STAT 535 HU Factors Influencing Low Birth Wieghts in North Carolina Essay

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Below is the question! We have to read attached article and apply into that paragraph. I also attached the previous homework.

Add two paragraphs to each research report.

One paragraph in each report should explain how the variables in the data set relate to the research questions.

One paragraph in each report should explain how the graphs and statistics are being ethically represented.

Apply a biblical framework using Scripture references to make your case that the research questions are important to analyze.

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Virtuous LEADERS rganizations Mark Brooker • Jeffrey W. Boyce 56 THE DeVoe REPORT | IWU orld business leaders have emerged as the first global citizens. Engaged in commerce, business leaders understand the interdependence of nations, and that the health of society and the preservation of our earth are important to the future prosperity of the business enterprise. Business fosters economic and cultural interdependence and has helped to create the awareness of one humanity, on one planet, all sharing a common fate. And, as the dominant institution on the planet, business holds the key to the transformation of our global society, away from intractable problems, and toward a world that works for everyone. Around the globe we are witnessing a fundamental questioning, both individual and institutional, of our most basic assumptions about who we are, the world we live in, and what is ultimately important. Increasingly, the leading thinkers of our day are describing this phenomenon as being driven by an emerging new paradigm—a new understanding of reality—which is shaking our traditional assumptions and intuitions to the roots. The World Business Academy (http://worldbusiness.org/) arose out of the conviction that the shape of the future is our choice, and that business, if it adopts a new tradition of responsibility for the whole, can be the major contributor to a future that is economically, socially, and ecologically viable for all. Yet the question remains as to how and to whom businesses will be held accountable. Secularists respond that the answer is clearly government. Yet the Christian knows that governments, despite their God appointed role, are made of people, and absent the influence of God, are just as vulnerable to sin, corruption, and oppression as any business (1 Chronicles 14:7). The answer to the question then lies in recognizing that businesses and business leaders are ultimately answerable to God, not man and that He calls us to lead our organizations in an ethical and virtuous manner that glorifies and honors both God and man. IWU | THE DeVoe REPORT 57 WHY VIRTUOUS BUSINESS? Recently, there has been a lot of debate about the actual objective of “the organization.” In the Western World, the prevalent view over the last decades has been that its objective was maximizing shareholder value above any other consideration. In other words, the HOW, (whether or not a company is virtuous in accomplishing objectives), did not matter. As such, employees, managers and society were simply considered as means to reach this “superior” objective. Virtues were off the corporate radar, and business ethics were, at most, something to comply with. But more recently, research is now recognizing that the HOW does matter. Pawar (2016) showed a relationship between workplace spirituality and employee performance. Caldwell and Hayes (2016) argued that values-based leaders were more effective, and Yaacoub (2016) demonstrated a relationship between values and long-term sustainability. Business ethics is now a required subject in business programs (ACBSP, 2016) and business is under increasing scrutiny from both the marketplace and governments. Character, it seems, does count. Numerous leadership models have been developed to help promote leadership and organizational effectiveness. First on the scene in leadership history was the Great Man Theory which viewed great leaders to be men of greatness. Trait theory came into being when birthright was questioned as being the only source for great leaders. The next leadership theory to happen on the historical scene was behavioral theory. Contingency theory holds that the leader needs to alter his or her approach, calling upon a particular leadership style to fit the situation. Transactional theory provides that people are motivated by punishment and reward and that central authority, power, and decision making resides with the leader. Lastly, transformational theory seeks to bring balance to the power relationship between the leader and those who follow. Community and cooperation are hallmarks of this leadership theory (Northouse, 2016). A major disadvantage of these models is that they do not have a Christian perspective inherent in its framework. Many of these models identify excellent means for developing ethical leaders based on the concepts of character, competence, and actions, but without first having a central focus on God, such models and theories—no matter how good—fall short of God’s ideal aim for us. For without God as our central focus, “all our righteous acts are like permanently stained rags” (Isaiah 64:6 GW). In addition, static models driven by rules tend to be less effective in fast changing times. Models that are based on principles, particularly the timeless principals of scripture, provide tools that can then be applied to the changing environments business experience today. 