Duke University Emergency Period & Leadership Critical Aspect Research Paper and PPT

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yvivat_yrtraq23

Humanities

Duke University

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Paper

Papers should be thoughtful and analytical. They should be a maximum of seven pages (double-spaced), and there should be at least five legitimate (e.g. no Wikipedia) sources used. Students are encouraged to draw from a mix of practitioner and academic literature. The sources must be cited within the text as well in a list of references at the end. Any style manual is acceptable, though in social science APA is the norm. Spelling and grammar are part of the criteria for evaluation. Those who have challenges using English should engage a native-speaking editor for assistance or speak to me separately.

Presentations

Week seven will be an opportunity for you to present your paper, which you can do in a recorded video (note that this does not need to include video of you - it can be slides and audio if you prefer). Presentations should be no longer than ten minutes, and should make a clear argument or description with evidence and sources. Students will be able to ask questions after viewing the presentations; you should answer at least three of them.


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Explanation & Answer

Attached. Please let me know if you have any questions or need revisions.

PowerPoint Presentation
Name
Institution

Introduction


Emergencies have been a significant issue for a long period.



Some emergencies are natural, while others are human-made.



The success of an emergency response is determined by the leader
and the leadership applied.



The leadership style applied in emergencies differs from the one
used in developmental work.

Hypothesis


Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no difference in leadership styles
applied in emergencies and development.



Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a great difference in
leadership styles applied in developmental and emergencies.

Problem Statement


There are many emergencies in society with great impact on people
and property.



Therefore, it is necessary to monitor them by choosing good
leaders.



These leaders can take part in both emergencies and development
practices.



Authoritarian leadership can be applied in emergencies and
democratic leadership in developmental work.

Significance of the Study


The study helps to choose leaders and the leadership styles that can
be used in an organization.



Considering these aspects enhances response to an emergency
effectively and efficiently.



This is because the leadership style that was deemed successful in
the past can be used in future.



The leaders involved in an emergency may experience difficulty if
such a study is not conducted.

Limitation of the Study


Several leadership styles can be applied during an emergency or
developments practices.



However, this study will use authoritarian and democratic
leadership styles in emergencies and development practices.



By focusing on these two leadership styles, the researcher can
determine the difference between the two aspects



The styles will help to understand the developmental processes and
the challenges experienced in both practices.

Literature Review


A leadership style in normal functioning cannot be used in an emergency (Gu
et al., 2018).



Authoritarian leadership style is beneficial in emergencies but not in
developmental practices.



Hierarchy leadership may not apply in an organization in an emergency period
(Pyles & Harding, 2012).



During emergencies, there is no time to make pre-determined arrangements.

Literature Review Cont’


When choosing leaders, several aspects are considered (BuchananSmith & Scriven, 2011).



Leaders are usually selected based on their personal traits that can
benefit an organization.



Besides, good leadership requires leaders to display exceptional
talents with considerable skills.



Such leaders need to respond to various situations by applying
different strategies.

Methods


The study applied different scholarly materials to obtain the
information relevant to the topic.



The CRAAP test was used to determine the reliability and
credibility of the articles used.



In this case, CRAAP is the initials for Currency, Relevance,
Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose.



There were ten articles used in the study.

Results


It was found that there is a significant difference in leadership
regarding organizational development and emergencies.



Besides, it was found that several challenges were experienced
during emergencies.



A leader needs to have unique skills and talent to find out the best
leadership style applicable.



The leadership styles that are applied during the developmental
period cannot be used during emergencies.

Conclusion


An emergency cannot be avoided in an organization because they
take place at any time.



Leaders need to understand the best method to apply during a
particular period depending on the situation.



The best leadership style used during emergencies is authoritarian
leadership



In developmental work, democratic leadership is considered the
best.

References


Buchanan-Smith, M., & Scriven, K. (2011). ALNAP: Leadership in
Action: Leading Effectively in Humanitarian Operations. ALNAP.



Gu, J., Wang, G., Liu, H., Song, D., & He, C. (2018). Linking
authoritarian leadership to employee creativity. Chinese
Management Studies.



Pyles, L., & Harding, S. (2012). Discourses of post-Katrina
reconstruction: a frame analysis. Community Development
Journal, 47(3), 335-352.


