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Final Project Template
[Please note: This template assists you with style and format of your Final Project for PSYC
8552/PSYC 6552 Psychology of Motivation at Work. All components of the Final Project must
follow APA format, per the most recent APA Publication Manual.]
Your completed Final Project should be approximately 25–30 pages.
[Project Title]
by
[your name]
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the course
Psychology of Motivation at Work
Walden University
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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Week 2: Literature Search Strategy and Reference Section (4–5 pages)
In Week 2, you develop a reference section of 20–30 peer-reviewed articles for use in your Final
Project. Consult the requirements for a Literature Search Strategy below to complete the
reference section. The purpose of this section is to introduce you to the importance of literature
reviews and references.
Include in the assignment the following information:
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Explanation of topic (1 page): Describe the work motivation topic you selected and
explain why you selected it.
Reference Section (2–3 pages): Prepare an APA-formatted reference section of the 20–30
peer-reviewed articles you selected.
Literature Search Strategy (1–2 paragraphs): In narrative form, describe the procedure
you used to locate the peer-reviewed articles for use in your reference section.
Literature Search Strategy
After you have selected your topic, the next stage of your Final Project incorporates a search of
relevant literature on the subject. In a literature search strategy, you discuss exactly how you
conducted your search of the literature, i.e., you describe in detail your search strategy. For
example, what keywords did you use to conduct your search? What databases did you search?
How did you tailor keywords to search specific databases? What additional methods did you use
to find peer-reviewed articles? (For example, did you examine the reference section of the peerreviewed articles you located for additional articles?)
Additional information you may wish to include:
• Describe library databases you accessed and search engines you used. Then list key
search terms and combinations of search terms you used. If necessary, you may want to
place more detailed search terms in an appendix if appropriate.
• Describe scope of literature review in terms of years searched as well as types of
literature and sources searched, including seminal articles as well as current peerreviewed articles.
• In cases where there is little current research, dissertations, conference proceedings, etc.,
describe how you handled the lack of sources.
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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Week 4: Introduction and Background (10–15 pages)
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Evaluate critically the peer-reviewed articles you selected in Week 2.
Prepare an “Introduction” and “Background” that summarizes the peer-reviewed articles
you selected.
In Week 4, you present a synthesis of the 20–30 peer-reviewed articles you selected in Week 2.
Briefly summarize information presented in each article. In your summary, include pertinent
theoretical and empirical findings, methodology, and/or research disparities relating to your
topic.
Include in the assignment the following information:
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An overview of relevant theories related to the motivation topic you selected
A description of major theoretical propositions and/or major hypotheses of those theories
A review and synthesis of the studies related to the motivation topic you selected
A review and synthesis of studies related to the key independent, dependent, and
covariate variables in order to produce a description and explanation of what is known
about the variables, what is controversial (i.e., mixed findings by researchers), and what
remains to be studied
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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Week 6: Problem Statement, Purpose Statement, Research Questions, and Hypotheses (2–3
pages)
In Week 6, you consider the information you gathered from your review of the literature. You
develop a problem statement, purpose statement, research questions, and hypotheses.
Problem Statement (1–2 paragraphs)
After reviewing previous research conducted on the work motivation problem you selected, you
write a problem statement. A problem statement defines, drives, and guides your research. In a
problem statement, you clearly identify the problem you propose to solve or the gap in the
current literature your research addresses. Explain why your proposed research is of importance
and of value to other researchers and practitioners in the field. A problem statement convinces
others that the problem you propose to solve is relevant, significant, and important. Make a
persuasive argument, i.e., develop a rationale as to why your research problem merits the
research effort you undoubtedly will expend.
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State the research problem.
Provide evidence of consensus that the problem is current, relevant, and significant to the
discipline.
Frame the problem in a way that builds upon or counters previous research findings
focusing primarily on research conducted in the last five years.
Address a meaningful gap in the current research literature.
The Purpose Statement (1–2 sentences)
The purpose statement is derived from the problem statement. Once you identify a research
problem, you need to specify steps you must take to propose a possible solution. In this section
of your Final Project, in addition to writing a purpose statement, you formulate research
questions, offer a set of hypotheses, and identify the independent and dependent variables in your
study.
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Provide a concise statement that serves as the connection between the problem being
addressed and the focus of the study and contains:
o The research paradigm (quantitative/qualitative/mixed) and specific
design/tradition within paradigm
o The study intent (such as describe, compare, correlate, explore, develop, etc)
o The independent, dependent, and covariate variables (quantitative studies) or
concept/phenomenon (qualitative studies)
A strategy that might be used to jumpstart the purpose statement of your Final Project is to
complete the following unfinished sentence, “The purpose of this/my study is to . . .” Write a
concise statement of no more than 1–2 sentences in length that ties the research problem to your
study. A well-crafted purpose statement foreshadows your hypotheses.
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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Quantitative research purpose statements contain verbs that imply the use of data collection and
analysis such as measure, correlate, compare, test, analyze, evaluate, and so forth. Because
qualitative research focuses on open, emergent, and non-predictive phenomena and concepts,
qualitative research purpose statements contain verbs such as discover, describe, develop,
explore, and so forth (Creswell, 2003).
Research Questions (1 page)
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State the research questions.
State what constructs you might measure and how you might measure them.
Before you formulate your research question(s), you need to determine the type of research
question you are asking, i.e., descriptive, comparative, or relational. Then you identify the
different types of variables, i.e., dependent, independent, or covariate, you are studying.
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Descriptive Research Questions
o As the name implies, descriptive research questions describe the variable(s) you are
studying. The goal of descriptive research questions is to quantify the variable you are
measuring Descriptive research questions usually start with “How much…, How
often…, What percentage….” An analysis of responses collected from surveys,
questionnaires, polls, and census data typically use descriptive research questions.
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Comparative Research Questions
o Comparative research questions focus on differences between two or more dependent
variables. Typically, comparative research questions begin with “What is the
difference between…”
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Relational Research Questions
o Relational research questions examine relationships, interactions, connections, trends,
or associations between two or more variables. Typically, relational research questions
start with “What is the relationship between or among…” followed by the independent
variables and dependent variables being examined.
Hypotheses (1 page)
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State the hypotheses by using appropriate population parameters and statistical notation.
(Use of an equation editor makes typing hypotheses easy.)
For quantitative studies, state the null and alternative hypotheses that identify the
independent and dependent variables being studied and the association being tested.