58 THE DeVoe REPORT | IWU The DeVoe School of Business saw a need to merge the best secular leadership theories and models with the wisdom of Scripture and has developed the Virtuous Business Model to aid in kingdom-based leadership and organizational effectiveness development. The model describes both the virtuous leader and the virtuous organization; its value’s based approach works even in the tumultuous times facing business today. WHAT IS VIRTUE? Virtue, by definition, is the moral excellence of a person. A morally excellent person has a character made-up of virtues valued as good. He or she is honest, respectful, courageous, forgiving, and kind, for example. Because of these virtues or positive character traits, he or she is committed to doing the right thing no matter what the personal cost, and does not bend to impulses, urges or desires, but acts according to values and principles. Some might say that good qualities are innate and developed through good parenting, which they are, but we are not perfect. Virtues need to be cultivated to become more prevalent and habitual in daily life. With the habit of being more virtuous, we take the helm of our own life, redirecting its course towards greater fulfillment, peace, and joy .For the Christian leader, Christ is at the center of all that is done, and one’s will seeks to align with God’s—to prayerfully live out the words, “Thy will be done.” Living virtuously is more than “living the good life”; it is seeking to achieve an “onearth-as-it-is-in-heaven” way of living here and now (ComteSponville, 1996/trans. 2001). THE DEVOE MODEL OF VIRTUOUS BUSINESS The DeVoe Model of Virtuous Business is based upon the “Be-Know-Do” (BKD) model of leadership development, which has been used by the US Army for more than 50 years. The holistic notion of BKD is grasped and intuitively recognizable by Christians because of its similar construct with Scripture references to body, mind, and soul. “Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength” (Deuteronomy 6:5 GNT). The model recognizes that we not only have three aspects of virtue (being, knowing, and doing), but also three domains in which we interact with the world around us. The virtuous leader interacts in the spiritual, personal, and professional domains; the virtuous organization interacts by building spiritual, social, and economic capital. The center of all things, and particularly any model of virtue, is Jesus Christ. Jesus is the example of virtuous leadership and an understanding of virtue comes from studying the characteristics of Jesus in Scripture. Scripture also explains that just as God is three in one, mankind has been created with mind, body, and soul. The corresponding domains with the virtuous leader model are personal, professional, and spiritual. SPIRITUAL DOMAIN – CHARACTER, CRITICAL THINKER, COURAGEOUS The spiritual domain fulfills the same role in the virtuous leader that our soul does to the tri-part man. It provides our connection to both God and man and from the perspective of eternity, represents true currency that can be stored up in heaven. The three characteristics of the virtuous leader in the spiritual domain are character (be), critical thinker (know), and courageous (do). Character is developed by becoming Christ-like; critical thinking is learned by study and practice; and courage by stepping out in faith into the unknown. PERSONAL DOMAIN – RESPECTFUL, RELATIONAL, RECONCILING The personal domain corresponds with our mind and to what we know. It also speaks to our mental attributes. The three characteristics of the virtuous leader in the personal domain are respectful (be), relational (know), and reconciling (do). Respect begins with the fear and knowledge of God, but includes respecting all people as created in the image of God. Relational is the product of valuing people above all other things; and reconciling is the ministry to which God has called all believers; that is, reconciling God to man, man to each other, and man to God’s creation. PROFESSIONAL DOMAIN -INTEGRITY, INSPIRATIONAL, INCLUSIVE The professional domain corresponds with our body and to how we act towards others. The three characteristics of the virtuous leader in the professional domain are integrity (be), inspirational (know), and inclusive (do). Leaders above all must have integrity, be able to inspire, and seek to include all of God’s creative masterwork, the human race, in the work of business. Organizations are groups of individuals collaborating to accomplish tasks that could not be accomplished individually. While virtuous leadership is essential for the virtuous organization, a lack of understanding of the role of business in God’s Word can lead to organizations that are not kingdom building. The virtuous organization is one that builds spiritual, social, and economic capital. Spiritual capital is built through being centered, creative, and compassionate. Social capital is about being sincere, supportive, and service orientated. Economic capital is built by being principled, proficient, and profound. SPIRITUAL CAPITAL – CENTERED, CREATIVE, COMPASSIONATE Spiritual capital is about having the right priorities; it is not about profit, it is about people. While profit is necessary to survive, the purpose is about people and includes a clear IWU | THE DeVoe REPORT 59 sense of corporate values, providing comfort and strength in meeting the challenges of life. Virtuous organizations are as dedicated to building spiritual capital as they are to social and economic capital. The three characteristics of the virtuous organization related to building spiritual capital are being centered on Christ (be), creative in problem solving (know), and compassionate to those in need (do). SOCIAL CAPITAL – SINCERE, SYNERGETIC, AND SERVICE Social capital is about authenticity, synergy, and meeting needs. The virtuous organization is transparent, unites individual peoples and skills in ways the promote creativity and innovation, and serves the people of its marketplace. The three characteristics of the virtuous organization related to building social capital are being sincere (be), synergistic (know), and service oriented (do). ECONOMIC CAPITAL PRINCIPLED, PROFICIENT, PROFOUND Economic capital is built through operating with principles centered on Christ, be proficient in what they do to be a faithful steward of their resources, and do only what is profound; that is what is right, good, and proper in the eyes of God. Not everything that can be done, should be done; virtuous organizations know the difference and act accordingly. CONCLUSION The repeated moral failures of businesses in the 2000’s, and government in the 2010’s demonstrates the folly of removing God from the marketplace. In contrast, leaders and organizations that honor God through virtuous behavior build the kingdom and increase value for the company and stakeholder. The next step in the development of the model is to incorporate it into the curriculum of DSB and using it to teach virtues-based business. t NOTES (1) Thank you to those who participated on the task force: Shelley Webb, Kevin Cabe, Mark Booker, Duane Kilty, Jeffrey Boyce, Paul Richardson, Kneeland C. Brown, Pete Ochs, Ilene Bezjian, and Lauren Young. (2) Thank you to Amanda Cass for helping to create the Virtuous Buisness Models. REFERENCES Caldwell, C., & Hayes, L. A. (2016). Self-efficacy and self-awareness: Moral insights to increased leader effectiveness. The Journal of Management Development, 35(9), 1163-1173. