LAA • 5716 essay 3 based on topic from module 11—Pre-Columbian and colonial America module 12—United State Park Movement, Eclectic Revival, City Beautiful Movement module 13—Modern Europe and America module 14 ESSAY essay submittal requirements The essay module consists of research and writing that must address a historic site, period, designer, or user selected by the student as a topic from modules 11 through 13. The essay must be on urban design or landscape architecture; not art, poetry, music, or architecture, though these may be appropriately referenced in the text. The essay must be an analytical and critical, not just descriptive, response to the selected topic. The description should address the pertinent work, location, dates, and personalities. The analysis should address the objective of the work, as well as its natural, cultural, and aesthetic contexts. The critique should focus on the positive and negative aspects of the work. Use the citations to support the analysis and critique, not ordinary information in the description. The text should be structured as an essay with introduction, body, and conclusion. The length of the essay must be 1500 words, excluding quotations and illustrations. The style of the essay, including the citations of sources using footnotes without bibliography or list of references, must follow The Chicago Manual of Style. The footnotes should be keyed to the text with superscripts. Printable size is 8½ by 11 inches, vertical format. The required minimum number of sources cited from scholarly books and journals is four. These sources may be from the further-study suggestions in each module. If appropriate, professional magazines and academically unpublished internet sources may be used as sources, but they do not count toward the required minimum number of sources. assignment grading criteria Descriptive aspects of the essay— the who, what, when, where, as they relate to the topic—one fifth of grade. Analytical aspects of the essay—the why, what for, due to what, as they relate to the topic—one fifth of grade. Critical aspects of the essay—the how well, how significant, as they relate to the topic—one fifth of grade. Writing aspects of the essay—spelling, syntax, length, structure—one fifth of grade. Sources for the essay—citations from four different scholarly books or journals—one fifth of grade (see samples below). book footnote Geoffrey and Susan Jellicoe, The Landscape of Man (New York: Thames & Hudson, 1998), [page number if quote]. book chapter footnote Elizabeth Meyer, “Situating Modern Landscape Architecture” in Theory in Landscape Architecture: A Reader (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 21–31, [page number if quote]. journal article footnote Lawrence Halprin, “Design as a Value System,” Places: A Quarterly Journal of Environmental Design 6, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 60–67. (Variations: [volume (number): pages], [volume (date): pages], [volume:pages]. [year, pages].) electronic journal Same as above, but add Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Also, add date accessed, if time-sensitive information. Best wishes for success! LAA • 5716 History of Landscape Architecture Professor Juan Antonio Bueno Florida International University School of Architecture LAA • 5716 module 11 Pre-Colombian + Colonial America Sites—Idea + Context—Space Transformations Further study References Copyright © 2018 by Juan Antonio Bueno All rights reserved Landscape Garden to Contemporary Prehistoric Western Europe Ancient + Medieval Western Europe Ancient Middle East Islamic + mudéjar Spain Renaissance Italy Baroque France + Rome English Garden, Public Park, Garden City Chinese City. Japanese Garden English Landscape Garden English Public Park English Garden City Pre-Columbian + Colonial America US Park, City Beautiful, Eclectic Revival Modern Europe + America Chinese City Bernard Tschumi Architects Japanese Garden Pre-Columbian America Colonial America 28 10 10 6:56 pm US Early Garden + Campus Parc de la Villette Paris, 1982-1998 An award-winning project noted for its architecture and new strategy of urban organization, La Villette has become known as an unprecedented type of park, one based on “culture” rather than “nature.” The park is located on what was one of the last remaining large sites in Paris, a 125acre expanse previously occupied by the central slaughter houses and situated at the northeast corner of the city. In addition to the master plan, the project involved the design and construction of over 25 buildings, promenades, covered walkways, bridges, and landscaped gardens over a period of fifteen years. A system of dispersed “points”—the red enameled steel folies that support different cultural and leisure activities—is superimposed on a system of lines that emphasizes movement through the park. more Program: Cultural, Master Plan, Performance, Theoretical US Parks + City Beautiful US Eclectic Revival Modern Europe + America English / Français Search Contemporary US + UE © Bernard Tschumi Architects Pre-Columbian America—sites Perú. Machu Picchu México. Teotihuacán Guatemala. Tikal México. Chichén Itzá México. Tenochtitlán