Assertiveness andoque iliwa people appropriate assertiveness is difficult to mas- ter. For instance, consider the two people sitting in front of you in a movie theater who are talk- ing loudly. How should you react? Should you ig- nore them even though it's the scariest portion of the latest horror film? Should you scream, “Shut up!”? Or should you tap one of them gently on the shoulder and politely ask the person to please be quiet? US Your best friend asks to borrow your car. Your friend emphasizes it'll only be for one time and it's needed for such an important reason. You happen to know that your friend is not a very good driver, has gotten two speeding tickets in the past six months, and sometimes drives after drinking. Should you say, “No way! You know what a horrible driver you are”? Should you say, “Sure”? Should you say, “Well, okay, I guess so"? Or should you say, “No. You know I don't let other people drive my car. Would it help if I drive you somewhere?" Assertiveness Training Assertiveness involves behavior that is straight- forward, yet not offensive. The behavior can be either verbal or nonverbal. Assertiveness involves taking into account both your own rights and the rights of others. It sounds simple, but for many HIGHLIGHT 7.2 Each of Us Has Certain Assertive Rights 4. You have the right to stand up for yourself without unwarranted anxiety and make choices that are good Part of becoming assertive involves believing that we are worthwhile people. It's easy to criticize ourselves for our in because we're afraid that we will hurt someone else's for you. are held in too long will burst out in an aggressive tirade. This mistakes and imperfections. And it's easy to hold our feelings feelings or that someone will reject us. Sometimes feelings that applies to anyone, including our clients. A basic principle in social work is that each individual is a valuable human being. Everyone, therefore, has certain basic rights. The following are eight of your, and your clients', assertive 5. You have the right not to be liked by everyone. (Do you like everyone you know?) 6. You have the right to make requests and to refuse them without feeling guilty. 7. You have the right to ask for information if you need it. 8. Finally, you have the right to decide not to exercise your assertive rights. In other words, you have the right to choose not to be assertive. rights: 1. You have the right to express your ideas and opinions openly and honestly. 2. You have the right to be wrong. Everyone makes mistakes. 3. You have the right to direct and govern your own life. In other words, you have the right to be responsible for yourself. SOURCE: Most of these rights are adapted from Lynn Z. Bloom, Karen Coburn, and Joan Pearlman, The New Assertive Woman (New York: Dell, 1976), and from Kathryn Apgar and Betsy Nicholson Callahan, Four One-Day Workshops (Boston: Resource Communications, Inc., and Family Service Association of Greater Boston, 1980). ansatte: 5 ord Aggressive communication involves bold and dominant verbal and nonverbal behavior in which a speaker presses his or her point of view as tak- ing precedence over all others. Aggressive speakers consider only their views as important and devalue what the receiver has to say. Aggressive behaviors are demanding and most often annoying. Consider, for example, the man who barges in at the return desk in front of 17 other people standing in line and de- mands service! Nonassertive communication is the opposite of aggressive. Speakers devalue themselves. They feel that what the other person involved thinks is much more important than their own thoughts. For ex- ample, for lunch, one day Cassie orders a hamburger well done. The waitress brings her a burger that's Situation 1 A 16-year-old girl is on her first date with a young man she likes. After a movie and pizza, they drive around a bit and find a secluded spot in the country where he pulls over and parks. The girl does not want to get sexually involved with the young man. She thinks this is too soon in their relationship. What will he think of her? She doesn't know him well enough yet to become intimate. What can she say? ov 1 Nonassertive response: She says nothing and lets him make his sexual advances. Aggressive response: “Get your slimy hands off me, you pervert!” Assertive response: “I like you, Harry, but I don't think we know each other well enough yet to get involved this way. Would you please take me home now?” 0012 practically dripping blood. However, Cassie is afraid of what the waitress will think if she complains. She doesn't want to be seen as a “bitch.” So, instead of assertively telling the waitress that the hamburger is much too rare, Cassie douses it in ketchup and forces herself to eat half of it. There is no perfect recipe for what to say to be assertive in any particular situation. The important thing is to take into consideration both your own rights and the rights of the person you are talking to. Situation 2 Biff, Clay's supervisor at Stop 'n' Shop, tells Clay that he needs him to work several extra hours during the upcoming weekend. Biff has often asked Clay to work extra time on weekends. However, he doesn't ask any of the other workers to do so. Clay thinks this is unfair. He needs his job, but he hates to work extra hours on weekends. What can he say? Following are a few examples. 