A hypothesis is generally a short declarative statement of one to two paragraphs in length in
which you anticipate an outcome or make predictions about the phenomenon you are
studying. It is a preconceived idea about what you think might be true. Because hypotheses
are testable and measureable, they make specific predictions about an unproven proposition.
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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For quantitative studies, it is important that you state the null and alternative hypotheses that
identify the independent and dependent variables being studied and the association being
tested
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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Week 8: Method Section (6–8 pages)
For Week 8, you write the “Method Section” of your Final Project. Consider research
methodologies and designs appropriate to solve your research problem. Then decide which
research paradigm, i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methodology, you plan to use in your
study. In addition, describe your strategies for data collection and analysis. Below are key areas
you need to address to complete the Methods Section.
Participants (1–2 pages)
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Population
o Define the population.
o State criteria for selecting participants.
o State population size (if known) or approximate/estimated size.
Sample and Sampling Procedures
o Identify and justify the type of sampling strategy.
o Explain specific procedures for how the sample will be drawn.
▪ Sampling frame (Inclusion and exclusion criteria)
o Use a power analysis to determine sample size and include:
▪ Justification for the effect size, alpha level, and power level chosen
▪ Citation of the source of calculation or the tool used to calculate sample
size
Procedures (1–2 pages)
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Procedures For Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection (students
collecting their own data)
o Thoroughly describe recruiting procedures and particular demographic
information that will be collected.
o Describe how participants will be provided informed consent.
o Describe how data are collected.
o Explain how participants exit the study (for example, debriefing procedures, etc.).
o Describe any follow-up procedures (such as requirements to return for follow-up
interviews, treatments, etc.).
Procedures For Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection (students using
archival data)
o Include all procedures for recruitment, participation, and/or data collection
associated with the main study.
o Describe the bounds of the data to be extracted (e.g., records from 2005-2008).
o Describe the procedure for gaining access to the data.
o Describe necessary permissions to gain access to the data (with permission letters
located in the IRB application).
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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Measures/Instrumentation (2–3 pages)
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Instrumentation and Operationalization of Constructs
o Identify each data collection instrument and source (published or researcher
produced)
o For published instruments provide:
▪ Name of developer(s)
▪ Appropriateness to the current study
▪ Mention of permission from developer to use which permission letter
included in the appendix
▪ Published reliability and validity values relevant to their use in the study
▪ Where/with what populations used previously and how validity/reliability
are/were established in the study sample
o For researcher-developed instruments provide:
▪ Basis for development
• Literature sources
• Other bases (such as pilot study)
• Evidence of reliability (internal consistency, test-retest, etc.)
• Evidence of construct validity
▪ Establish sufficiency of instrumentation to answer research questions
o For studies involving an intervention or the manipulation of the IV:
▪ Identify materials/programs applied as treatment or manipulation.
▪ Provide information on the developer of the
materials/programs/manipulations.
• If published, state where, how, and with what populations used
previously
• If researcher developed, state basis for development and how
developed.
▪ Provide evidence that another agency will sponsor intervention studies
(such as clinical interventions).
o Operationalization: For each variable describe:
▪ Its operational definition
▪ How each variable is measured or manipulated
▪ How the variable/scale score is calculated and what the scores represent
Data Analysis Plan (1–2 pages)
o Identify software used for analyses.
o Provide explanation of data cleaning and screening procedures as appropriate to
the study.
o Restate the research questions and hypotheses here as written in Chapter 1.
o Describe in detail the analysis plan including the elements below including:
▪ Statistical tests that will be used to test the hypothesis
▪ Rationale for inclusion of potential covariates / confounding variables
▪ How results will be interpreted (key parameter estimates, confidence
intervals/probability values, odds ratios, etc.)
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
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Week 11: Abstract, References Section, and Completed Final Project Submission
In Week 11, you write the Abstract and complete the References section for your Final Project.
See the descriptions provided below regarding the content of each. You then submit your
completed Final Project. Be sure to include any Instructor feedback before submitting your
completed Final Project.
Abstract (150–250 words)
The abstract is a concise, well-developed paragraph that highlights the purpose and key points
of your paper. An abstract should be no more than one typed page, double-spaced, with the first
sentence completely left justified. An abstract is a summary of relevant theoretical foundations
and conceptual frameworks in your paper. Also, the abstract provides your empirical review of
the issue or topic and a concluding statement for future research.
Include in the Abstract:
• A brief description of the topic or issue of work motivation you selected
• A brief statement about the theoretical foundations/conceptual frameworks as appropriate
• A brief summary your empirical review
• Conclude with a statement on the implications for future research and for positive social
change.
References (1–2 pages)
In this section, you cite the work of scholars in the field that contributed to your paper.
Additionally, this section allows for the retrieval of information. For a detailed guide on
constructing citations, refer to the APA Publication Manual (6th edition).
For the Final Project, the References section includes the following:
o Title of the section (e.g., References)
o Each scholarly journal or scholarly resource used in your research or preparation of your
research
Reference:
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.
Running head: GOAL SETTING THEORY
Goal-Setting Theory to Motivate Non-Profit Workforce
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GOAL SETTING THEORY
Explanation
Non-profit organizations have an annual turnover rate in the U.S. at an outstanding rate of
nineteen percent, which is above the overall working industry rate of twelve percent (Chris, 2020).
In major cities, like Chicago, the estimated annual turnover rate for non-profit organizations stands
even higher at thirty percent (Chris, 2020). Non-profit organizations may never have wages that
can compete with other sectors, so organizational leaders must focus on motivating their workforce
with intrinsic awards and accomplishing meaningful goals. Goal-setting theory can be applied to
the job design of non-profits to motivate the employee on a consistent basis to achieve something
greater. Non-profit organizations during this fruitful time must find ways to inspire their workforce
to consistently learn, grow their skills and further their non-profit careers while carrying out the
mission of their organization. Employee growth and promotion may be the deciding factor if an
individual will choose to stay with an organization. Setting and achieving goals, especially if there
are opportunities to climb the organization’s ladder, can lead to enhanced employee engagement
in such a way as to maximize the overall efficiency and organizational benefits.
Goal-setting theory can help employees grow organically while appreciating and adapting
to the whole process in the organization’s mission. Ensuring staff set goals also helps managers
shape and boost their chances of achieving goals for the short and the long term. Managers can
jointly set related, practical, workable, results-oriented, and timely targets that can be achieved.