México. Xochimilco Colorado. Mesa Verde New Mexico. Pueblo de Taos Machu Picchu Teotihuacán Tikal Chichén Itzá Tenochtitlán Xochimilco Mesa Verde Pueblo de Taos Colonial Williamsburg Savannah Colonial America—sites Leyes de Indias (Laws of Indies) La Florida. San Agustín (Saint Augustine) Virginia. Colonial Williamsburg Georgia. Savannah Leyes de Indias San Agustín Pre-Columbian America—sites Perú. Machu Picchu Perú. Líneas de Nazca, puquios Pre-Columbian America—Perú The Nazca culture flourished from about 100 BC to AD 800, abutting the rather arid, southern coast of Perú. It is known for its line and figure geoglyphs, and its puquios, or subterranean aqueducts. The geoglyphs of Nazca and Pampas de Jumana are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Developed around AD 600, the puquios consist of channels as well as corkscrew funnels that differentially pressurize the channel with the admitted wind, creating a flow in the stream. Puquio near Nazca Pre-Columbian America—Perú The geoglyphs are shallow incisions made into the soil of the Nazca Desert. Most are straight lines, but there are also human, zoomorphic, and phytomorphic figures. Visible from the surrounding foothills, the figures measure from 400 to 1100 meters across, and the lines altogether stretch for 1,300 kilometers over fifty square kilometers. Although their specific purpose is yet unknown, a religious significance is typically ascribed to the geoglyphs. Pampas de Jumana, between Nazca and Palpas. Líneas de Nazca (lines), AD 400–650. El hombre búho (owl man), El cóndor (condor) Pre-Columbian America—Perú Formed by the removal of the top layer of reddish brown iron-oxide coated pebbles coated with iron oxide and the exposure of the yellowish gray subsoil, most of the lines are ten to fifteen centimeters deep and thirty-five centimeters wide. The limey subsoil hardens with the matutinal mist, preventing wind erosion. In addition, he geoglyphs are mostly preserved by its relative isolation, as well as its stable, dry and calm climate. Líneas de Nazca. El árbol (tree), La garza (heron) Pre-Columbian America—Perú Using simple tools available to the Nazca to reproduce the geoglyphs, it has been proven that they were feasible without aerial assistance. Líneas de Nazca. La araña (spider), El colibrí (hummingbird) Pre-Columbian America—Perú Machu Picchu, old peak in quechua, was an Inca sanctuary and retreat estate sited over the Valle Sagrado de los Incas (sacred valley), 2430 meters above sea level, eighty kilometers from Cuzco. Depending on the season, its population ranged from 750 to 100 in support staff and religious attendants. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Machu Picchu Pre-Columbian America—Perú Machu Picchu was constructed around 1450 and used only for some eighty years by Inca rulers Pachacútec (1438–1471) and Túpac (1472–1493), until abandoned but unknown during the Spanish conquest. “In the variety of its charms and the power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which can compare with it. Not only has it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more than two miles overhead, gigantic precipices of many-colored granite rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening, roaring rapids; it has also, in striking contrast, orchids and tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation, and the mysterious witchery of the jungle” (Hiram Bingham, Inca Land: Explorations in the Highlands of Perú, 1922). Machu Picchu, Huayna Picchu (back) Pre-Columbian America—Perú Machu Picchu is architecturaly known for its masonry—polished dry stonework with extremely tight joints but no mortar—used to counter seismic events due to two fault lines. The stone was quarried at the site. Machu Picchu, stonework Pre-Columbian America—Perú Intihuatana (place where the sun is tied in quechua) is a solar calendar carved on a pyramidal, terraced hill with two stairs. It is one of numerous ritual stones in South America that are oriented toward the sun at the winter solstice. Machu Picchu, Intihuatana Pre-Columbian America—Perú Although most the food was imported from the valley, hundreds of terraces were developed for farming at Machu Picchu. With 1,800 mm of rain a year, irrigation was not needed, but good drainage was required to prevent landslides. With five hectares in area, the terraces were built in four layers—large stones, loose gravel, sand and gravel, and fertile valley soil. The crops were mainly corn and potatoes. Machu Picchu, farming terraces Pre-Columbian America—Perú Along the mountain trail that connects Machu Picchu with Intipata to the west, terraced stone paths lead to the Puente Inca, a tree-trunk draw bridge across a six-meter gap above a steep drop. Two tree trunks may be drawn to make the trail impassable. Machu Picchu, Puente Inca Pre-Columbian America—sites México. Monte Albán México. Teotihuacán Guatemala. Tikal México. Chichén Itzá México. Tenochtitlán México. Xochimilco Colorado. Mesa Verde New Mexico. Pueblo de Taos Pre-Columbian America—México Monte Albán is sited on a low mountain range above the Valle de Oaxaca, nine kilometers from the homonymous capital. The civic and ceremonial