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.oak. indwes.edu/docview/1826809625?accountid=6363 Comte-Sponville, A. (1996/trans. 2001). A small treatise on the great virtues. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, LLC. (pp. 3-4) Northouse P. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice, 7th Edition. Sage Publications: New York Pawar, B. S. (2016). Workplace spirituality and employee well-being: an empirical examination. Employee Relations 38.6 p. 75-994. Yaacoub, H. K. (2016). Authenticity: Sustainable benefits beyond performance. People and Strategy, 39(4), 47-49. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com. oak.indwes.edu/docview/1827238347?accountid=6363 Webber, M. (2008, July). Reflections on the “Be, Know, Do” model of leadership development #1. Retrieved fromhttp://www.leadershipletters.com/2008/07/23/ reflections-on-the-be-know-do-model-of-leader-development/ Winn, B. (2012). Interview with Kim Cameron. People and Strategy, 35(4), 12-14. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.oak.indwes.edu/ docview/1498386837?accountid=6363 FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS By BELLA IANG STAT 535 A paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Business Administration INDIANA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY September 2020 FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 1 Contents PROJECT BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 2 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 2 Context of the Problem, Challenge Opportunity or Issue ....................................................... 2 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................................... 2 Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................... 2 Assumptions of the Study ....................................................................................................... 2 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 2 What are the goals of the Study .............................................................................................. 2 Significance of the Topic to the Writer................................................................................... 3 Significance of the Topic to Stakeholders .............................................................................. 3 Broader Implications of the Topic .......................................................................................... 3 Information and Literature Review ............................................................................................. 3 Brief Summary of the Literature on the Subject ..................................................................... 3 Systematic Review of the Literature ....................................................................................... 4 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................... 4 Descriptive Graphs.................................................................................................................. 5 PROJECT ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 7 Analysis of the Literature Review Research Findings ................................................................ 7 Simple Linear Regression Analysis ........................................................................................ 7 Single Sample Hypothesis Test of the Mean .......................................................................... 8 Chi-Square Analysis ............................................................................................................... 9 PROJECT SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 10 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 10 Specific Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 10 Suggestions for Future Research .............................................................................................. 10 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................... 10 References ..................................................................................................................................... 11 Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 12 Appendix A: Data Set ............................................................................................................... 12 Appendix B: Pictures of Analysis ............................................................................................. 