Running head: RESEARCH PAPER

1

Research Paper
Name
Institution

RESEARCH PAPER

2
Research Paper
Introduction

Description of the Issue
Emergencies have been a significant issue for a long period since they may lead to the
loss of life and property. Some emergencies are natural, while others are human-made. The
impact of a crisis is determined by the preparedness conducted to mitigate its effect on people
and property (Al Khajeh, 2018). The success of an emergency response is determined by the
leader involved and the type of leadership applied. Therefore, this indicates that the choice of
leadership is a critical aspect of an emergency. Besides, during the organizational development
process, leadership is crucial since it determines various practices' success. However, the
leadership style applied during an emergency period is different from the one used during the
development process (Buchanan-Smith & Scriven, 2011). Based on the understanding of
emergency and development leaderships, an authoritarian leadership style has been prioritized on
emergencies, while a democratic leadership style has been considered in development practices.
Thesis Statement
During the emergency period, leadership is a critical aspect since it determines the
success of responding to an incident, and the leadership style applied in emergencies is different
from the one used in developmental work.
General Objective
To determine the best leadership style in emergencies and development, as well as the
challenges experienced in the two areas based on the leadership style applied.
Specific Objective
1. To find out the difference in leadership styles between emergencies and development
2. To determine the challenges experienced in various leadership styles during emergencies.

RESEARCH PAPER

3

3. To determine the best leadership styles in emergencies and development
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no difference in leadership styles applied in emergencies
and development.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a great difference in leadership styles applied in
developmental and emergencies.
Research Questions
1. Is there a difference in leadership styles between emergencies and development?
2. Are there challenges experienced in various leadership styles during emergencies?
3. Which are the best leadership styles in emergencies and development?
Problem Statement
Based on the increased occurrences of emergencies in society and their impact on people
and property, it is necessary to monitor them by choosing good leaders (Brassard & Raffin,
2011). These leaders can take part in both emergencies and development practices. However,
even though the same leaders can lead the two processes, it is necessary to change the leadership
styles based on the situation at hand. For example, during the emergency response, the leaders
involved can use an authoritarian leadership style, while in developmental practices, democratic
leadership can be applied.
Significance of the Study
The study is critical since it helps determine the leaders and the leadership styles that can
be used in both emergencies and developmental periods in the future. This is because if a
particular leader successfully coordinates emergency practices, he or she can be considered in the
future when such an incident takes place (Clarke, 2013). Besides, the leadership style that was
deemed successful in the past can be used to ensure the success of the incident. By considering

RESEARCH PAPER

4

these aspects, it would be easy to respond to an emergency effectively and efficiently. However,
if there is no such study, the leaders involved in an emergency may experience difficulty trying
to test the effective leadership style.
Limitation of the Study
Several leadership styles can be applied during an emergency or developments practices.
However, this study will be limited to authoritarian and democratic leadership styles in
emergencies and development practices. By focusing on these two leadership styles, the
researcher can determine the difference based on leadership in crises and developmental
processes and the challenges experienced in both practices.
Literature Review
Leadership and Emergency Changes as Opposed to Development
According to research, an organization's leadership styles during normal functioning
cannot be applied during an emergency (Gu et al., 2018). This is because emergencies do not
require any systematic response procedure but follow instructions and guidelines depending on
the situation. For example, if the leader identifies that a particular building is about to collapse,
he will not have time to discuss the issue with other leaders of the juniors (Lateef, 2018). Instead,
he or she will instruct his or her juniors to respond to the issue by removing the necessary
equipment and people from the building. In this case, such a leadership style is considered to be
an authoritarian or autocratic leadership style. This leadership style is beneficial during
emergencies but cannot be applied during developmental practices (Mannakkara & Wilkinson,
2015). During developmental work, the leader has to discuss an issue with other leaders and the
juniors to ensure that the practice is conducted effectively. This type of leadership is known as
democratic leadership, where even the juniors are given a chance to give their ideas on
development.

RESEARCH PAPER

5

Some leadership styles, such as hierarchy leadership, may not apply in an organization
during an emergency period (Pyles & Harding, 2012). This is because leadership involves
hierarchically sharing ideas from the top to the bottom or vice versa. There is no time to follow
orders from a particular direction during emergencies since it can contribute to a significant loss
of property or life (Uhr, 2017). In such a case, anybody can make an order depending on the
situation. For example, a junior can make an order direct to the organizational director without
considering the supervisors and the managers' presence. Besides, the organizational director can
also make an order direct to the minor employee without considering other leaders in the middle
(Wang et al., 2018).
Moreover, during emergencies, there is no time to make pre-determined arrangements
since an emergency may be experienced at any time (Lateef, 2018). When an incident occurs, the
organization responds to it immediately without making any arrangements (Pyles & Harding,
2012). However, if this strategy is applied during the developmental period, the organization
may fail. For an organization to succeed, it needs to make a systematic arrangement on what
needs to be done at a particular period by a particular individual (Uhr, 2017).
Some organizations have developed a strong routine framework for daily operations
(Wang et al., 2018). However, such a framework is only applied during an organization's
developmental process (Uhr, 2017). It cannot be used during an emergency since it does not
require a particular procedure for it to succeed when an incident occurs. The procedure
applicable during a crisis is developed instantly depending on the severity of the emergency and
the anticipated impact (Al Khajeh, 2018).
Preconception Affecting Choosing Leaders
When choosing leaders, several aspects are considered (Buchanan-Smith & Scriven,
2011). Leaders are usually selected based on their personal traits that can benefit an organization
(Brassard & Raffin, 2011). Some of the aspects considered when choosing leaders include the