center sits on a humanly leveled ridge four hundred meters above the valley basin. The site has hundreds of artificial terraces that cover the ridge and flanks and about a dozen architectural mounds. Founded around 500 BC, it was the epicenter of Zapotec culture from 100 BC to AD 200. It was abandoned after it lost its political power circa AD 500 to 750. The Historic Center of Oaxaca and Monte Albán is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Monte Albán, Oaxaca Pre-Columbian America—México [The Great Plaza of Monte Albán] “…is one of the loveliest civic areas ever created by man, and certainly the most beautiful in America… an enclosed space with no view of the valleys that surround the hill on three sides. The impression is of something finished, something that cannot be continued either in extension–due to topographical limitations–or in intention, in view of the stupendous scale and the magnificent oneness achieved…” (Hardoy, 138). Monte Albán, Plaza Mayor (200 x 300 m). Plataforma Norte (north platform, left), Patio Hundido (sunken patio, bottom right) of the Plataforma Sur (south platform) Pre-Columbian America—México The monumental center of Monte Albán is the Plaza Mayor, measuring 200 by 300 meters. To the north and south, the plaza is anchored by two platform mounds with monumental stairs. To the east and west, the plaza is flanked by smaller platform mounds for temples and elite houses. At the center of the plaza, there is a series of ceremonial mounds and the sacrificial altar. Monte Albán, Plaza mayor, sacrificial altar Pre-Columbian America—México On the east side of the plaza, there is one of the two ball courts known to have existed at Monte Albán. Monte Albán, ball court Pre-Columbian America—México Teotihuacán, city of the gods in náhuatl, was found in ruins by the mexica. Its history spanned from about 200 BC to AD 750. A UNESCO World Heritage site, Teotihuacán flourished from the third to sixth century, reaching a population of at least 125,000, before its demise due to internal unrest due to climatic change from 535 to 536. The city is organized along a main axis, the Avenue of the Dead, leading to the Pyramid of the Moon with transverse axes at the Pyramid of the Sun and at the Ciudadela (citadel), a misnomer as it was a plaza with temples. The structures are astronomically aligned with solstitial sunrises and sunsets. Teotihuacán, Pyramid of the Sun (center), Pyramid of the Moon (center top), Ciudadela (center bottom) Pre-Columbian America—México “In the ceremonial centers of San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes we see set forth for the first time fundamentals that would prevail in Mesoamerican architecture for twenty-five centuries–namely, the use of a truncated pyramid as a temple base and the conscious placement of terraces, platforms, and temples to form plazas…In some parts of Mesoamerica, the pyramid, with its superimposed bodies, symbolized the heavens, which people visualized as a series of layers—almost always thirteen —each occupied by some deity. On the highest layer dwelled the primordial couple, the Supreme Duality, from whom the other gods and man himself had descended” (Heyden and Gendrop, 17, 24). Teotihuacán from the Pyramid of the Sun: Pyramid of the Moon (right), Avenue of the Dead (across center) Pre-Columbian America—México “The grand design of this vast and wellorchestrated ceremonial area was on a scale that sought to approach the grandeur and power of the gods, reducing the human conditions almost to insignificance. Even today, as it stands in ruins, we can sense Teotihuacán's almost inhuman majesty” (Heyden and Gendrop, 48). “The three basic aspects of urban Teotihuacán: arrangements along axes; the symmetry of elements within groups; and the use of simple masses, in isolation or connected by platforms of lesser height …are most decisively planned (Hardoy, 89). Teotihuacán from the Pyramid of the Moon: Avenue of the Dead (center), sacrificial altar (center bottom), Pyramid of the Sun (left, off center) Pre-Columbian America—Guatemala Located in northern Guatemala, Ti’kal was the capital of one the most powerful Maya kingdoms. With monuments dating to the fourth century BC, Ti’kal reached its zenith from AD 200 to 900, dominating the Maya in all economic, political, and military aspects. However, it was likely conquered by Teotihuacán in the fourth century. As the population declined, it was finally abandoned around the tenth century. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. El Petén, Ti’kal, ca. 350 BC–AD 1000 Pre-Columbian America—Guatemala As one of the largest Maya cities, Ti’kal extended over 125 square kilometers. Limestone architecture included temples, palaces, ceremonial platforms, administrative centers, residences, jail, and ramparts. Some of its temples rise over 70 meters to pierce the rainforest canopy. The city also had seven ball courts. El Petén, Ti’kal. Templos I , II, III Pre-Columbian America—Guatemala The city had over 3000 structures sited on the ridges within freshwater swamps and connected by elevated causeways. El Petén, Ti’kal. Site plan, Templo 1 Pre-Columbian America—Guatemala The limestone was quarried on site for the construction. The resultant quarry depressions, as well as existing natural depressions, were waterproofed with lime to be used as reservoirs. The plazas were surfaced with a mixture of lime, sand, and water, and graded to drain to canals in the reservoirs. El Petén, Ti’kal. Temple I Pre-Columbian America—Guatemala Bound by the North Acropolis and the opposite Central Acropolis, and by pyramidal temples on the east and west, the Great Plaza lies at the city center. The Central Acropolis was a palace, while the temples were funerary edifices with each new royal burial adding a new temple on top of the older structures, thus the pyramidal structures. El Petén, Ti’kal. Acropolis (left), Plaza (center), Templo I (right). Pre-Columbian America—México Centrally located in the Yucatán, Chichén Itzá was founded around the year AD 525 and reached its zenith toward the eleventh century. Its name means “wellhead of the water warlocks,” in reference to the Cenote Sagrado, a sacred sink hole at the site. The Pre-Hispanic City of Chichén Itzá is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Maya-Toltec architecture presents a softer, rounder version of the talud (cant) and tablero (panel) than at Teotihuacán. Chichén Itzá, Pirámide de Kukulcán, ca AD 600–1000 Pre-Columbian America—México The Pirámide de Kukulcán (pyramid), often called “el Castillo,” or castle, is one of the paradigms of Mayan architecture. It is sited at the center of a great esplanade. On the north side, there are two large feathered serpent heads, representing Kukulcán, at the base of the stairs. Around the equinoctial sunsets, the corner of the pyramid casts a moving shadow on the stairs parapet that has been interpreted as the descent of Kukulcán as the hours pass. Chichén Itzá, Pirámide de Kukulcán Pre-Columbian America—México The Pirámide de Kukulcán measures 55.5 meters square at the base and twentyfour meters in height. Each side features stairs with ninety-one steps, plus one more at the top into the temple, for a total of 365 steps, one for each day of the year. Comparative sections, dimensioned in meters, of the pyramids of Giza, Sun at Teotihuacán, and Kukulcán at Chichén Itzá Pre-Columbian America—México El Caracol (snail), named for the spiral stairway in its interior, was an observatory. Its stairs led to a chamber with windows pointing to astronomial references, such as Venus, without instruments. Chichén Itzá, El Caracol Pre-Columbian America—México At 70 meters wide by 168 meters wide, the court at Chichén Itzá is the largest of five hundred ball courts in pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica. The court was flanked with benches and walls with two vertical rings at the center. Racquets or the hips were used to hit the ball in the game. The solid rubber ball weighted up to four kilograms in various sizes. Games were highly ritualistic encounters that may have ended with the human sacrifice of the captive losers in a rigged game. Thirteen ball courts at Chichén Itzá attest to the importance of the game. Chichén Itzá, Juego de pelota (Great Ball Court), ca. AD 600–1000 Pre-Columbian America—México Sixty meters wide and fifteen meters deep, the Cenote Sagrado (sacred sinkhole) is linked to the Pirámide de Kulkucán by a three-hundred-meter long trail. It was a pilgrimage site for votive rituals, including human sacrifice, to the rain god Chaac. There are five cenotes in Chichén Itzá, including one under Kukulkán. Chichén Itzá, Cenote Sagrado Pre-Columbian America—México Tenochtitlán was founded by the méxica on an island of Lago Texcoco in the Valle de México on 20 June 1325, in fulfillment of the ancient prophecy that its site would be signified to the wandering tribes by an eagle perched on a cactus (Opuntia) with a snake in its beak. It was the capital of an extensive Aztec empire during the fifteenth century until taken by Hernán Cortés in 1521, as well as the largest city in pre-Columbian America. It became the seat of the viceroyalty of Nueva España (New Spain). Today only some ruins remain next to the Zócalo, or main square of Ciudad de México (city). Tenochtitlán, 20 June 1325. Ciudad de México (México City), Zócalo, 1524, 1585 Pre-Columbian America—México Shared with Tlatelolco to the north, the island in the shallow western Texcoco, one of five interconnected lakes, covered thirteen and a half square kilometers for 212,500 people. The Aztec emperor, Moctezuma ruled over five million people in the adjacent territory. [ Tenochtitlán connected to the mainland on the north, south, and west via causeways with bridges that allowed canoe passage. All city districts could be reached on foot and via a water canal network. Two terracotta aqueducts, over four kilometers long, supplied the city with water from the springs at Chapultepec. A dike checked saltwater intrusion from eastern Texcoco. Lago Texcoco in the Cuenca de México around the arrival of Hernán Cortés Pre-Columbian America—México Tenochtitlán was divided into four zones, each with market and twenty districts with streets and canals. The three main streets led to the causeways to the mainland. Friedrich Peypus. 