12 FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 2 PROJECT BACKGROUND Purpose of the Study Context of the Problem, Challenge Opportunity or Issue Federal funding depends on the data provided by the decennial census, with the changes in the social structure and correct allocation of funds influencing the programs geared towards development within the community. Upendram et al., (2020) undertakes as assessment of the impact and how poverty levels influence the funding of programs. They further outline factors that lead to inaccuracies in census data and solutions to remedy the reasons provided. Nemon, (2017) examines the various aspects of how communities rely on federal funding, the poverty reduction strategies in place and the involvement of the poor within this programs. Their study goes in-depth to assess the influence federal funding has had on the CAAs. They conclude by stating that federal funding have facilitated the development and growth of better programs to fight poverty within the local community. Objectives of the Study Data from various United States of America counties was analyzed, explored and statistical tests undertaken to assess the relationship among the variables. Limitations of the Study The data provided for analysis was complete in its entirety and there were no limitations encountered in undertaking of this study. Assumptions of the Study It is assumed that the data, without the need for inclusion of external data can be used to provide answers to our questions. Significance of the Study What are the goals of the Study The goal of this study is to analyze the country data, present relationships that come up among the variables, including federal government funding and poverty levels and how the correlate, and coming up with statistical tests to answer hypothesized claims. The results of the analysis will facilitate the decision process of determining funding across the various states. FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 3 Significance of the Topic to the Writer The study will provide me with an understanding of the federal funding process and how its disbursement affects the marginalized within my community. The study provides an understanding of why there are various programs being supported by the federal governments to alleviate poverty. Significance of the Topic to Stakeholders The individuals involved in the allocation of funds can be able to get a broader perspective of the influence federal funding have on local communities with alarming levels of poverty. The allocation process can incorporate poverty rates when using population as a baseline for allocation of funds. There are many individuals living below the poverty line and an assessment of the funding they receive is important. Broader Implications of the Topic Industry implications. There are poverty alleviation programs that primarily depend upon the funding by the federal government. Hirn et al, (2018) assesses poverty levels and how they influence activities within elementary schools in the US. Funding by the federal government go beyond just alleviating but supporting other sectors that are directly or indirectly affected by poverty rates within the local community. Global implications. The funding of programs that alleviate poverty varies within countries. There are various factors aside from the poverty levels that influence the size of allocation. Information and Literature Review Brief Summary of the Literature on the Subject Upendram et al., (2020) assessment of federal funding includes the creation of a simple model that incorporates poverty rate to assess federal funding of Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program. They single out parts of the census data that is critical in the formula for fund allocation. The funding go into programs that facilitate in the fight against poverty. FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 4 Systematic Review of the Literature Summary and Relevance of the Literature to the problem or questions The dataset used here includes the federal funding variable alongside poverty variable that play a significant role in influencing methodologies of earlier stated research papers. Thematic Findings in Literature as Applied to the Topic The poverty rates of various states vary, with each state having unique counties with unique set of poverty challenges. The association between the poverty rates and the measure being undertaken to alleviate them is of significant importance. Ethical consideration from the literature review. The data on population is obtained on a decennial period. It is critical that the data be up-to-date and representative of the true population state as the data as allocation of funds is influenced greatly. Are there any measures in place to ensure data collected is up-to-date and captures all of the individuals within the population? Descriptive Statistics This section will analyze the following questions • The breakdown of federal funding by state • The association between federal funding and poverty rates Type of variables in the data set. Type of variables in the dataset Variable State Poverty Pop2010 Popo2000 Median_household_income Variable Type Categorical Numerical, Continuous Numerical, Continuous Numerical, Continuous Numerical, Continuous FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 5 Summary Statistics of the some of the variables: Table 1 Summary Statisitics Mean Median Mode Standard Deviation Sample Variance Minimum Maximum Count median_household_income poverty fed_spending 44254.83912 42444 43750 11536.08912 133081352.1 19351 115574 3139 15.49668684 14.7 11.7 6.382812464 40.74029495 0 53.5 3139 944376.2765 214994 252684 3397744.955 1.15447E+13 0 80457156 3139 Descriptive Graphs Top 10 federal funder states and their average poverty levels: Top 10 Federal Funded States thousands of dollars (2009) 350000000 14.22 300000000 250000000 200000000 17.23 12.94 16.00 12.30 150000000 12.94 100000000 9.30 13.44 13.93 15.10 50000000 Figure 1Top 10 funded states and average poverty rates Virginia Texas Pennsylvania Ohio New York Michigan Maryland Illinois Florida California 0 FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 6 Bottom 10 federal funded states and their average poverty rates: Bottom 10 Federal Funded States thousands of dollars (2009) 14000000 12000000 14.53 9.14 12.29 8.90 15.14 10000000 16.19 12.34 11.50 8000000 11.41 6000000 9.43 4000000 2000000 Wyoming Vermont South Dakota Rhode Island North Dakota New Hampshire Montana Idaho Delaware Alaska 0 Figure 2 Bottom 10 funded states and their average poverty rates California had the highest federal funding at 309281377 (thousand USD), but with a 14.22 of population below poverty level while Wyoming had the lowest federal funding at 5020842 (thousand USD) with a 