Successful goal completion encourages commitment, gives the employee a feeling of pride in their
organization and also provides an intrinsic award of achieving their objectives.
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GOAL SETTING THEORY
Reference Section
Aarts, H. (2019). Goal-setting theory and the mystery of setting goals.
Almsafir, M. K., & Alkharabsheh, A. A. (2013). Factors Influencing Employees Motivation at
Tenaga Nasional Berhad, Ipoh Perak. Journal of Modern Marketing Research Vol, 2(1),
98-110.
Ashraf, Z., Jaffri, A. M., Sharif, M. T., & Khan, A. (2012). Increasing employee organizational
commitment by correlating goal setting, employee engagement, and optimism at the
workplace. European Journal of Business and Management, 4(2), 71-77.
Audenaert, M., Decramer, A., George, B., Verschuere, B., & Van Waeyenberg, T. (2019). When
employee performance management affects individual innovation in public organizations:
The role of consistency and LMX. The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 30(5), 815-834.
Bezuijen, X. M., van den Berg, P. T., van Dam, K., & Thierry, H. (2019). Pygmalion and employee
learning: The role of leader behaviors. Journal of Management, 35(5), 1248-1267.
Chris. S. (2020). 45% of Nonprofit Employees to Seek New Jobs by 2025: Report. Retrieved from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisstrub/2020/02/10/nonprofithr/#79f526be15ca
Clements, A. J., & Kamau, C. (2018). Understanding students’ motivation towards proactive
career behaviors through goal-setting theory and the job demands-resources model. Studies
in Higher Education, 43(12), 2279-2293.
Cloe, T. N. (2018). Performance and Goal Setting in Failure-Avoidant Employees (Doctoral
dissertation, Kaplan University).
GOAL SETTING THEORY
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Fortes Tondello, G., Premsukh, H., & Nacke, L. (2018, January). A theory of gamification
principles through goal-setting theory. Hawaii International Conference on System
Sciences.
Franco, G. E. (2018). Task agency and employee motivation.
Fried, Y., & Slowik, L. H. (2004). Enriching goal setting theory with time: An integrated
approach. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 404–422.
Gruman, J. A., & Saks, A. M. (2011). Performance management and employee engagement.
Human resource management review, 21(2), 123-136.
Han, Y. (2018). Is public service motivation changeable? Integrative modeling with goal-setting
theory. International Journal of Public Administration, 41(3), 216-225.
Lanier, A. J. (2018). Stop the Revolving Door: The Influence of Emotionally Intelligent Leadership
Practices on Employee Retention in Non-profit Human Service Organizations (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Southern California).
Latham, G., & Locke, E. (2006). Goal-setting theory. In S. G. Rogelberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 279–282). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Latham, G. P., Brcic, J., & Steinhauer, A. (2017). Toward an integration of goal setting theory and
the automaticity model. Applied Psychology, 66(1), 25-48.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2019). The development of goal-setting theory: A half-century
retrospective. Motivation Science, 5(2), 93.
Locke, E., & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 15(5), 265–268.
Manap, R., & Mohd, N. H. (2016). Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation.
GOAL SETTING THEORY
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Medlin, B., & Green, Jr, K. (2008). The relationship between goal setting, optimism, and
engagement: The impact on employee performance. In Allied Academies International
Conference. Academy of Organizational Culture, Communications, and Conflict.
Proceedings (Vol. 13, No. 1, p. 51). Jordan Whitney Enterprises, Inc.
Merrah, H., & Li, Y. (2018, October). Motivating Chinese Employees of Construction Projects in
Algeria. In the 3rd International Symposium on Asian B&R Conference on International
Business Cooperation (ISBCD 2018). Atlantis Press.
NAVEEN, S., & YENUGULA, P. (2017). The impact of monetary and non-monetary incentives
on performance of employees: a research study on the beverage industry, AP, in India.
International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering and Research (IJRTER), 3(5).
Nebel, S., Schneider, S., Schledjewski, J., & Rey, G. D. (2017). Goal-setting in educational video
games: Comparing goal-setting theory and the goal-free effect. Simulation & Gaming,
48(1), 98-130.
Neubert, M. J., & Dyck, B. (2016). Developing sustainable management theory: goal-setting
theory based on virtue. Management Decision.
Piccolo, R. F., & Buengeler, C. (2013). Leadership and goal setting.
Pinder, C. C. (2008). Goal-directed theories. In Work motivation in organizational behavior (2nd
ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Renard, M., & Snelgar, R. J. (2016). How can work be designed to be intrinsically rewarding?
Qualitative insights from South African non-profit employees. SA Journal of Industrial
Psychology, 42(1), 1-12.
GOAL SETTING THEORY
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Safiullah, A. B. (2014). Impact of rewards on employee motivation of the telecommunication
industry of Bangladesh: An empirical study. Journal of Business and Management, 16(12),
22-30.
Salim, S. M. A. I. A., Gtani, A. A., Sassi, M. A., & Elzahaf, R. A. (2019). Assessment The Role
Of Motivation On Technicians And Teaching Assistants Performance In College Of
Medical Technology In Derna City, Libya.
Shoaib, F., & Kohli, N. (2017). Employee engagement and goal-setting theory. Indian Journal of
Health & Wellbeing, 8(8).
Wanjohi, G. K. (2019). STAFF DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES AND EMPLOYEE JOB
PERFORMANCE. International Journal of Research in Commerce and Management
Studies (ISSN: 2582-2292), 1(4), 1-8.
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GOAL SETTING THEORY
Literature Search Strategy
The accumulated reference section to establish a researching foundation in Goal-Setting
Theory was a very thorough process that involved critical decision-making and lengthy
researching. Aside from the Walden Library database, the other sources used were Google Scholar
and Microsoft Academic. I had to ensure that all the peer-reviewed articles were selected according
to the chosen topic of research. Peer-reviewed articles on Goal-Setting Theory were fortunately
bountiful and I had a quality list from each scholarly search engine to choose from. I made an
effort to select articles that sounded impartial and had an effort from the author to objectively
analyze the procedure of Goal-Setting Theory.