1524. Nuremberg. Tenochtitlán, right, west at the top; Golfo de México, left, south at the top (likely source, Hernán Cortés expedition) Pre-Columbian America—México At the center of Tenochtitlán were temples, palaces, and some forty-five public edifices. Inside a walled ceremonial square, five hundred meters to the side, the Templo Mayor (back center) was dedicated to the patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the rain god Tlaloc, as well as the ball court (front center) with the sacrificial skull rack (center right). Outside was the Moctezuma palace with one hundred rooms, each with its bath. The imperial palace had a botanical garden, a freshwater and salt water aquarium, and two zoos, one for birds of prey and one for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. The almost symmetrically balanced city had a city planner, the calmimilocatl. Reconstructed view of Tenochtitlán and model of the urban center. Museo Nacional de Antropología Pre-Columbian America—México The chinampas of Xochimilco are gardens and orchards developed as insular and peninsular reclamations on the lake landscape of the Mexican altiplano. The history of the Mexican garden is deeply rooted in the chinampas, whose flowers and vegetables have sustained the region for two millennia. As one of the most intensive and productive agricultures ever practiced, the chinampas supported the expansion of the great Tenochca empire. Tenochtitlán and the annex market city of Tlatelolco to the north were developed on chinampas. Together with the historic center of Ciudad de México, the extant chinampas are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Xochimilco, chinampas, since 200 BC Pre-Columbian America—México The intensive but sustainable agriculture involves seepage irrigation, organic fertilization, and seedbed cultivation. The subsurface irrigation efficiently delivers virtually permanent moisture to the crop roots with little evaporation. The muck, compost, and manure are ecologically renewable resources in the lake landscape. To fertilize the orchards, rafts of aquatic plants are towed along the canals and spread over the packed mud to create compost layers that are then covered with fresh sediment. Crops are first grown in nurseries where mud is placed over weeds to create seedbeds. When the mud has sufficiently hardend, it is cut into small blocks called chapines. Each chapín is the seeded, enriched with manure, and over reeds. The seedlings are later transplanted to the orchard in the chapines. Xochimilco, chinampa Pre-Columbian America—México From náhuatl, Xochimilco means “place of flower gardens,” and chinampa is rooted in chinamitl, hedge or cane fence, in reference to the wattles used to crib the mud in chinampas. To develop chinampas, canals are dug to create a drainage and transportation network. The resulting grid plots are then filled in a multiple ridge pattern a few feet above water with mud dredged from the lake bottom during excavation. The mud is cribbed with wattle, and the edges of the orchards are finally planted with ahuehuetes, or baldcypress (Taxodium mucronatum), to anchor the chinampas with their roots. When the surface of the chinampas reach elevations not practical for irrigation and cultivation, the ground is cut to fill new chinampas. Xochimilco, chinampa Pre-Columbian America—México The chapines may be planted on rafts to transport the seedlings to the chinampas. This practice probably gave rise to the misconception that the chinampas were floating gardens and orchards. Xochimilco is also used for recreation among the chinampas in trajineras, or barges with food and music. Xochimilco, trajineras, or barges Pre-Columbian America—United States Located in the Big Horn National Forest is the Medicine Mountain is a National Historic Landmark, It has a sacred hoop, seventy-five feet in diameter with twentyeight spokes. The sacred hoop, also called medicine wheels, are typical of the North American Plains. Native Americans used the sacred hoops for ceremonies rooted in the community rather than the individual. healing and religious purposes. The hoops consist of a central stone cairn, one or more concentric circles, and two or more spokes, with the circles as metaphor for the cycle of life with no beginning and no ending. Wyoming. Big Horn Medicine Mountain AD 1500–1700 Pre-Columbian America—United States Mesa Verde National Park (green table) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Covering 52,485 acres, and encompassing more than five thousand sites and six hundred cliff dwellings, it is the largest archeological site in the United States. Located near Four Corners in the Southwest, it includes the best preserved ancestral Puebloan sites. The native inhabitants, hunters-gatherers as well as subsistence farmers, first built dwellings on top of the mesa since the sixth century and then under the cliffs in the twelfth century, to be abandoned due to severe droughts that brought social instability around 1275. They migrated to Arizona and New Mexico. Mesa Verde, Montezuma County, Colorado, 700s–1200s Pre-Columbian America—United States The cliff dwellings are sited in recesses under the mesa, facing south and southwest to