RESEARCH PAPER

6

ability to respond to a particular issue effectively, the ability to change based on the situation at
hand, and the ability to involve other people in every practice (Clarke, 2013).
Besides, good leadership requires leaders to display exceptional talents with considerable
skills (Gu et al., 2018). Such talents and abilities need to enable the leader to respond to any
issue regardless of its conditions. Such leaders need to respond to various situations by applying
different strategies based on what the condition requires (Lateef, 2018). For example, when a
particular development is needed, the leader needs to use various approaches to contribute to a
successful developmental process. Besides, when an incident occurs, the leader needs to develop
a strategy that can effectively solve the issue at hand (Mannakkara & Wilkinson, 2015).
At times, a leader is chosen based on how they performed previously (Pyles & Harding,
2012). Leaders who have previously displayed good performance in their organization have a
high likelihood of being chosen in the future (Uhr, 2017). This is because every organization
requires a successful leader. If a leader previously contributed to an organization's fall, it is not
easy for him or her to be selected in the future (Wang et al., 2018).
Besides, leaders apply a particular leadership style based on how effective it was
previously (Wang et al., 2018). If a particular leadership style contributed to the failure of an
organization. The leader cannot apply it again since it would still harm the organization (Uhr,
2017). On the other hand, if a particular leadership style contributed to good performance in an
organization, the leader would consider using it more and more. These aspects apply both in
emergency and developmental factors (Pyles & Harding, 2012).
Trustworthiness is a critical quality among leaders. Trustworthiness is crucial to an
organization that intends to prosper (Lateef, 2018). Trustworthiness enables the employees or the
management to trust a particular leader. Trustworthy leaders do not betray the organization, and
therefore, they have to apply all means possible for the organization to prosper (Uhr, 2017). In
this case, they apply much effort to ensure that they have their qualities and leadership styles

RESEARCH PAPER

7

beneficial to the organization either during the emergency or during developmental work. In such
a case, they have to change their leadership styles depending on the situation at hand (Wang et
al., 2018).
Methods
The study applied different scholarly materials to obtain the information relevant to the
topic. The CRAAP test was used to determine the reliability and credibility of the articles used in
the study. In this case, CRAAP is the initials for Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and
Purpose.
Study Selection and Data Collection
There were a total of 20 journal articles that were selected at the beginning of the study.
For the articles to be obtained, the researcher used Google Scholar to search the articles related
to leadership styles necessary for emergencies and developmental work. There were thousands of
articles that were displayed related to the topic being studies. However, the researcher selected
twenty articles randomly, from which he was expected to eliminate ten of them and remain with
the other ten articles. During the elimination of the articles, the researcher first considered the
'Currency' as one aspect of the CRAAP test. Based on this element, all the journal articles that
were published before 2010 were eliminated. In this case, four articles were eliminated, and
sixteen others remained. He then considered the aspect of 'Relevance.' In this aspect, two articles
were not relevant to the topic being studied, and therefore they were eliminated. Based on
'Authority,' the researcher only wanted the articles whose authors have a Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) education level. In this case, one article was eliminated. The next element to be
considered was 'Accuracy.' Two of the remaining articles appeared to have shallow information
and could not be determined whether they were peer-reviewed. Therefore, they were removed.
The last aspect of being considered was 'Purpose.' One of the remaining articles did not meet the
article's purpose since it was meant for entertainment. However, the researcher wanted articles

RESEARCH PAPER

8

that can inform, teach, and persuade. The remaining ten articles were studied closely to gather
the required information on what they say about leadership during emergency and developmental
periods in an organization.
Results
According to the study, it was found that there is a significant difference in leadership
applied in organizational development and emergencies. Besides, it was found that several
challenges were experienced during emergencies, especially when choosing the best method to
use during emergency and developmental practices. This is because a leader needs to have
unique skills and talent to find out the best leadership style applicable. Lastly, the leadership
styles that are applied during the developmental period cannot be used during emergencies.
Discussion
As per the findings of the study, the general objectives and the specific objectives were
effectively met. Besides, all the research questions asked were answered. Moreover, the null
hypothesis was found to be wrong, but the alternative hypothesis was found to be true. In this
case, the new hypothesis is that there is a significant difference in leadership styles applied in
emergencies and developmental processes.
Conclusion
An emergency cannot be avoided in an organization because they take place at any time.
Leaders need to understand the best method to apply during a particular period depending on the
situation. In this case, the best leadership style used during emergencies is authoritarian
leadership, while during developmental work, democratic leadership is considered the best.
Besides, there are different challenges experienced during emergencies and developmental
periods.