346 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment The Advantages of Assertiveness interpersonal environment. Assertiveness may hello For one thing, you can gain more control over your Developing assertiveness skills has many benefits. you avoid uncomfortable or hostile interactions with others. You will probably feel that other people un- concept can be enhanced as the result of your gain derstand you better than they did before. Your self- in control and interpersonal effectiveness. Appropri- ate assertiveness helps to alleviate building up undue tension and stress and diminish such psychosomatic reactions as headaches or stomach upsets. Finally, other people may gain respect for you, your strength, and your own demonstration of respect for others. People may even begin to use you as a role model for their own development of assertive behavior. Rubber Ball/Alamy Stock Photo Assertiveness Training Assertiveness training leads people to realize, feel, and act on the assumption that they have the right to be themselves and express their feelings freely. Asser- tive responses generally are not aggressive responses. The distinction between these two types of interac- tions is important. For example, a woman has an excessively critical father-in-law. Intentionally doing things that will bother him (bringing up topics that she knows will upset him, forgetting Father's Day and his birthday, not visiting) and getting into loud arguments with him would be considered aggressive behavior. An effectively assertive response, however, would be to counter criticism by saying, “Dad, your criti- cism deeply hurts me. I know you're trying to help when you give advice, but I feel that you're criticizing me. I'm an adult, and I have the right to make my Aggressive behavior reflects the dominance of the aggressor and devalues the rights and needs of others. 10 Dabulous voor ons Nonassertive response: “Okay." Aggressive response: “No way, Jose! Get off my butt, Biff!” obor lado Assertive response: “You know I like my job here, Biff. However, I'm sorry, but I can't work extra hours next weekend. I've already made other plans. Situation 3 Dinah Lee and Hannah, both 18, hang around with the same group of friends. However, they don't like each other very much. Dinah Lee approaches Han- nah one day and says, “It's too bad you're gaining so much weight.” What can Hannah say? Nonassertive response: “Yes, you're right. I'm try- ing to go on a diet.” Aggressive response: "I'm not nearly as fat or ugly as you are, Buzzard Breath!” 000 Assertive response: “No, I haven't gained any weight. I think that was a very inappropriate thing to say. It sounded as if you were just trying to hurt my feelings.” own decisions and mistakes. The type of relationship that I'd like to have with you is a close adult relation- ship and not a father-child relationship. As we know, social work is practical. Therefore, you can use the suggestions provided to enhance both your client's assertiveness and your own. Alberti and Emmons (1976a, 1976b, 2001, 2008) developed the following 13 steps to help establish assertive behavior: in situations requiring assertiveness? Do you 1. Examine your own actions. How do you behave think you tend to be nonassertive, assertive, or ত aggressive in most of your communications? Psychological Development in Adolescence 347 2. Make a record of those situations in which you felt you could have behaved more effectively, ei- ther more assertively or less aggressively. 3. Select and focus on some specific instance when you felt you could have been more appropriately actly was said? How did assertive. Visualize the specific details. What ex- ? 4. Analyze how you reacted. Examine closely your verbal and nonverbal behavior. Alberti and Emmons (2008, pp. 71-81) cite the following seven aspects of behavior that are important to monitor: a. Eye contact. Did you look the person in the eye? Or did you find yourself avoiding eye contact when you were uncomfortable? b. Body posture. Were you standing up straight, or were you slouching? Were you leaning away from the person sheepishly? Were you holding your head up straight as you looked the person in the eye? De Dos do SIC- c. Gestures. Were your hand gestures fitting for the situation? Did you feel at ease? Or were you tapping your feet or cracking your knuckles? In the beginning of his term, peo- ple often criticized President George H. W. Bush for moving his arms and hands around during his public speeches. This tended to give the public the impression that he was frantic. Professional coaches helped him gain control of this behavior and present a calmer public image.iso old Sca d. Facial expressions. Did you have a serious ex- pression on your face? Were you smiling or giggling uncomfortably, thereby giving the impression that you were not really serious? e. Voice tone, inflection, volume. Did you speak in a normal voice tone? Did you whisper tim- idly? Did you raise your voice to the point of stressful screeching? Did you sound as if you were winning? f. Timing. It is best to make an appropriately as- g. Content. What you say in your assertive re- sponse is obviously important. Did you choose your words carefully? Did your re- sponse have the impact you wanted it to have? Why or why not? 5. Identify a role model, and examine how he or she handled a situation requiring assertiveness. What exactly happened during the incident? What words did your model use that were particularly effective? Wha...
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Running head: HUMAN BEHAVIOR ONE

Human Behavior One
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HUMAN BEHAVIOR ONE

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Human Behavior One

Part A: My perspective

As their case manager, the main areas of concern for Rolando and his parents regard his
family identity, cultural identity and professional identity. Family identity is the main expression
of an individual’s values. Therefore, it can be considered positive in parenting when looked at
with purpose and shared experiences. It creates both a sense of belonging and gives a family a
mode of affirmation of values, give children a cushion against external pressure, and define their
goals. In this case, Rolando is the first born, the only son and the hope of the family name. His
parents are looking forward towards the many grandchildren that Rolando will give to the
family. Cultural identity is the sense of belonging to a particular group. This is an area of
concern because with Rolando’s respect for his parents, family, and traditions, I think that he
should ensure that he raises a family that nurture shared time, values and traditions that create a
sense of belonging, thereby helping the kids to prosper.
Regarding professional identity, Rolando should develop attitudes, beliefs, values,
experiences and motives through which he will define himself, in his current or
an...


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