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Goal-Setting Theory to Motivate Nonprofit Workforce
9/27/20
Goal-Setting Theory
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Goal-Setting Theory to Motivate the Nonprofit Workforce
Introduction and Background
Nonprofit organizations in the US have an outstanding annual turnover rate of nineteen
percent, which is above the overall working industry rate of twelve percent (Chris, 2020). In major
cities, like Chicago, the estimated annual turnover rate for nonprofit organizations stands even
higher at thirty percent (Chris, 2020). Nonprofit organizations may never have wages that can
compete with other sectors, so organizational leaders must motivate their workforce with intrinsic
awards and accomplish meaningful goals. Goal-setting theory can be applied to the job design of
nonprofits to motivate the employee on a consistent basis to achieve something greater. Nonprofit
organizations during this fruitful time must find ways to inspire their workforce to consistently
learn, grow their skills, and further their nonprofit careers while carrying out the mission of their
organization. Employee growth and promotion may be the deciding factor if an individual will
choose to stay with an organization. Setting and achieving goals, especially if there are
opportunities to climb the organization’s ladder, can lead to enhanced employee engagement in
such a way as to maximize the overall efficiency and organizational benefits.
Goal-setting theory articulates that setting goals in an organization motivates employees
and usually contributes to better performance of tasks (Latham & Locke, 2006). This theory can
help employees grow organically while appreciating and adapting to the whole process in the
organization’s mission. Ensuring staff set goals also helps managers shape and boost their chances
of achieving goals for the short and the long term. Managers can jointly set related, practical,
workable, results-oriented, and timely targets that can be achieved. Successful goal completion
encourages commitment, gives the employee a feeling of pride in their organization, and also
Goal-Setting Theory
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provides an intrinsic award of achieving their objectives. The purpose of this assignment is to
critically evaluate the literature and identify gaps in the literature.
Critical Article Evaluation
Chris (2020) studied the turnover rates from the data from nonprofit HR websites, which
investigates the needs of employees in nonprofit organizations and finds effective ways to address
them. He found out that there is a shocking trend of exit plans from employees from nonprofit
organizations around the United States. He found out that 45% of the employees from nonprofit
organizations were planning to quit their organizations and seek employment in different
organizations in the next five years. 23% of these employees said that they would not opt for
nonprofit organizations in their venture for new employment opportunities. The most common
reasons they cited included low payments, lack of good long-term career opportunities, poor
leadership, among other reasons. He concluded that nonprofit organizations are generally facing a
threat of employee turnover due to a lack of talent attraction strategy. This contributes to a lack of
motivation among nonprofit employees.
Aarts (2019) expounds on the goal-setting theory and provides a detailed evaluation of the
theory by relating human habits and goal-setting. The author stipulates that the main propositions
of the goal-setting theory are that it can predict the best performance capability for individuals,
especially if the goal-setting involves making money. This theory hypothesizes that when people
work towards certain set targets, they tend to work harder and to showcase their best possible
performance. He concludes that goal setting can make people work and adapt to changes.
In another study, Nebel, Schneider, Schledjewski & Rey (2017) explores the goals types
within educational video games by comparing two-goal theories applied in goal setting. The main
objective of this project is to compare the two-goal type's differences by using the MINECRAFT
Goal-Setting Theory
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tool for content creation in educational video games. The method used in carrying out this research
is the empirical experiment where eighty-seven students were grouped into three groups: goal-free
condition, specific performance goal, and specific learning goal. They played a video game for
almost three hours, where each test session was based on gaining knowledge on the basic
components of electrical engineering and computer science. The outcome revealed how the goalsetting had effects on cognitive load and its effective measures. Moreover, goal –setting revealed
effective impacts as the players who were following the specific learning goal had more fun as
compared to the other players.
Besides, Almsafir & Alkharabsheh (2013) conducted research based on a deductive study
among various employees to explore the factors that contribute to their motivation. The data were
collected using a questionnaire from participants sampled based on convenient sampling. He used
motivation as the dependent variable, and leadership style, incentives, and stress levels as
independent variables to study their effects on employees’ motivations. It was analyzed using
SPSS. They found out that employees’ motivation is contributed by factors such as an
organization's leadership style, stress level, and incentives. He argued that motivation and job
involvement among the employees are important determinations of the level of productivity they
have in an organization. Based on this review, nonprofit organizations need to provide incentives
and ensure that the working environment is conducive to motivate workers.
Clements & Kamau (2018) studied the goal-setting theory in relation to the resource-job
demand model. The researchers argued that there is very little research that explains the
controversial variation of students' employability development despite being in a highly
competitive labor market. They used a nested model approach to investigate the effect of
motivation on students' proactive career behaviors. They found out that students who had clear
Goal-Setting Theory
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career goals had higher levels of motivation and commitment. They also found out that the
workloads in the workplace or in school did not diminish their career behaviors. They concluded
that setting challenging goals can enhance commitment and mastery, which improves motivation
to work hard.
Ashraf, Jaffri, Sharif & Khan (2012) explored the association among the factors that
influence the employees’ commitments in an organization. They used data from different research
institutions and organizations to determine the relationship between constructs such as goalsetting, employee engagement, optimistic behavior, and employee’s commitment level in an
organization. Their findings would help the development of a new approach to maximize employee
commitment in an organization. Besides, it provides a new approach to manage employees’
performance. However, the study does not explain other alternatives ways of evaluating the factors
that affect employee commitment, for instance, based on job satisfaction, employee behavior, and
absenteeism.
Audenaert et al. (2019) examine the effect of performance management on the employee’s
innovation in public organizations. They argue that there is a complex job demand in the public
sector that requires innovation. Most of the public organizations have developed performance
management strategy to try to control the job demand that is increasingly rising. However, this
performance management has affected employee motivation significantly. Audenaert et al. (2019)
sought to establish this effect by studying the performance management strategy. They used the
theory of Leader-Member Exchange as a moderator function in the study. The researchers found
out that performance management promotes employee motivation, especially if it involves a
consistent sub practice. These findings are very vital in the topic of employee motivation using
goal setting and are related to the goal-setting theory. They also provide an understanding of the
Goal-Setting Theory
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significance of establishing a performance management strategy to motivate employees, which
nonprofit organizations can use to retain their employees and increase their commitment.
Bezuijen et al. (2019) study the effects of leader behavior on employee engagement in
learning using Rosenthal’s Pygmalion model. This model explains the Pygmalion effect that can
explain the relationship between leaders’ behavior and employee commitment in organizations.
Based on the researcher’s findings, five mediators of the Pygmalion model, including feedback,
availability of learning opportunities, goal-setting, leader-member relationship, enhanced
employee engagement in an organization. Besides, the availability of learning opportunities, goal
difficulty, and goal specificity are mediators for employees’ commitment to learning activities.