RESEARCH PAPER

9
References

Al Khajeh, E. H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of
Human Resources Management Research, 2018, 1-10.
Buchanan-Smith, M., & Scriven, K. (2011). ALNAP: Leadership in Action: Leading Effectively
in Humanitarian Operations. ALNAP.
Brassard, C., & Raffin, A. (2011). Resilience in post-disaster societies: From crisis to
development. Asian Journal of Social Science, 39(4), 417-424.
Clarke, P. K. (2013). WHO’S IN CHARGE HERE?. A Literature Review on Approaches to
Leadership in Humanitarian Operations. London: ALNAP.
Gu, J., Wang, G., Liu, H., Song, D., & He, C. (2018). Linking authoritarian leadership to
employee creativity. Chinese Management Studies.
Lateef, F. (2018). Grace under pressure: Leadership in emergency medicine. Journal of
emergencies, trauma, and shock, 11(2), 73.
Mannakkara, S., & Wilkinson, S. J. (2015). Supporting post-disaster social recovery to build
back better. International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment.
Pyles, L., & Harding, S. (2012). Discourses of post-Katrina reconstruction: a frame
analysis. Community Development Journal, 47(3), 335-352.
Uhr, C. (2017). Leadership ideals as barriers for efficient collaboration during emergencies and
disasters. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 25(4), 301-312.
Wang, X., Sugumaran, V., Zhang, H., & Xu, Z. (2018). A capability assessment model for
emergency management organizations. Information Systems Frontiers, 20(4), 653-667.

Attached. Please let me know if you have any questions or need revisions.

Running head: TALKING NOTES

1

Talking Notes
Name
Institution

TALKING NOTES

2
Talking Notes
Slide 1

Introduction


Emergencies have been a significant issue for a long period.



Some emergencies are natural, while others are human-made.



The success of an emergency response is determined by the leader and the leadership
applied.



The leadership style applied in emergencies differs from the one used in developmental
work.

Notes
Emergencies have been a significant issue for a long period since they may lead to the loss of life
and property. Some emergencies are natural, while others are human-made. The impact of a
crisis is determined by the preparedness conducted to mitigate its effect on people and property
(Al Khajeh, 2018). The success of an emergency response is determined by the leader involved
and the type of leadership applied. Therefore, this indicates that the choice of leadership is a
critical aspect of an emergency. Besides, during humanitarian development, leadership is crucial
since it determines the success of various practices. However, the leadership style applied during
an emergency period is different from the one used during the development process (BuchananSmith & Scriven, 2011).
Slide 2
Research Questions


Is there a difference in leadership styles between emergencies and humanitarian
development?

TALKING NOTES


3

Are there challenges experienced in transitioning leadership styles from emergencies to
humanitarian development?



Which are the best leadership styles in emergencies and humanitarian development?

Notes
The research questions had a close relationship with the hypotheses developed since the null
hypothesis (H0) indicated that there is no difference in leadership styles applied in emergencies
and development. Besides, the alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a great difference in
leadership styles applied in developmental and emergencies.
Slide 3
Literature Review


A leadership style in normal functioning cannot be used in an emergency (Gu et al., 2018).



The authoritarian leadership style is beneficial in emergencies but not in developmental
practices.



Hierarchy leadership may not apply in an emergency period (Pyles & Harding, 2012).



During emergencies, there is no time to make pre-determined arrangements.

Notes
According to research, leadership styles applied during a humanitarian agency's normal
functioning cannot be applied during an emergency period (Gu et al., 2018). This is because
emergencies do not require any systematic response procedure but follow instructions and
guidelines depending on the situation. For example, if the leader identifies that a particular
building is about to collapse, he will not have time to discuss it with other leaders or the juniors
(Lateef, 2018). Instead, he or she will instruct his or her juniors to respond to the issue by
removing the necessary equipment and people from the building. In this case, such a leadership
style is considered to be an authoritarian or autocratic leadership style. This leadership style is

TALKING NOTES

4

beneficial during emergencies but cannot be applied during developmental practices
(Mannakkara & Wilkinson, 2015).
Slide 4
Literature Review Cont’


When choosing leaders, several aspects are considered (Buchanan-Smith & Scriven, 2011).



Leaders are usually selected based on their personal traits that can benefit an organization.



Besides, good leadership requires leaders to display exceptional talents with considerable
skills.



Such leaders need to respond to various situations by applying different strategies.