optimize shade during the summer, and sun light and heat during the winter, as well as ease of defense. They are constructed of sandstone, mortar, and wood beams. As the largest cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde, the Cliff Palace rose multiple stories with twenty-three kivas (round, partly subterranean ceremonial constructs) and 150 rooms for 125 people, as part of a larger community of sixty pueblos (villages) with six hundred inhabitants. Mesa Verde, Cliff Palace Pre-Columbian America—United States The Square Tower House has the tallest structure in Mesa Verde. Often connected to kivas through tunnels, the towers were likely used for defensive observation. Mesa Verde, Square Tower House Pre-Columbian America—United States Located one mile north of modern Taos, Pueblo de Taos, is designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is among the oldest inhabited communities in the United States. It is a community of about 4,500 Tiwa Native Americans within a 95,000acre preservation. About 150 people live in the historic center. The pueblo (village) is renowed for its abode constructs, which originally had few windows, and only ladder access to the roofs, rather than front doors at ground level, for ease of defense. Pueblo de Taos, New Mexico, ca. 1000–1450 to present, 1893 image Pre-Columbian America—United States The pueblo (village) flanks both banks Río Pueblo de Taos (river) at the foot the Taos Mountains of the Sangre de Cristo Range, where its headwaters outflow. Pueblo de Taos Pre-Columbian America—United States Adobe is a mass of mud mixed with straw, modeled as a brick, and then air dried for use as masonry in walls and fence walls. The mixture is may also be used as finish. The high thermal mass of adobe efficiently moderates the temperature in the interior of structures, especially in climates with hot days and cool nights. Pueblo de Taos Pre-Columbian America—United States The adobe is normally made of 15% clay, 10 to 30% silt, and 55 to 75% fine sand. The straw is used as a binder that allows the brick to dry evenly. The bricks may measure 8 by 4 by 12 inches and weigh about 25 pounds. Walls and wood beams, used to span openings, are slathered with mud plaster. Ansel Adams, Church, Taos Pueblo, 1941 Colonial America—sites Cuba. La Habana (Havana) La Florida. San Agustín (Saint Augustine) Virginia. Colonial Williamsburg Georgia. Savannah Colonial America—Leyes de Indias Considered the first urban code of modern times, the Leyes de Indias (Laws of Indies) were enacted in 1573, but not promulgated until 1640. But by that time, 285 cities had already been founded in America, as the code was nevertheless applied. Never have so many cities been established on a regular or reticulate, often orthogonal, urban layout. The legislation by the Spanish crown aimed to regulate the social, political, and economic life, as well as the urban planning and design of new settlements in America and the Philippines. It was an administrative code for territorial expansion. Though often not carried out, a significant objective of the laws was also the protection of the native American and Asian population. San Cristóbal de La Habana, 1519 Colonial America—Leyes de Indias Various influences and precedents set the course for the Leyes de Indias: Intuition—human reaction to the need for speed, equity, ease in early settlements. Ideology—religious vision of utopian city (Book of Ezekiel 572 BC, Apocalypse AD 95, Francesc Eiximenis 1384–85). Typology—military (Roman castrum into civitas), urbanistic (De architectura libri decem by Vitruvius), and territorial (Fuero de Jaca 1076) programs. Morality—first European declarations of native human rights in the Americas. (Antón Montesino in Santo Domingo, 1511; Bartolomé de las Casas in Cuba, 1514). San Cristóbal de La Habana, 1519 Colonial America—Leyes de Indias In his Lo regiment de la cosa pública (the administration of public affairs), the Franciscan friar Francesc Eiximenis wrote that the beautiful city must be square with four main gates and streets, eight minor gates and streets, main plaza, four quarters each with a plaza, and other land uses of the era. Francesc Eiximenis, 1384-1385, 1484 incunabula, Lo regiment de la cosa pública in Lo crestià (The Christian). Andrea Sandoval, illustration Colonial America—Leyes de Indias The utopian city of Eiximenis was most likely influenced by the illumination (1047) for the Beato de León (ca. 776), a commentary on the Apocalypse of John. The illumination illustrates the walled New Jerusalem, with a plaza mayor, four quarter plazas, and twelve gates, one for each apostle. In the plaza mayor, there is the angel with the measuring golden rod for the layout of the city. Beato de Liébana, Beato de León, ca. 776 manuscript, 1047 illumination, for Fernado I of Castilla y León and his queen, Sancha Colonial America—Leyes de Indias Typologically, the urban layout in the Leyes de Indias had precedents in the military castrum that led the civitas in Roman times, Ten Books of Architecture by Vitruvius (although he proposed an urban grid within round walls), and the territorial expansion during the reconquest of Iberia, as early