Shoaib & Kohli (2017) examines the relationship that lies between employee engagement
and how the theory of goal setting affects them. It is theorized that in order to determine employees,
it is important to set a goal that will serve as a predictor. This criterion will enhance employee
performance; thus, positive results are realized within the organization. Based on the survey
method which I used to collect data, I had a sample of one hundred and forty-nine employees both
working in public and private organizational sectors, and their age ranged from forty-two and
twenty percent. Through the survey method, I adapted different questionnaires that I used in
collecting data from the sample of one hundred and forty-nine employees in my research. The
outcome showed that employee engagement and employee performance was positively affected
and influenced by the goal-setting theory. It was realized that there were organizational citizenship
behavior and high levels of job satisfaction within the organization sectors.
Organizations have noted that human resources are very significant elements in the age of
globalization. They increasingly became interested in managing their employees in order to
enhance business performance (Safiullah, 2014). In this regard, they came up with a new strategy
Goal-Setting Theory
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of ensuring that employees who are working for organizations are ought to motivation by
providing them with a benefits system and a well-balanced reward. The main aim of this research
is to ascertain the association between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and how they affect employee
performance. The study also examines the actions put in place to motivate employees of the
telecommunication industry. The main methodology used in conducting out this research is the
questionnaire where a sample of eighty-one employees was used. According to the research, the
outcome concluded that intrinsic rewards such as age, income level, and advancement in career
path became a significant factor for employees' motivation (Safiullah, 2014). Similarly,
organizations ought to deliberate for a better-structured payment system that incorporates both
extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to improve the performance culture in nonprofit organizations.
Cloe (2018) suggests that goal-setting is essential for the avoidance of failure among
employee’s performance. He also introduces the concept of avoidance-motivation, which
determines employees' commitment to an organization. He argues that the question of avoidantmotivated employees with achievable goals being more engaged in an organization compared to
those with unrealistic goals. The author sought to answer this question by surveying employees
from one of the healthcare companies in the US. Based on their findings, avoidance-motivation
behavior inhibits employees’ engagement in an organization. However, employees with realistic
and achievable goals have increased engagement. Therefore, setting realistic and achievable goals
can avert the effects of avoidable-motivation by increasing their motivation to work hard.
Contrary, those with unrealistic goals usually have a high-level of avoidance-motivation, which is
characterized by the fear of failure rather than the motivation to achieve. This effect usually leads
to easy demotivation as the workload increases. Therefore, managers of nonprofit organizations
should be careful when setting goals for their employees to ensure that their goals are realistic and
Goal-Setting Theory
8
achievable so that they can avoid the effects of avoidance-motivation (Gruman, & Saks, 2011).
However, there is still more research needed to obtain sufficient evidence regarding the
relationship of avoidance-motivation with employee performance and engagement in a nonprofit
organization.
Salim, Gtani, Sassi & Elzahaf (2019) examines motivation as a vital factor for efficiency
in organizations. The central objective of this research is to evaluate the role played by motivation
on teaching assistants and technicians' performance in Medical Technology College in the city of
Derna. The methodology I used in carrying out this research is A-cross sectional design, where I
collected data using the questionnaire and made analysis through statistical evaluation. The results
indicated that out of the thirty-nine-research sample of both male and female, training was first
ranked f as the most significant factor for motivation, followed by the second rank that was shared
between job security and salary. From the research sample, only a few were given incentives in
the form of petrol cards, phones, clothing allowance, and financial incentives. Besides that, all the
partakers proposed that they could have done a better job if they were motivated.
Fortes Tondello, Premsukh & Nacke (2018) explains the importance of goal-setting theory
in motivating employees to commit themselves and work better in organizations. They brought
about a recent concept of gamification to explain an alternative method of increasing engagement
and employee performance in an organization. However, there is insufficient literature to explain
the working of the gamification concept in connection to goal-setting theory. Besides, there is a
need to explore the effects of goal-setting theory on gamification systems. This concept can be
used to explain how goal setting improves motivation. Gaming with set goals improves the
motivation od the participants to commit themselves to achieve them. The same concept can apply
for workers in nonprofit organizations.
Goal-Setting Theory
9
Piccolo & Buengeler (2013) did an extensive literature review of Locke and Latham's book
and analyzed the relationship between leadership and goal setting. They discovered that various
theories and leadership definitions discuss the setting of goals and summarize their achievement.
They also highlight how goal concepts are rooted in popular measures of leader behaviors and
their achievements. Similarly, the book summarizes how major elements of goal setting theory and
related concepts have been analyzed in leadership. The connection between goal-setting theory
and leadership theory is the main emphasis in the book (Latham, Brcic & Steinhauer, 2017). The
vital elements of goal setting theory are prevalent in modern leadership research. Moreover,
effective leaders set goals that are specific and challenging, encourage supporters to participate in
goal setting; they also demonstrate commitments to organizational and personal goals and reaction
on attaining their set goal.
In another study, Franco (2018) analyses the significance of motivation on human
development using Task Agency theory (TAT). He describes three vital motivation theories,
including social-cognitive theory, goal-setting theory, and cognitive evaluation theory, to explain
a theoretical framework of TAT. Based on this theory, human beings are meant to perform tasks
optimally, either work-related or personal; however, human principles, including selfreflectiveness, self-reactiveness, forethought, and intentionality, must be met. The implication of
this study is the motivation of employees at nonprofit organizations in the interest of this research.
Fried & Slowik (2004) examined the role that time plays in goal-setting theory, which is
one of the areas that is under-examined by the previous researchers. They sought to explain how
time can be integrated into the goal-setting theory to make it dynamic and valid to be in always be
in line with the dynamic nature of the work environment. They explain the concept of time as a
utility that can be applied in the goal-setting theory. Based on their findings, the integration of time
Goal-Setting Theory
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in the theory can solve its main components that include goal specificity and goal difficulty.
According to Renard & Snelgar (2016), intrinsic incentives are both psychological and personal
reactions to employees' performance, which is determined by the manner in which their work is
planned. This research examines the ways in which non-profitable workers are psychologically
motivated by the nature of their work. This research applies the qualitative approach that put into
consideration in-depth answers to data collection and analysis was achieved. It was concluded that
intrinsic rewards are very important to non-profit employees who have the tendency to earn belowmarket salaries. This concept implies that their motivation originated primarily from intrinsic
incentives as opposed to extrinsic incentives. In this research, the rewards to employees are
lacking. The main implications for this research are to ensure that the traditional performance
management system is re-evaluated in the non-profitable sectors to change their focus towards
intrinsic rewards, unlike the use of extrinsic incentives in motivating employees. This research
tries to bridge the empirical gap concerning intrinsic rewards within working sectors in South
Africa rather than motivating non-profitable workers extrinsically.