9.43% of population below poverty level. FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 7 PROJECT ANALYSIS Analysis of the Literature Review Research Findings Simple Linear Regression Analysis The research question we wish to investigate is whether the federal spending is related to the poverty level. A simple linear regression will be undertaken, a scatterplot drawn to assess the general trend. Federal Government Spending $90,000,000 $80,000,000 $70,000,000 Federal Spending (thousands of USD) $60,000,000 $50,000,000 $40,000,000 $30,000,000 $20,000,000 $10,000,000 $- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Population below Poverty Level Figure 3 Federal government Spending The spending is more concentrates at the bottom. We can attempt to undertake logarithmic transformation of the federal spending. A log transformed plot is shown below: Federal Government Spending $88,000,000 log( Federal Spending (thousands of USD)) $8,800,000 $880,000 $88,000 $8,800 $880 0 10 20 30 Population below Poverty Level Figure 4 Log transformed Federal Spending data 40 50 60 FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 8 Regression Statistics Table 2 Regression Statistics Intercept poverty Coefficients Standard t Stat P-value Error 1368135 159075.7 8.600529 1.23E-17 -27345.1 9491.78 -2.88093 0.003992 R-Square 0.0026 The model provides a fairly low R-Squared of 0.0026 and a poverty coefficient of -27345.1 that proves the models is not yet strong enough to model federal funding. The points are clustered around certain regions for both initial and transformed variables. Single Sample Hypothesis Test of the Mean A single sample hypothesis test was undertaken to test that the population mean is 900000 (thousand USD) at a significance level of 5%. At the given significance level of 5%, with a null hypothesis that states the mean of the population is 900000 (thousand USD) Federal funding against an alternate of the population mean not equal to 900000 (thousand USD). We can conclusively fail to reject the null hypothesis based on comparison of p-value and significance level. Figure 5 Sample Hypothesis test FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 9 Chi-Square Analysis A chi-square test is undertaken to determine the interdependence of poverty classification and median house income. The data is partitioned into two classes each at the mean value and chi-square undertaken. The null hypothesis states the independence of the values whereas the alternate hypothesis states there is no independence of the variables. Figure 6 Chi-Square test FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 10 Based on the comparison of the p-value to the level of significance, we fail to reject the null hypothesis and uphold that the median income and poverty are independent. PROJECT SUMMARY Conclusions There are various factors that influence the funding imposed to a state. In this study, we have undertaken a linear regression to assess the relationship between the poverty rates and the level of investor funding. The results were not conclusive enough to warrant that poverty can be used to predict funding Specific Recommendations The study can further be undertaken while incorporating the other factors to statistically determine their influence on the level of federal funding. The categorical variables can be incorporated as dummy variables and further assessments conducted whereas interactions can be made on binned data. Suggestions for Future Research The analysis process can incorporate other variables into the model given the observed low variability of the model to explain the Federal funding using only the poverty level. Various models can be tested to assess the viability of any of the model to perform exceptionally when added to the model. Ethical considerations The literature reviews undertaken point to a strong support for further federal funding to combat poverty challenges. Although on its own the poverty level can fail to live to the expectation, its interaction with other variables in a model can be assessed. FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 11 References Hirn, R. G., Hollo, A., & Scott, T. M. (2018). Exploring instructional differences and school performance in high-poverty elementary schools. Preventing School Failure, 62(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2017.1329197 Upendram, S., Hughes, D. W., & Campbell, V. (2020). The Impact of Demographic Changes on Funding for Community Development Programs across the United States. Choices: The Magazine of Food, Farm & Resource Issues, 35(1), 1–10. Nemon, H. (2007). Community action: lessons from forty years of federal funding, anti-poverty strategies, and participation of the poor. Journal of Poverty, 11(1), 1-22. FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 12 Appendices Appendix A: Data Set The Data Set is located in the accompanying countycomplete.xlsx file. Appendix B: Pictures of Analysis Table 3 Table of sum of expenditure and average poverty rate Row Labels Sum of Average of fed_spending poverty Alabama 53520901 19.90746269 Alaska 10837142 12.29 Arizona 60310413 19.03333333 Arkansas 26394536 20.00533333 California 309281377 14.22 Colorado 43274084 12.8609375 Connecticut 50819770 8.3125 Delaware 7511530 11.50 District of 60719306 18.5 Florida 171977729 16.00 Georgia 80995453 19.78238994 Hawaii 18080676 9 Columbia FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 13 Idaho 12985482 14.53 Illinois 100706121 12.94 Indiana 55387405 12.58804348 Iowa 27321172 11.06262626 Kansas 28073081 12.30666667 Kentucky 53689565 20.54083333 Louisiana 50509562 20.0609375 Maine 13817484 13.6375 Maryland 90997008 9.30 Massachusetts 76340021 10.50714286 Michigan 84798894 15.10 Minnesota 40793035 10.9 Mississippi 31343028 24.38902439 Missouri 63211422 16.21130435 Montana 9756190 15.14 Nebraska 15431090 11.89784946 Nevada 18145953 12.34705882 New Hampshire 11190082 9.14 New Jersey 73129465 8.861904762 New Mexico 25732444 19.35151515 New York 184175673 12.94 North Carolina 80401281 17.582 FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 