Notes
At times, a leader is chosen based on how they performed previously (Pyles & Harding, 2012).
Leaders who have previously displayed good performance in their organization have a high
likelihood of being chosen in the future (Uhr, 2017). This is because every organization requires
a successful leader. If a leader previously contributed to an organization's fall, it is not easy for
him or her to be selected in the future (Wang et al., 2018). Besides, leaders apply a particular
leadership style based on how effective it was previously (Wang et al., 2018). If a particular
leadership style contributed to the failure of an organization. The leader cannot apply it again
since it would still harm the organization (Uhr, 2017). On the other hand, if a particular
leadership style contributed to good performance in an organization, the leader would consider
using it more and more.
Slide 5
Methods


The study applied different scholarly materials to obtain the information relevant to the topic.



The CRAAP test was used to determine the reliability and credibility of the articles used.

TALKING NOTES


5

In this case, CRAAP is the initials for Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and
Purpose.



There were ten articles used in the study.

Notes
There were initially 20 articles. The articles were reduced to ten based on the CRAAP test.
'Currency' was one aspect of the CRAAP test elements. Based on this element, four journal
articles that were published before 2010 were eliminated. Then, the researcher considered the
aspect of 'Relevance.' In this aspect, two articles were not relevant, and therefore they were
eliminated. Based on 'Authority,' the researcher only wanted the articles whose authors have a
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) education level. The next element to be considered was 'Accuracy.'
Two of the remaining articles appeared to have shallow information and could not be determined
whether they were peer-reviewed. Therefore, they were removed. The last aspect of being
considered was 'Purpose.' One of the remaining articles did not meet the article's purpose since it
was meant for entertainment.
Slide 6
Actual Examples


Hurricane Maria is one of the emergencies experienced in the U.S.



The head of FEMA applied authoritarian leadership to give orders to various departments.



Later during developmental work, FEMA applied a democratic leadership style.



In this case, various departments agreed on a different role to support the affected people.

Notes
An example of an authoritarian leadership style can be evident in September when Hurricane
Maria occurred. Immediately after Hurricane Maria occurred, William Brockmann, the head of
the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), applied an authoritarian leadership style

TALKING NOTES

6

to respond to the incident (Rivera, 2020). William applied authoritarian leadership to order
various departments such as the Department of Energy, the Coast Guard, and the Urban &
Rescue department to rush to the incident to save people and property from the emergency that
had occurred. However, after the incident ended, a democratic leadership style is evident where
various departments in the United States hold discussions to understand the residents' needs who
were affected by the event. In this case, the Department of the Energy is given the responsibility
of restoring power in the affected region, the American Red Cross agreed to supply foods and
beddings to the affected people, while the Department of Agriculture agreed to provide support
to the children after re-opening of schools (Rivera, 2020).
Slide 7
SWOT Analysis of Authoritarian Leadership


The leadership style gives effective and instant results.



The weakness of the leadership style is that it does not apply in all situations.



The opportunity of the style is that there is a likelihood of giving good results.



The threat of the style is that the followers may resist the command given.

Notes
Authoritarian leadership is usually applied when the leader does not want objection from his or
her followers, and therefore, effective and instant results are expected. However, the leadership
style cannot be applied in all instances, especially in an agency where democracy is valued.
Whenever a leader applies this type of leadership, he expects good results, though the followers
may resist the order.
Slide 8
SWOT Analysis of Democratic Leadership


The strength of democracy is that there are low chances of failure due to the sharing of ideas.

TALKING NOTES

7



The weakness of leadership is that it takes a long time to be implemented.



The opportunity of the style is that there is more room for improvement.



The threat of leadership is that the leader has limited power to control his or her people.

Notes
Democracy leadership is where the leader engages his followers in decision making. In this case,
the leader usually combines different ideas from the followers and make a general decision.
Therefore, there are minimal chances of the decision made to fail. Besides, the leadership style
creates more room for people to improve their results. However, it takes a long time for a
particular idea to be adopted since the leader usually seeks support from other members before
implementing it. Continued use of this style makes the leader lose his power.
Slide 9
Results and Analysis


It was found that there is a significant difference in leadership regarding organizational
development and emergencies.



Besides, it was found that several challenges were experienced during emergencies.



A leader needs to have unique skills and talent to find out the best leadership style applicable.



The leadership styles that are applied during the developmental period cannot be used during
emergencies.

Notes
The study aimed at answering the research questions that were presented at the beginning of the
study. One of the questions assessed whether there a difference in leadership styles between
emergencies and humanitarian development. The other question asked whether there are
challenges experienced in transitioning leadership styles from emergencies to humanitarian
development. The last one asked about the best leadership styles in emergencies and

TALKING NOTES

8

humanitarian development. All these questions were answered in the results. Besides, the new
hypothesis indicated that there is a difference between the leadership styles applied in
emergencies and humanitarian development work.
Slide 10
Conclusion


An emergency cannot be avoided in an organization because they take place at any time.