Conclusion
Based on the evaluation of the articles, nonprofit organizations have rewarding career
opportunities; therefore, they always intend to recruit and retain employees. However, they face
challenges, especially due to employee turnover due to the misperception of lacking opportunities
for professional development and low pay. This discourages employees in nonprofit organizations
and compels them to seek opportunities in profit organizations. Without proper strategies to retain
employees, these organizations will continue to face the challenges of employee turnover. They,
Goal-Setting Theory
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therefore, need to adopt alternative strategies to retain their employees with motivation at the
forefront.
Goal-Setting Theory
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References
Aarts, H. (2019). Goal-setting theory and the mystery of setting goals.
Almsafir, M. K., & Alkharabsheh, A. A. (2013). Factors Influencing Employees Motivation at
Tenaga Nasional Berhad, Ipoh Perak. Journal of Modern Marketing Research Vol, 2(1),
98-110.
Ashraf, Z., Jaffri, A. M., Sharif, M. T., & Khan, A. (2012). Increasing employee organizational
commitment by correlating goal setting, employee engagement, and optimism at the
workplace. European Journal of Business and Management, 4(2), 71-77.
Audenaert, M., Decramer, A., George, B., Verschuere, B., & Van Waeyenberg, T. (2019). When
employee performance management affects individual innovation in public organizations:
The role of consistency and LMX. The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 30(5), 815-834.
Bezuijen, X. M., van den Berg, P. T., van Dam, K., & Thierry, H. (2019). Pygmalion and employee
learning: The role of leader behaviors. Journal of Management, 35(5), 1248-1267.
Chris. S. (2020). 45% of Nonprofit Employees to Seek New Jobs by 2025: Report. Retrieved from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisstrub/2020/02/10/nonprofithr/#79f526be15ca
Clements, A. J., & Kamau, C. (2018). Understanding students’ motivation towards proactive
career behaviors through goal-setting theory and the job demands-resources model.
Studies in Higher Education, 43(12), 2279-2293.
Cloe, T. N. (2018). Performance and Goal Setting in Failure-Avoidant Employees (Doctoral
dissertation, Kaplan University).
Goal-Setting Theory
13
Fortes Tondello, G., Premsukh, H., & Nacke, L. (2018, January). A theory of gamification
principles through goal-setting theory. Hawaii International Conference on System
Sciences.
Franco, G. E. (2018). Task agency and employee motivation.
Fried, Y., & Slowik, L. H. (2004). The enriching goal-setting theory with time: An integrated
approach. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 404–422.
Gruman, J. A., & Saks, A. M. (2011). Performance management and employee engagement.
Human resource management review, 21(2), 123-136.
Latham, G. P., Brcic, J., & Steinhauer, A. (2017). Toward an integration of goal setting theory and
the automaticity model. Applied Psychology, 66(1), 25-48.
Latham, G., & Locke, E. (2006). Goal-setting theory. In S. G. Rogelberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 279–282). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Nebel, S., Schneider, S., Schledjewski, J., & Rey, G. D. (2017). Goal-setting in educational video
games: Comparing goal-setting theory and the goal-free effect. Simulation & Gaming,
48(1), 98-130.
Piccolo, R. F., & Buengeler, C.(2013).Leadership and goal setting.
Renard, M., & Snelgar, R. J. (2016). How can work be designed to be intrinsically rewarding?
Qualitative insights from South African nonprofit employees. SA Journal of Industrial
Psychology, 42(1), 1-12.
Safiullah, A. B. (2014). Impact of rewards on employee motivation of the telecommunication
industry
of
Bangladesh:
Management, 16(12), 22-30.
An
empirical
study. Journal
of
Business
and
Goal-Setting Theory
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Salim, S. M. A. I. A., Gtani, A. A., Sassi, M. A., & Elzahaf, R. A. (2019). Assessment The Role
Of Motivation On Technicians And Teaching Assistants Performance In College Of
Medical Technology In Derna City, Libya.
Shoaib, F., & Kohli, N. (2017). Employee engagement and goal-setting theory. Indian Journal of
Health & Wellbeing, 8(8).
Running head: GOAL-SETTING THEORY
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Goal-Setting Theory to Motivate Nonprofit Workforce
10/11/20
Problem Statement
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
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The employee turnover rate for nonprofit enterprises located in the United States is quite
alarming (Chris, 2020). More and more people are abandoning these enterprises seeking better
economic opportunities offered in other lucrative sectors. The majority of the nonprofits' turnover
rate stands at nineteen percent, a figure well above the rates reported in other sectors. According
to Chris, the high turnover rates stem from the fact that nonprofits cannot compete on an equal
footing with for-profit organizations, with the capacity to offer employees not only better salaries
but also better wages (2020). These enterprises are vital to American society, considering their
impact on the welfare of Americans. Their activities help people gain access to numerous services
they would have otherwise lacked if they did not exist. The sheer number of employees leaving
their nonprofit jobs places the existence and the functionality of these enterprises at risk. Without
adequate employees, these nonprofit enterprises will lack the manpower and human capital
required to undertake their activities effectively.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to identify possible solutions that might help nonprofit
enterprises address the high outflow of employees from their organizations into other lucrative
sectors.
Research Questions
This study is anchored on a couple of descriptive and comparative research questions. The
first descriptive research question is, what is the percentage of employees working for nonprofit
organizations moving to other sectors in the last five years? This question is linked to my next
comparative research question: What is the difference in employee turnover rates in nonprofit
enterprises compared to the turnover rates witnessed in other organizations in different sectors?
Getting appropriate answers to these questions will help me make a comparative analysis of the
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
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turnover rates of nonprofit organizations and the ones witnessed in other industries and establish
whether this is a problem confined only to these organizations or it is a general problem that affects
all organizations, irrespective of which sector they ply their trade. I will have to assess the number
of employees jumping ship from one organization to another for the last five years to get a clear
picture of the exact employee turnover rates.