14 North Dakota 8579732 12.34 Ohio 99113909 13.93 Oklahoma 36325343 17.03506494 Oregon 30949638 15.075 Pennsylvania 129812309 12.30 Rhode Island 10730056 8.90 South Carolina 45708229 19.98478261 South Dakota 9267992 16.19 Tennessee 62163471 18.27157895 Texas 202570236 17.23 Utah 20817327 11.43793103 Vermont 6366815 11.41 Virginia 122173796 13.44 Washington 64785164 15.14615385 West Virginia 19719330 18.43272727 Wisconsin 48634568 11.69166667 Wyoming 5020842 9.43 Grand Total 2964397132 15.49907731 FEDERAL SPENDING AND POVERTY LEVELS 15 Hypothesis test using t-test for mean: FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WIEGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA By STUDENT NAME STAT 535 A paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Business Administration INDIANA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY Month Year FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 1 Contents PROJECT BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 2 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 2 Context of the Problem, Challenge Opportunity or Issue ....................................................... 2 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................................... 2 Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................... 2 Assumptions of the Study ....................................................................................................... 2 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 2 What are the goals of the Study .............................................................................................. 2 Significance of the Topic to the Writer................................................................................... 2 Significance of the Topic to Stakeholders .............................................................................. 3 Broader Implications of the Topic .......................................................................................... 3 Information and Literature Review ............................................................................................. 3 Brief Summary of the Literature on the Subject ..................................................................... 3 Systematic Review of the Literature ....................................................................................... 4 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................... 5 Descriptive Graphs.................................................................................................................. 7 PROJECT ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 8 Analysis of the Literature Review Research Findings ................................................................ 8 Simple Linear Regression Analysis ........................................................................................ 8 Single Sample Hypothesis Test of the Mean .......................................................................... 9 Chi-Square Analysis ............................................................................................................. 10 PROJECT SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 11 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 11 Specific Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 11 Suggestions for Future Research .............................................................................................. 11 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................... 11 References ..................................................................................................................................... 12 Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 13 Appendix A: Data Set ............................................................................................................... 13 Appendix B: Pictures of Analysis ............................................................................................. 13 Appendix C: R-Code for Figure on Count of Categorical Variables........................................ 15 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 2 PROJECT BACKGROUND Purpose of the Study Context of the Problem, Challenge Opportunity or Issue Fishman (2011) undertakes a research on the effect maternal age has on birth weight putting into consideration the influence of economic and social factors of the mother before and during birth. The effect maternal’ smoking habit during the prenatal period and the associated birth outcome had on the academic performance of the young ones in their Fourth Grade was reached by Anthopolos et al., (2013). They concluded that smoking was associated with drop in exam scores for the children at Fourth Grade, whereas those born by mothers under better birth outcomes under the collective smoking and non-smoking category exhibited improvements. There are a variety of factors that also influence birth weight, the race, marital status, age that were analyzed by a study on the prematurity prevention project by Buescher et al., (1988). Objectives of the Study Data from the state of North Carolina for the year 2004 were analyzed to infer the effect various factors had on birthweight. Various statistical descriptions and inferences are conducted on the data and conclusions made. Exploratory analysis on the data was conducted to check the spread of the various factors associated with birthweight. Limitations of the Study The data used contained missing data within certain features that may be attributed to data entry or the absence of data during collection period. Assumptions of the Study It is assumed that the North Carolina data is complete in its entirety and analysis conducted on it provide a true picture of the general population within the state of North Carolina. Significance of the Study What are the goals of the Study The study is conducted with an aim of understanding how the mother’s age and maturity, the habits, marital and whether the mother being white or not have an influence on the weight of the