as 1076 in the Fuero de Jaca (charter), Navarra, northern Spain. For example, for the siege of Granada from Santa Fe, Fernando II of Aragón ordered that the burned military camp be reconstructed in stone with the layout of Briviesca, also in northern Spain, which had been developed based on the grid of a castrum. The center of Santa Fe still has its plaza and three of its four original gates (one has been rebuilt). Santa Fe, Granada. Camp 1483, 1491 Colonial America—Leyes de Indias Briviesca, although relocated probably twice, maintains its plaza and grid. Briviesca, Burgos. Roman Virovesca, Hispania, pre-AD 77 Colonial America—Leyes de Indias Originally founded at Mayabeque on the southern coast of Cuba in 1514 and then moved to La Chorrera east of the Río Almendares between 1514 and 1519, La Habana was finally settled at its present location on the harbor five centuries ago. Its original founders were Diego Velázquez de Cuellar and Pánfilo de Narváez. Villa de San Cristóbal de La Habana Colonial America—Leyes de Indias La Habana Vieja (Old Havana) has four main historical plazas—Plaza de Armas, Plaza de San Francisco, Plaza Vieja, and Plaza de la Catedral. Old Havana and its extensive network of fortifications is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Villa de San Cristóbal de La Habana Colonial America—Leyes de Indias The Plaza de Armas (arms) was the seat of government. Villa de San Cristóbal de La Habana, Plaza de Armas Colonial America—Leyes de Indias To this day, the Plaza de la Catedral is the religious center of the city. The pavement was designed by the French landscape architect Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier in the early twentieth century. Villa de San Cristóbal de La Habana, Plaza de la Catedral Colonial America—Leyes de Indias La Plaza Vieja (old) was the center of popular Cuban architecture. Villa de San Cristóbal de La Habana, Plaza Vieja Colonial America—San Agustín San Agustín (Saint Augustine) was founded by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés in 1565, as an outpost to protect the Spanish fleet in its voyage back to Spain from La Habana. It was sited between the Matanzas and San Sebastián rivers across an inlet. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement within the continental United States. It served as capital of Spanish La Florida till 1763, British East Florida from 1763 to 1783, again of La Florida from 1784 to 1819, and United States Florida Territory from 1821 to 1824, when the Tallahassee became the seat. Numerous Civil Rights Movement protests, including the involvement of Martin Luther King Jr., at Saint Agustine in 1963 and 1964 were crucial for the congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965. Colonial America—San Agustín Located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay, the Castillo de San Marcos (castle), was erected out of coquina (broken-shell limestone, named for resemblance to small, bivalve marine mollusk, Donax trunculus) from 1672 to 1695, but later renovated. Although attacked numerous times and sieged twice during colonial times by the governors of Carolina, James Moore, and Georgia, James Oglethorpe, it was never militarily taken. A National Monument, it is the largest and oldest masonry fort in the continental United States. Castillo de San Marcos Colonial America—San Agustín For the four hundredth anniversary of its founding, Saint Augustine and the State of Florida started a historic preservation program of the colonial city. Some thirty buildings were reconstructed. In 1997, the city assumed control and in 2010 control was transferred to the University of Florida Historic Saint Augustine. Over the years, the historic center has at times managed to avoid a museum ambience, while preserving its vital historic integrity. Saint George Street Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg Williamsburg was founded in 1632 as a fortified settlement named Middle Plantation between the James and York rivers. The city served as the capital of the Colony and Commonwealth of Virginia from 1699 to 1780. Its layout is aligned on two axes—north-south and east-west. To the north is the palace of the Governor. On the east is the capitol. And on the west is the College of William and Mary. Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg Colonial Williamsburg is a United States National Historic Landmark that includes edifices from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries, the Colonial Revival, and recent reconstructions. John and Abby Rockefeller were restoration patrons. The focal Governor’s Palace is fronted by a wide and long, tree-lined green that meets the Duke of Gloucester Street at right angles. Governor’s Palace, 1698, 1721, 1930s restoration Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg The palace was built from 1706 to 1722, but the main house burned down in 1781, to be reconstructed in the 1930s. The gardens were initially laid out by Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood. Governor’s Palace, gardens Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg The capitol accommodated the House of Burgesses from 1705, when the capital