Leaders need to understand the best method to apply during a particular period depending on
the situation.



The best leadership style used during emergencies is authoritarian leadership.



In developmental work, democratic leadership is considered the best.

TALKING NOTES

9
References

Al Khajeh, E. H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of
Human Resources Management Research, 2018, 1-10.
Buchanan-Smith, M., & Scriven, K. (2011). ALNAP: Leadership in Action: Leading Effectively
in Humanitarian Operations. ALNAP.
Brassard, C., & Raffin, A. (2011). Resilience in post-disaster societies: From crisis to
development. Asian Journal of Social Science, 39(4), 417-424.
Clarke, P. K. (2013). WHO’S IN CHARGE HERE?. A Literature Review on Approaches to
Leadership in Humanitarian Operations. London: ALNAP.
Gu, J., Wang, G., Liu, H., Song, D., & He, C. (2018). Linking authoritarian leadership to
employee creativity. Chinese Management Studies.
Lateef, F. (2018). Grace under pressure: Leadership in emergency medicine. Journal of
emergencies, trauma, and shock, 11(2), 73.
Mannakkara, S., & Wilkinson, S. J. (2015). Supporting post-disaster social recovery to build
back better. International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment.
Pyles, L., & Harding, S. (2012). Discourses of post-Katrina reconstruction: a frame
analysis. Community Development Journal, 47(3), 335-352.
Rivera, J. (2020). A Content Analysis of the Phases of Emergency Management for Hurricane
Maria in Puerto Rico. The Pegasus Review: UCF Undergraduate Research Journal
(URJ), 11(1), 2.
Uhr, C. (2017). Leadership ideals as barriers for efficient collaboration during emergencies and
disasters. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 25(4), 301-312.
Wang, X., Sugumaran, V., Zhang, H., & Xu, Z. (2018). A capability assessment model for
emergency management organizations. Information Systems Frontiers, 20(4), 653-667.


PowerPoint Presentation
Name
Institution

Introduction


Emergencies have been a significant issue for a long period.



Some emergencies are natural, while others are human-made.



The success of an emergency response is determined by the leader
and the leadership applied.



The leadership style applied in emergencies differs from the one
used in developmental work.

Research Questions


Is there a difference in leadership styles between emergencies and
humanitarian development?



Are there challenges experienced in transitioning leadership styles
from emergencies to humanitarian development?



Which are the best leadership styles in emergencies and
humanitarian development?

Literature Review


A leadership style in normal functioning cannot be used in an emergency (Gu
et al., 2018).



An authoritarian leadership style is beneficial in emergencies but not in
developmental practices.



Hierarchy leadership may not apply in an organization in an emergency period
(Pyles & Harding, 2012).



During emergencies, there is no time to make pre-determined arrangements.

Literature Review Cont’


When choosing leaders, several aspects are considered (BuchananSmith & Scriven, 2011).



Leaders are usually selected based on their personal traits that can
benefit an organization.



Besides, good leadership requires leaders to display exceptional
talents with considerable skills.



Such leaders need to respond to various situations by applying
different strategies.

Methods


The study applied different scholarly materials to obtain the
information relevant to the topic.



The CRAAP test was used to determine the reliability and
credibility of the articles used.



In this case, CRAAP is the initials for Currency, Relevance,
Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose.



There were ten articles used in the study.

Actual Examples


Hurricane Maria is one of the emergencies
experienced in the U.S.



The head of FEMA applied an authoritarian
leadership to give orders to various
departments.



Later during developmental work, FEMA
applied democratic leadership style.



In this case, various departments agreed on
different role to support the affected people.

SWOT Analysis of Authoritarian Leadership


The leadership style gives effective and
instant results.



The weakness of the leadership style is
that it does not apply in all situations.



The opportunity of the style is that there is
a likelihood of giving good results.



The threat of the style is that the followers
may resist the command given.

SWOT Analysis of Democratic Leadership


The strength of democracy is that there are low
chances of failure due to the sharing of ideas.



The weakness of leadership is that it takes a
long time to be implemented.



The opportunity of the style is that there is
more room for improvement.



The threat of leadership is that the leader has
limited power to control his or her people.

Results


It was found that there is a significant difference in leadership
regarding organizational development and emergencies.



Besides, it was found that several challenges were experienced
during emergencies.



A leader needs to have unique skills and talent to find out the best
leadership style applicable.



The leadership styles that are applied during the developmental
period cannot be used during emergencies.