baby. Significance of the Topic to the Writer The study would be of benefit to my friends who would understand the effect various factors and personal decisions would have on their babies. Assessment herein can be used to support various discussions around factors affecting low birth weight among babies. FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 3 Significance of the Topic to Stakeholders The results of this study would be of significance to the general public, mothers to be and individuals involved in drafting policies in the area of natal care. Mothers-to-be will be able to track their journey and how various decisions they undertake influence the health of their new born babies. Individuals drafting policies around natal care will be able to use the information in their decision making as they come up with projects for the well-being of new born babies and their mothers. Broader Implications of the Topic Industry implications. The health care sector, primarily departments that come up with policies and implement them to support prenatal care undertake their operations and make decisions that are based on prior research to facilitate the care of both the mother and their babies. Global implications. Interest in the effect various factors that influence birth weight vary across the globe. The general assessment can be extended past the factors we consider in this case study, putting into consideration location based factors among others. Information and Literature Review Brief Summary of the Literature on the Subject Buescher et al., (1988) research on the effectiveness of the program to prevent prematurity within perinatal care region of North Carolina. Their assessment compares the birthweight of babies born by mothers engages within the program as compared to those who are not within the program. They outline the various features that characterize the program, from education of both the patients and the health providers, to thorough prenatal care for the patients and assessment of their health. Regression model was conducted and results made. However, they take note that the program may offer better progress for care of women with diverse risk factors such as race, marital status, age, education and prenatal care. FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 4 Systematic Review of the Literature Summary and Relevance of the Literature to the problem or questions The research outlined the features we are looking into as some of the risk factors that influence birth weight for the program under study. The age factor was divided into two categories of under 18 year and over 18 years. The education level of the women under the program, the adequacy of prenatal care were featured. Statistical tests were undertaken to assess the influence of the risk factors on birth weight. Thematic Findings in Literature as Applied to the Topic The birth weight of new born babies is of interest in programs within pre-natal care. The results can be extended to assess other areas such as the rate of maternal deaths. Ethical consideration from the literature review. The role data collected during the prenatal care is important in the planning and formulation of prenatal policies. How are the implementations of the decisions conducted? How is the results of the analysis of the data collected used? FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA Descriptive Statistics This section is undertaken to answer the following questions: • What is the breakdown of birth weight by maturity, their mothers’ marital status, their mother’s smoking habit and if their mothers are white or not. Type of variables in the data set. Types of Variables in Data Set: Table 1 Types of Variables in data Variable Fage Mage Mature Weeks Premie Visits Marital Gained Weight Low birth weight Gender Habit whitemom Description Father’s age in years Mother’s age in years Maturity status of mother Length of pregnancy in weeks Whether birth was premature or full-term Number of hospital visits during pregnancy Whether mother is married or not Weight gained by mother during pregnancy (pounds) Weigh of baby at birth (pounds) Birth weight of baby Gender of baby Status of mother: smoker or non-smoker Whether mom is white or not Variable Type Numerical, Discrete Numerical, Discrete Categorical Numerical, Continuous Categorical Numerical, Continuous Categorical Numerical, Continuous Numerical, Continuous Categorical Categorical Categorical Categorical 5 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 6 Descriptive Statistics of Discrete and Continuous Variables: Table 2 Descriptive Statistics Variable Count Mean Median Mode fage mage weeks visits gained weight 829 1000 998 991 973 1000 30.26 27 38.33 12.10 30.33 7.10 30 27 39 12 30 7.31 34 20 39 12 30 7.44 Standard Deviation 6.76 6.21 2.93 3.95 14.24 1.51 Minimum Maximum 14 13 20 0 0 1 55 50 45 30 85 11.75 Count of Categorical Variable: Table 3Count of Categorical Variables Variable Mature Premie Marital Low birth weight Factors Count Average of Weight Standard Weight deviation younger mom 867 7.10 1.49 mature mom 133 7.12 1.66 full term 846 7.45 1.07 premie 152 5.12 1.97 not married 386 6.80 1.61 married 613 7.30 1.40 not low 889 7.48 1.00 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA Gender Habit Whitemom low 111 4.03 1.37 male 497 7.30 1.51 female 503 6.90 1.48 nonsmoker 873 7.14 1.51 smoker 126 6.82 1.39 not white 284 6.72 1.62 white 714 7.25 1.43 Descriptive Graphs Figure 1 Count of Variables 7 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 8 PROJECT ANALYSIS Analysis of the Literature Review Research Findings Simple Linear Regression Analysis The question to be answered using simple linear regression is on the linear relationship between length of pregnancy in weeks and weight of baby in pounds. Birth Weight 12 y = 0.3443x - 6.0953 R² = 0.449 10 Weight 8 6 4 2 0 19 24 29 34 39 44 Week Figure 2 Simple Linear Regression Scatter Plot There is an upward trend being exhibited, with a positive 0.3443 slope, with the model having an R-Squared of 0.449. This implies that 44.9% of the Birth Weight