was moved from Jamestown to Williamsburg, until 1779, when the capital was relocated to Richmond. A first building was used until it burned in 1747, while a second building was used from 1753 to 1779. The earlier version of the building was the one reconstructed in the 1930s. Fay Sturtevant Lincoln, mid-XX century. Capitol Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg The Raleigh Tavern, named after Walter Raleigh, was frequented by Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry to develop intercolonial correspondence committees. The marquis de Lafayette was entertained in the Apollo Room of the tavern in 1824. It now serves as a museum that depicts the original tavern. Duke of Gloucester Street, Raleigh Tavern, pre-1735 to 1859, 1930–1931 reconstruction Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg The College of William and Mary, second oldest institution of higher education in the United States, after Harvard University, was established in 1693. It is sited at the western end of Duke of Gloucester Street, on axis with the State House at the eastern terminus. College of William and Mary Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg The Wren Building is the oldest extant college or university edifice in the United States. It is a National Historic Landmark dating to 1695. After several fires and reconstructions, it was the first historic preservation effort in Colonial Williamsburg during the 1920s. The building was named after the British architect, since it was putatively “modeled by Christopher Wren.” College of William and Mary, Wren Building Colonial America—Colonial Williamsburg The central Sunken Gardens are located just west of the Wren Building. They were first designed by college architect Charles Robinson and college president Julian Alvin Carroll Chandler from 1919 to 1923, supposedly based on works by the architect Christopher Wren. Landscape architect Charles F. Gillette completed the gardens between 1935 and 1936. College of William and Mary, Sunken Gardens Colonial America—Savannah Two centuries after the implementation of the Leyes de Indias principles in the New World, rationalist layouts were planned in the British colonies by Thomas Holme for Philadelphia at the request of William Penn in 1683 and by James Oglethorpe for Savannah in 1733. Savannah, Georgia Colonial America—Savannah Sited on the south bank of the Savannah River near the Atlantic coast by governorgeneral Oglethorpe, the city is organized along a central highway flanked by four wards, or neighborhoods, each embracing a square. The highway provided the spine for the modular growth of the city for 120 years. Peter Gordon, 1734, View of the Town of Savannah Colonial America—Savannah According to John W, Reps in The Making of Urban America, the cellular unit of a square with twelve blocks around it “provided not only an unusually attractive, convenient and intimate environment but also served as a practical device for allowing urban expansion without formless sprawl.” Each of the original four wards had a square that was surrounded by four tythings, or residential blocks, of ten lots each, and four trust, or civic, blocks. Once these were developed, additional wards were added. Plan of ward (left). Moss Engineering Company, 1818. Plan of the City & Harbour of Savannah Colonial America—Savannah In the eighteenth and nineteenth more squares were developed for a total of twenty-four squares by 1851. But in the twentieth century three squares were razed or altered. However, Ellis Square was reclaimed in 2010. Most of the squares in Savannah commemorate persons or historical events. The original Oglethorpe plan included a regional plan that encompassed gardens, farms, and villages. Although it allowed for growth, the original town-and-country balance eventually diminished, as wards were added. Savannah, Chippewa Square, statue of James Edward Oglethorpe Colonial America—transformations The engineer Luis Iboleón Bosque was the urban planner for El Carmelo and El Vedado in Havana. The rationalist urban plan consisted mostly of 100-by-100-meter city blocks (in a few cases narrowed to 80 meters or widened to 120 meters), neighborhood parks, as well as shady boulevards. In response to the climate, the traditional colonial urban grid was angled to catch the vientos alisios, or trade winds, that blow from the northeast in the morning and the prevailing breeze that blows from the southeast in the afternoon. House gardens were obligatory. La Habana. El Vedado Further study Edmund N.Bacon Design of Cities 216–221 Norman Newton Design on the Land 246–266 Elizabeth Barlow Rogers Landscape Design 221–231 Paul Zucker Town and Square 237–255 Perú. Machu Picchu References urban design Edmund N. Bacon Design of Cities Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1974 landscape art John Beardsley Earthworks and Beyond: Contemporary Art in the Landscape New York, NY: Abbeville Press, 1984 Versailles Robert W. Berger In the Garden of the Sun King: Studies on the Park of Versailles under Louis XIV Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Italian gardens David R. 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