Conclusion


An emergency cannot be avoided in an organization because they
take place at any time.



Leaders need to understand the best method to apply during a
particular period depending on the situation.



The best leadership style used during emergencies is authoritarian
leadership



In developmental work, democratic leadership is considered the
best.

References


Al Khajeh, E. H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational
performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018, 1-10.



Buchanan-Smith, M., & Scriven, K. (2011). ALNAP: Leadership in Action:
Leading Effectively in Humanitarian Operations. ALNAP.



Brassard, C., & Raffin, A. (2011). Resilience in post-disaster societies: From
crisis to development. Asian Journal of Social Science, 39(4), 417-424.



Clarke, P. K. (2013). WHO’S IN CHARGE HERE?. A Literature Review on
Approaches to Leadership in Humanitarian Operations. London: ALNAP.

References Cont’


Gu, J., Wang, G., Liu, H., Song, D., & He, C. (2018). Linking authoritarian
leadership to employee creativity. Chinese Management Studies.



Lateef, F. (2018). Grace under pressure: Leadership in emergency
medicine. Journal of emergencies, trauma, and shock, 11(2), 73.



Mannakkara, S., & Wilkinson, S. J. (2015). Supporting post-disaster social
recovery to build back better. International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the
Built Environment.



Pyles, L., & Harding, S. (2012). Discourses of post-Katrina reconstruction: a
frame analysis. Community Development Journal, 47(3), 335-352.

References Cont’


Rivera, J. (2020). A Content Analysis of the Phases of Emergency
Management for Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico. The Pegasus Review: UCF
Undergraduate Research Journal (URJ), 11(1), 2.



Uhr, C. (2017). Leadership ideals as barriers for efficient collaboration during
emergencies and disasters. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis
Management, 25(4), 301-312.



Wang, X., Sugumaran, V., Zhang, H., & Xu, Z. (2018). A capability assessment
model for emergency management organizations. Information Systems
Frontiers, 20(4), 653-667.


Running head: RESEARCH PAPER

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Research Paper
Name
Institution

RESEARCH PAPER

2
Research Paper
Introduction

Description of the Issue
Emergencies have been a significant issue for a long period since they may lead to the
loss of life and property. Some emergencies are natural, while others are human-made. The
impact of a crisis is determined by the preparedness conducted to mitigate its effect on people
and property (Al Khajeh, 2018). The success of an emergency response is determined by the
leader involved and the type of leadership applied. Therefore, this indicates that the choice of
leadership is a critical aspect of an emergency. Besides, during humanitarian development,
leadership is crucial since it determines the success of various practices. However, the leadership
style applied during an emergency period is different from the one used during the development
process (Buchanan-Smith & Scriven, 2011). Based on the understanding of emergency and
development leaderships, an authoritarian leadership style has been prioritized on emergencies,
while a democratic leadership style has been considered in development practices.
Thesis Statement
During the emergency period, leadership applied needs to be exceptional and flexible
since it determines the success of responding to an incident, and the leadership style applied in
emergencies is different from the one used in humanitarian developmental work.
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no difference in leadership styles applied in emergencies
and humanitarian development.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a great difference in leadership styles applied in
humanitarian development and emergencies.
Research Questions

RESEARCH PAPER

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1. Is there a difference in leadership styles between emergencies and humanitarian
development?
2. Are there challenges experienced in transitioning leadership styles from emergencies to
humanitarian development?
3. Which are the best leadership styles in emergencies and humanitarian development?
Literature Review
Leadership and Emergency Changes as Opposed to Development
According to research, leadership styles applied during a humanitarian agency's normal
functioning cannot be applied during an emergency period (Gu et al., 2018). This is because
emergencies do not require any systematic response procedure but follow instructions and
guidelines depending on the situation. For example, if the leader identifies that a particular
building is about to collapse, he will not have time to discuss it with other leaders or the juniors
(Lateef, 2018). Instead, he or she will instruct his or her juniors to respond to the issue by
removing the necessary equipment and people from the building. In this case, such a leadership
style is considered to be an authoritarian or autocratic leadership style. This leadership style is
beneficial during emergencies but cannot be applied during developmental practices
(Mannakkara & Wilkinson, 2015). During developmental work, the leader has to discuss an issue
with other leaders and the juniors to ensure that the practice is conducted effectively. This type
of leadership is known as democratic leadership, where even the juniors are given a chance to
give their ideas on development.
Some leadership styles, such as hierarchy leadership, may not apply in an organization
during an emergency period (Pyles & Harding, 2012). This is because leadership involves
hierarchically sharing ideas from the top to the bottom or vice versa. There is no time to follow
orders from a particular direction during emergencies since it can lead to a significant loss of