can be explained by the model that includes the number of weeks the pregnancy was carried. The scatterplot shows a linear relationship between weight in pounds and weeks of pregnancy. FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 9 Table of regression, shows the model line has an intercept of -6.0952 and a coefficient of 0.3443 for the weeks variable. Coefficients Standard t Stat P-value Error Intercept -6.09529 0.464644 -13.1182 2.22E-36 weeks 0.344328 0.012085 28.49105 4.5E-131 Single Sample Hypothesis Test of the Mean Our research undertakes a single sample hypothesis test of the mean to test that the population mean for the birth weights in pounds is 7. Against an alternative hypothesis that it might not be equal. Figure 3 Single Sample Hypothesis Test of Mean Based on the hypothesis test on population mean, we can reject the null hypothesis at significance level of 5%. The comparison is based on a comparison of the p-value and the significance level. FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 10 Chi-Square Analysis The chi-square test is undertaken to determine if the classification of the weight of a baby is independent of the age of the mother. The null hypothesis is that the variables are independent, with the alternate stating the dependence between the variables. Figure 4 Chi-Square Test Based on the test results that compare p-value of 0.5237 with our level of significance at 5%, we do not reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the variables are independent. FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 11 PROJECT SUMMARY Conclusions There are various factors that influence the weight of a baby after being born. In this study, we have undertaken a linear regression to assess the relationship between the weeks of pregnancy and baby weight in pounds and we asserted a linear relationship. The gender of the baby and the classification of the weight were found to be independent variables. Specific Recommendations The study can further be undertaken while incorporating the other factors to statistically determine their influence on the weight of babies. The categorical variables can be incorporated as dummy variables and further assessments conducted. Suggestions for Future Research The data used can incorporate other variables that might be of interest in determining the weight of new born babies. Further extension of the data to include information from other years within North Carolina can come in handy to explain the relationship among the various factors. Ethical considerations The collection of hospital data is important for policy formulation by the relevant bodies. It is important to educate patients of the need to participate in data collection as it in the long-run will facilitate the development of the entire healthcare system. FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA 12 References Fishman, S. H. (2015). Maternal Age and Birth Weight: Examining the Interplay between Biological and Social Factors. Conference Papers -- American Sociological Association, 1–29. Anthopolos, R., Edwards, S. E., & Miranda, M. L. (2013). Effects of maternal prenatal smoking and birth outcomes extending into the normal range on academic performance in fourth grade in North Carolina, USA. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 27(6), 564–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12081 Buescher, P. A., Meis, P. J., Ernest, J. M., Moore, M. L., Michielutte, R., & Sharp, P. (1988). A Comparison of Women in and out of a Prematurity Prevention Project in a North Carolina Perinatal Care Region. American Journal of Public Health, 78(3), 264–267. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.78.3.264 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA Appendices Appendix A: Data Set Data Set is provided within the accompanying ncbirths.xlsx file. Appendix B: Pictures of Analysis Simple Sample Hypothesis of Mean: 13 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA Chi-Square test: 14 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA Appendix C: R-Code for Figure on Count of Categorical Variables library(readxl) nc_births % ggplot(aes(x = premie)) + geom_bar() + ggtitle("(b) Classification of Birth") + geom_text(aes(label = ..count..), stat = "count", vjust = 1.5, colour = "white") + theme_light() + theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(), axis.title.x = element_blank()) 15 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA marital % na.omit() %>% ggplot(aes(x = marital)) + geom_bar() + geom_text(aes(label = ..count..), stat = "count", vjust = 1.5, colour = "white") + theme_light() + ggtitle("(c) Marital Status of Mother") + theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(), axis.title.x = element_blank()) lowbirthweight % ggplot(aes(x = lowbirthweight)) + geom_bar() + ggtitle("(d) Classification of Baby Birth Weight") + geom_text(aes(label = ..count..), stat = "count", vjust = 1.5, colour = "white") + theme_light() + theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(), axis.title.x = element_blank()) gender % ggplot(aes(x = gender)) + geom_bar() + geom_text(aes(label = ..count..), stat = "count", vjust = 1.5, colour = "white") + theme_light() + ggtitle("(e) Gender of Baby") + theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(), axis.title.x = element_blank()) 16 FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW BIRTH WEIGHTS IN NORTH CAROLINA habit % na.omit() %>% ggplot(aes(x = habit)) + geom_bar() + geom_text(aes(label = ..count..), stat = "count", vjust = 1.5, colour = "white") + theme_light() + ggtitle("(f) Status of Mother") + theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(), axis.title.x = element_blank()) whitemom % na.omit() %>% ggplot(aes(x = whitemom)) + geom_bar() + ggtitle("(g) Whether Mom is White or Not White") + geom_text(aes(label = ..count..), stat = "count", vjust = 1.5, colour = "white") + theme_light() + theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(), axis.title.x = element_blank()) count_plots
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