The third research question will be what motivates or pushes employees to abandon
nonprofit enterprises and seek jobs in other companies? Answering this question will require me
to measure a couple of constructs; employee satisfaction, salaries, and benefits difference, career
growth opportunities, and personal and professional development. My next research question
revolves around how nonprofit enterprises can retain the employees working for them and how
they can make themselves attractive enough to get new employees to replace the ones that leave?
This question is also linked to the fifth one: how are the for-profit organizations retaining members
of their workforce? Answering these questions will give me a better understanding of what
nonprofits are doing wrong and how they can correct the mistakes they are making with respect to
high employee turnover rates.
Hypothesis
Even though nonprofit enterprises have a high turnover rate, the goal-setting theory might
go a long way in helping these organizations address this problem. The fact that the regulations
governing nonprofit organizations make it harder for them to compete on an equal footing with
for-profit organizations in other sectors means that they will have to find an alternative way of
retaining their human capital. Although most people are motivated by external rewards such as
money and insurance benefits, internal rewards can also help keep them engaged and make them
unwilling to leave their jobs for more lucrative opportunities. Applying the goal-setting theory will
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
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give nonprofits the opportunity to offer its employees intrinsic rewards and give them goals and a
purpose they can work towards.
The goal-setting theory revolves around the concept that when employees are given goals
within their workplaces, they feel motivated to attain those goals, an aspect that pushes them to
improve their productivity and performance levels. Many nonprofit enterprises' purpose is to help
as many people as possible and make their lives better. Therefore, nonprofits need to sell this idea
to their employees if they wish to prevent them from jumping ship. The leaders within these
organizations will have to sit down with all the company employees and make them understand
that working for nonprofits gives them an opportunity to make a difference in the world.
Employees are more likely than not to buy into this because, as human beings, we always have
that inherent need to make a difference and leave a mark in the world. Not many people get such
an opportunity. However, if they continue working for nonprofit organizations, they will get a
chance to fulfill this desire. This will also act as an intrinsic reward since employees will feel a
sense of accomplishment if they choose to remain.
Reference
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
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Chris. S. (2020). 45% of Nonprofit Employees to Seek New Jobs by 2025: Report. Retrieved from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisstrub/2020/02/10/nonprofithr/#79f526be15ca
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
Goal-Setting Theory to Motivate Nonprofit Workforce
Week 8
1
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
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Introduction
This portion will explain in detail the research methods and methodology undertaken for
this research study. The section will first explain the participants' selection, then outline the
procedures used for recruitment, participation, and data collection. Also explained is the
instrumentation implemented for the study and finally data analysis plan will be presented. The
research uses the qualitative research paradigm by implementing the research approach of
interpretivism. Interpretivism is defined as a researcher-implemented approach which helps in
the synthesis of facts and qualitative nature. This method is used because the research facts are
non-tangible, and the factors guiding the research are non-tangible as well, thus difficulty
quantifying them. Determining how the goal-setting theory can motivate nonprofit organization
workers is a non-quantifiable variable that positively influences business practice. No
quantitative data were required or produced for the study as interpretation was required to
connect the study's various variables.
Participants
Population
The population selected for the study were people working for nonprofit organizations.
The selection included managers, supervisors, and support staff in these organizations. The study
used the accessible population and not the accessible population since they were all located
within the study's organizations.
Their qualifications varied from basic high school certificates to those that held diplomas,
bachelor's degrees, and master's qualifications. They were also selected based on their experience
working with nonprofit organizations to determine their motivation levels and how they
conducted themselves in their previous workplaces. The participants also had an Intermediate
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
3
level of spoken and written English, which was determined by a brief interview to make the
research process more manageable. The participants for the study included twenty-one males and
twenty-one females.
Sample and Sampling Procedures
This study used two separate participant groups to facilitate the collection of the required
qualitative data. The sampling method chosen for the study was the probability of stratified
sampling to help in observing the relationships between the selected sub-groups (Levy and
Lemeshow, 2013). Further, a sub-group of the original population was taken and given
interviews for the study. The selection was made based on the organization they came from, and
the implemented goal-setting theory's effectiveness.
The first participant group consisted of nonprofit organization employees from
organizations that had implemented the goal-setting theory to motivate its workers. The study
involved 42 participants from three different nonprofit organizations to ensure the sample was as
diverse as possible. The sample also tried to balance the ratio between both genders. Most
importantly, the selection ensured coverage of all working classes; the low-working support staff
class, middle-class employees, and high-class employees such as managers. The sample was split
into teams of different numbers, and the number of participants in a group was not crucial
because individual questionnaires were distributed to each participant. The participant approach
and questionnaire distribution were through email. The participants were also required to fill the
questionnaires and submit them through email again. Twenty employees were selected randomly
from the questionnaire sample and invited for an interview conducted via phone. The researcher
then transcribed the interviews, which took place in one month.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
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Power analysis was used to determine the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
when the specific alternative hypothesis is true (Etikan and Bala, 2017). The power analysis was
conducted for the sample size, and its effect on the study determined. The alpha level, also
known as the Type I error, was set at the 0.05 level. Also, the study's pre-specified statistical
power for calculation of the sample size was set at 0.8. The test gave a 90% chance of detecting
minimal differences within the study.
Procedures
Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection
The study required the recruitment of sufficient participant numbers from various
nonprofit organizations. This entailed creating a database for the companies chosen for the
research and determining employees' recruit for the study. Permission was obtained from the
nonprofit organizations to allow the researcher to research their employees. After permission was
obtained, the researcher analyzed the organizational hierarchies to determine the participant's
suitable for the study. The hierarchies were evaluated, and participants were selected based on
the criteria specified in the "participants" section. The specific demographic data required for the
study was the participants' age, sex, education levels, socioeconomic status, number of years they
had worked in the current organization, number of years they had worked in nonprofit
organizations overall, their level of motivation, and their perception of how it is working for a
nonprofit organization compared to working for a profit organization.
Informed consent was obtained from the study's participants in various ways. First, the
participants were given adequate information regarding the research and its proceedings. Second,
they were given the opportunity and sufficient time to consider all the available options for
participating in the research. Third, the researcher engaged the participants in a face-to-face
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
5
session to answer their questions concerning their participation in the study and to ensure that
they comprehended the information adequately as required. The participants were allowed to
agree to be recruited into the research voluntarily. More information was provided as the study
proceeded and per the subject's requirements or situation (Roth and von Unger, 2018).
The data was collected from the selected participants as needed for the study. Since the
participants were busy working, most communication took place through email. A database had
been created to determine the nonprofit organizations that would best fit the research study.