RESEARCH PAPER

4

property or life (Uhr, 2017). In such a case, anybody can make an order depending on the
situation. For example, a junior can make an order direct to the organizational director without
considering the supervisors and the managers' presence. Besides, the organizational director can
also make an order direct to the minor employee without considering other leaders in the middle
(Wang et al., 2018).
Moreover, during emergencies, there is no time to make pre-determined arrangements
since an emergency may be experienced at any time (Lateef, 2018). When an incident occurs, the
organization responds to it immediately without making any arrangements (Pyles & Harding,
2012). However, if this strategy is applied during the developmental period, the organization
may fail. For an organization to succeed, it needs to make a systematic arrangement on what
needs to be done at a particular period by a particular individual (Uhr, 2017).
Some organizations have developed a strong routine framework for daily operations
(Wang et al., 2018). However, such a framework is only applied during an organization's
developmental process (Uhr, 2017). It cannot be used during an emergency since it does not
require a particular procedure to succeed when an incident occurs. The procedure applicable
during a crisis is developed instantly depending on the severity of the emergency and the
anticipated impact (Al Khajeh, 2018).
Preconception Affecting Choosing Leaders
When choosing leaders, several aspects are considered (Buchanan-Smith & Scriven,
2011). Leaders are usually selected based on their personal traits that can benefit an organization
(Brassard & Raffin, 2011). Some of the aspects considered when choosing leaders include the
ability to respond to a particular issue effectively, the ability to change based on the situation at
hand, and the ability to involve other people in every practice (Clarke, 2013).
Besides, good leadership requires leaders to display exceptional talents with considerable
skills (Gu et al., 2018). Such talents and abilities need to enable the leader to respond to any

RESEARCH PAPER

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issue regardless of its conditions. Such leaders need to respond to various situations by applying
different strategies based on what the condition requires (Lateef, 2018). For example, when a
particular development is needed, the leader needs to use various approaches to contribute to a
successful developmental process. Besides, when an incident occurs, the leader needs to develop
a strategy that can effectively solve the issue at hand (Mannakkara & Wilkinson, 2015).
At times, a leader is chosen based on how they performed previously (Pyles & Harding,
2012). Leaders who have previously displayed good performance in their organization have a
high likelihood of being chosen in the future (Uhr, 2017). This is because every organization
requires a successful leader. If a leader previously contributed to an organization's fall, it is not
easy for him or her to be selected in the future (Wang et al., 2018).
Besides, leaders apply a particular leadership style based on how effective it was
previously (Wang et al., 2018). If a particular leadership style contributed to the failure of an
organization. The leader cannot apply it again since it would still harm the organization (Uhr,
2017). On the other hand, if a particular leadership style contributed to good performance in an
organization, the leader would consider using it more and more. These aspects apply both in
emergency and developmental factors (Pyles & Harding, 2012).
Trustworthiness is a critical quality among leaders. Trustworthiness is crucial to an
organization that intends to prosper (Lateef, 2018). Trustworthiness enables the employees or the
management to trust a particular leader. Trustworthy leaders do not betray the organization, and
therefore, they have to apply all means possible for the organization to prosper (Uhr, 2017). In
this case, they apply much effort to ensure that they have their qualities and leadership styles
beneficial to the organization either during the emergency or during developmental work. In such
a case, they have to change their leadership styles depending on the situation at hand (Wang et
al., 2018).
Methods

RESEARCH PAPER

6

The study applied different scholarly materials to obtain the information relevant to the
topic. The CRAAP test was used to determine the reliability and credibility of the articles used in
the study. In this case, CRAAP is the initials for Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and
Purpose.
Study Selection and Data Collection
There were a total of 20 journal articles that were selected at the beginning of the study.
For the articles to be obtained, the researcher used Google Scholar to search the articles related
to leadership styles necessary for emergencies and developmental work. There were thousands of
articles that were displayed related to the topic being studies. However, the researcher selected
twenty articles randomly, from which he was expected to eliminate ten of them and remain with
the other ten articles. During the elimination of the articles, the researcher first considered the
'Currency' as one aspect of the CRAAP test. Based on this element, all the journal articles that
were published before 2010 were eliminated. In this case, four articles were eliminated, and
sixteen others remained. He then considered the aspect of 'Relevance.' In this aspect, two articles
were not relevant to the topic being studied, and therefore they were eliminated. Based on
'Authority,' the researcher only wanted the articles whose authors have a Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) education level. In this case, one article was eliminated. The next element to be
considered was 'Accuracy.' Two of the remaining articles appeared to have shallow information
and could not be determined whether they were peer-reviewed. Therefore, they were removed.
The last aspect of being considered was 'Purpose.' One of the remaining articles did not meet...


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