Smaller nonprofit organizations were targeted because they had a higher probability of granting
access to their employees than bigger firms. This helped the process as it was easier and
consumed less time as anticipated. First, the researcher contacted the relevant participants by
phone to acquaint them with the study's requirements. The participants' job titles and
designations were not disclosed (Elliott et al., 2017).
Furthermore, the titles had no relevance in the study. Data collection was sometimes done
through questionnaires that were distributed randomly to the participants and sometimes through
email. Distribution and completion of the questionnaires were completed within four weeks. The
interviews were also completed within four weeks through phone or Skype depending on the
participant's preference.
At the end of the data collection procedure, the participants were allowed to exit the
study. They were given letters of thanks, an open invitation for further dialogue, and a certificate
of participation to recognize their significant contribution to the research study. This was done
through a debriefing, which was important as creating rapport and trust with the participants had
taken time. It would have been inappropriate to declare the end of the study unilaterally.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
6
Follow-up procedures were conducted for the research study to increase the research
effort’s effectiveness. The procedure entailed follow-up interviews and brief questionnaires to
establish their experience with the study. The purpose of the follow-up procedures was to further
the end of the study, thank the participants for their time, review any new developments, ensure
that the project’s milestones were met, and debrief the necessary stakeholders (Elliott et al.,
2017).
Instrumentation
Instrumentation and Operationalization of Constructs
The research study necessitated the use of questionnaires and interviews due to its
qualitative nature. The questionnaires were distributed to the participants, and interviews were
conducted to enhance the study's data collection. The instrumentation used for the study is
further discussed below.
Questionnaire scripts and brief interview scripts were designed for this research study.
The questionnaires intended for the study were composed of both open-ended and closed
questions directly related to the motivation of the employees in nonprofit organizations regarding
the goal-setting theory. The questionnaire had several parts that were divided to ensure that the
data was collected accurately. The first part had questions covering demographics such as the
participants' age, gender, professional roles, level of motivation, socioeconomic status, exact
position and responsibilities within the company, and the number of years they had worked with
the respective nonprofit organization.
For the questionnaire to enhance clarity and effectively address the study’s main
objectives, the researcher divided the core questions into groups (Anthony-McMann et al., 2017).
These core questions were designed to efficiently establish the participants' core competencies
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
7
and assess the goal-setting theory's effectiveness in motivating nonprofit organizations'
employees. These competencies included communication, creativity, emotional intelligence,
leadership, and team-building with respect to employee motivation at the workplace.
Interview scripts were also designed for the study consisting of questions that were both
open and brief. The interview questions were designed to provide a detailed discussion on the
goal-setting theory's effectiveness in motivating nonprofit organization employees. The
questions also helped reflect the experience of the employees as recipients of the goal-setting
theory for motivation and workplace performance. The interview questions were too focused on
determining the effect of the theory on enhancing the employees with a more effective task
delivery and team building.
A pilot study had been conducted to determine the effectiveness of the selected
instruments for the study. The pilot study entailed designing pilot questionnaires and interviews
for the pre-study. The instrumentation's validity was undertaken to understand the integrity and
application of the methods to ensure accuracy. Also, the instrumentation's reliability was
determined by identifying the consistency of the selected measures (Anthony-McMann et al.,
2017).
Operationalization was determined for the study to identify how the research constructs
would be measured by developing indicators for their measurement. The constructs were
designed to conceptualize at the theoretical level and the indicators to operate at the empirical
level. The constructs for the study were the level of motivation of the nonprofit organization
workers. The variables used to measure the construct were the participant's age, gender, number
of years worked with the nonprofit organization, and their socioeconomic status.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
8
Data Analysis Plan
Thematic analysis was used in analyzing the questionnaires. However, no statistical
software was used for the research study due to its qualitative approach. The lack of statistical
software such as SPSS and STRATA was because the research only involved a small number of
participants. The respondents also gave diverse answers to the different questions designed for
the questionnaires.
The data was cleaned and screened to ensure that it was correct, usable, and consistent
through the following procedures. First, the data was monitored for errors and to help in fixing
incorrect data. Second, the data cleaning process was standardized to minimize the risk of
duplication. The data was then validated for accuracy, scrubbed to identify duplicate data, and
then analyzed (Clark and Veale, 2018).
The study's research questions were as follows: What is the percentage of employees
working for nonprofit organizations moving to other sectors in the last five years? What is the
difference in employee turnover rates in nonprofit enterprises compared to the turnover rates
witnessed in other organizations in different sectors? What motivates or pushes employees to
abandon nonprofit enterprises and seek jobs in other companies? How can nonprofit enterprises
retain the employees working for them, and how can they make themselves attractive enough to
get new employees to replace those who leave? How are the for-profit organizations retaining
members of their workforce? The study hypothesis was stated as: Applying the goal-setting
theory will allow nonprofits to offer its employees intrinsic rewards and give them goals and a
purpose they can work towards.
The researcher manually analyzed the results obtained from the interviews. This was
done to detect common words, phrases, and groups, as stated by the interview respondents. The
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
9
common words were then compiled and put together in a specific order to closely look at the
trends and tendencies provided in the answers provided by the respondents. After analyzing the
results obtained from the questionnaires and interviews, the researcher then presented the
questionnaire results using tables and charts. Confounding variables were included in the
analysis to reflect their relationship with the actual study variables. This was done using the
randomization method to increase statistical power. The results were interpreted by compiling
the data and using confidence intervals to determine the trends and tendencies in the collected
data.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY: METHODOLOGY
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References
Anthony‐McMann, P. E., Ellinger, A. D., Astakhova, M., & Halbesleben, J. R. (2017). Exploring
different operationalizations of employee engagement and their relationships with
workplace stress and burnout. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 28(2), 163-195.
Clark, K. R., & Vealé, B. L. (2018). Strategies to enhance data collection and analysis in
qualitative research. Radiologic Technology, 89(5), 482CT-485CT.
Etikan, I., & Bala, K. (2017). Sampling and sampling methods. Biometrics & Biostatistics
International Journal, 5(6), 00149.
Levy, P. S., & Lemeshow, S. (2013). Sampling of populations: methods and applications. John
Wiley & Sons.
Roth, W. M., & von Unger, H. (2018, September). Current perspectives on research ethics in
qualitative research. In Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social
Research (Vol. 19, No. 3).
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