Chapter 3 Statement of Research Problem Research has shown that in order to maintain a healthy life style it’s critical to incorporate a daily routine of 1 hour of exercise 3-4 times a week (at the minimum). There is plenty of research on how to exercise and how it helps lose weight, sleep better, lower depression, and other benefits, but there's very little research on what part of the day is the most effective time to exercise. Statement of the Research Question What time of the day is the most effective and efficient time to exercise, and does exercising in the morning have a greater benefit then the afternoon or evening? Hypothesis Exercising in the morning is the most efficient workout and has the most benefit to your health, happiness, and overall quality of life. . Running Head: ARTICLE ANALYSIS 1 Article analysis Name: Daniel Wysocki Course: Research Design Date : 11 November 2020 2 ARTICLE ANALYSIS Article reviews for qualitative Article 1 The first article is by Peesker et al. (2019), who uses a qualitative method to study the behavior of leaders and how they assist in changing the performance of salespeople. From the literature review that the researcher completed in the literature of sales management, they found that the application of the right leadership approaches plays an essential role in the improvement of the performance of the sales team. For the leadership practices that are followed, they are responsible for bringing about a stable relationship with the sales team, which assists in increasing the volume of sales that they make. The questions that were used in this study aimed at gaining an insight into the role of leaders in creating changes in the organization. Among the questions used include; What sales leader behaviors are perceived to enable salesperson performance? The hypothesis of this study was that the application of the right leadership approaches in an organization assists in the increase of the volume of sales that the sales team makes. When collecting data, the researchers focused on the assessment of the feedback that the respondents gave regarding the presented research questions. The method is described well enough for one to understand. In this study, the subjects were selected at random while the settings were evaluated based on the environment that they would offer on the completion of the intended research. After the data was collected, the researchers relied on the use of an NVivo software that would assist them in analyzing the data as well as interpretation what was contained in the data. The software was an influential tool that had the right decoding approach of the data that was collected. Under this, the transcript statements were coded in practices that represented the behavior of the leader. From the collected information, the researchers were able 3 ARTICLE ANALYSIS to conclude that the sales leaders have a critical contribution to the success of their teams. The integration of the right measures of leadership and practices makes it easy for the teams to succeed. The limitations that were experienced in this study include the pressure that both the leaders and salespeople experienced from their areas of work. Article 2 4 ARTICLE ANALYSIS The study by Chatthong, Khemthong & Wongsawat (2020) followed a quantitative approach to collect the data that would facilitate decision making in the study. The use of literature review assisted the researchers in finding the right findings. From the literature review, the working memory in children is directly influenced by a number of things such as the skills sustaining protocols and working memory. For the research question that was used, the researcher wanted to evaluate the areas that may be directly affected by the condition that the patient experiences. Does social-emotional learning have an influence on patients with ADHD? For the hypothesis that was followed; the use of social emotions learning may directly affect the children who have ADHD. The selection of the settings and the subject was made by analyzing the participants with the desired characteristics as well as the area that would provide the needed working culture. When collecting data, the methods that were used include the assessment of the correlation between the expected outcome and the measures that were used. After the data was collected the data analysis was completed by the use of a power spectra analysis (PSA). In addition to this, the researcher used SPSS that assisted in analyzing the collected data. Brain mapping performance was the measure that was used in grouping the data. The completed study shows that the use of the innovative design model may assist people with ADHD overcome it. There was an increase in the T5 among the participants with ADHD. For the limitations that were experienced in this study, the attitude that some parents had in giving their children to participate as subjects in the study made it challenging for the collection of the main requirements. 5 ARTICLE ANALYSIS References Chatthong, W., Khemthong, S., & Wongsawat, Y. (2020). A Design Thinking Model Based on Quantitative Electroencephalography in Social Emotional Learning for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Mind, Brain, and Education. Peesker, K. M., Ryals, L. J., Rich, G. A., & Boehnke, S. E. (2019). A qualitative study of leader behaviours perceived to enable salesperson performance. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 39(4), 319-333. Running Head: ARTICLE ANALYSIS 1 Article analysis Name: Daniel Wysocki Course: Research Design Date : 11 November 2020 2 ARTICLE ANALYSIS Article reviews for qualitative Article 1 The first article is by Peesker et al. (2019), who uses a qualitative method to study the behavior of leaders and how they assist in changing the performance of salespeople. From the literature review that the researcher completed in the literature of sales management, they found that the application of the right leadership approaches plays an essential role in the improvement of the performance of the sales team. For the leadership practices that are followed, they are responsible for bringing about a stable relationship with the sales team, which assists in increasing the volume of sales that they make. The questions that were used in this study aimed at gaining an insight into the role of leaders in creating changes in the organization. Among the questions used include; What sales leader behaviors are perceived to enable salesperson performance? The hypothesis of this study was that the application of the right leadership approaches in an organization assists in the increase of the volume of sales that the sales team makes. When collecting data, the researchers focused on the assessment of the feedback that the respondents gave regarding the presented research questions. The method is described well enough for one to understand. In this study, the subjects were selected at random while the settings were evaluated based on the environment that they would offer on the completion of the intended research. After the data was collected, the researchers relied on the use of an NVivo software that would assist them in analyzing the data as well as interpretation what was contained in the data. The software was an influential tool that had the right decoding approach of the data that was collected. Under this, the transcript statements were coded in practices that represented the behavior of the leader. From the collected information, the researchers were able 3 ARTICLE ANALYSIS to conclude that the sales leaders have a critical contribution to the success of their teams. The integration of the right measures of leadership and practices makes it easy for the teams to succeed. The limitations that were experienced in this study include the pressure that both the leaders and salespeople experienced from their areas of work. Article 2 4 ARTICLE ANALYSIS The study by Chatthong, Khemthong & Wongsawat (2020) followed a quantitative approach to collect the data that would facilitate decision making in the study. The use of literature review assisted the researchers in finding the right findings. From the literature review, the working memory in children is directly influenced by a number of things such as the skills sustaining protocols and working memory. For the research question that was used, the researcher wanted to evaluate the areas that may be directly affected by the condition that the patient experiences. Does social-emotional learning have an influence on patients with ADHD? For the hypothesis that was followed; the use of social emotions learning may directly affect the children who have ADHD. The selection of the settings and the subject was made by analyzing the participants with the desired characteristics as well as the area that would provide the needed working culture. When collecting data, the methods that were used include the assessment of the correlation between the expected outcome and the measures that were used. After the data was collected the data analysis was completed by the use of a power spectra analysis (PSA). In addition to this, the researcher used SPSS that assisted in analyzing the collected data. Brain mapping performance was the measure that was used in grouping the data. The completed study shows that the use of the innovative design model may assist people with ADHD overcome it. There was an increase in the T5 among the participants with ADHD. For the limitations that were experienced in this study, the attitude that some parents had in giving their children to participate as subjects in the study made it challenging for the collection of the main requirements. 5 ARTICLE ANALYSIS References Chatthong, W., Khemthong, S., & Wongsawat, Y. (2020). A Design Thinking Model Based on Quantitative Electroencephalography in Social Emotional Learning for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Mind, Brain, and Education. Peesker, K. M., Ryals, L. J., Rich, G. A., & Boehnke, S. E. (2019). A qualitative study of leader behaviours perceived to enable salesperson performance. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 39(4), 319-333. Running head: ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER The Effect of Ability Grouping on Third Grade Boys’ and Girls’ Reading Achievement Anonymous Columbia College 1 ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 2 Chapter 1 The Effect of Ability Grouping on Third Grade Boys’ and Girls’ Reading Achievement Introduction Education systems often struggle with the question of how to meet the academic needs of all students because every student does not learn in the same way or at the same pace. Diversity, in terms of achievement, cognitive skills, maturity, languages spoken, and student backgrounds, continues to increase so ability grouping has emerged as one of the instructional responses to this diversity (Nomi, 2010). Ability grouping has been a commonly turned to, attractive instructional strategy in American elementary schools, because it is seen as a way to meet the needs of all learners, including high, average, and low-achieving students through instructional differentiation. Ability grouping is used as early as kindergarten (Catsambis, Mulkey, Buttaro, Steelman, & Koch, 2012). However, in order to meet these needs adequately, educators must understand how ability grouping, as an instructional strategy, effects all students. Ability grouping is a highly debated strategy, though it is often used in classrooms without a second thought. Some proponents claim that ability grouping creates high achievement for all, while opponents claim it increases academic and social inequalities that are already present in school systems. Previous research has explored the effects of various types of ability grouping on different populations of students, but the results are inconclusive. The inconclusiveness and controversy around ability grouping exists because of the process of assigning students to groups and the amount of learning that takes place within each group. Past research indicates that students’ placement into ability groups is determined by past achievement, but not solely. ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER Placement is affected by a student’s demographic characteristics such as race, socioeconomic statues, gender, or behavior, which is related to the amount of learning that occurs in a group (Catsambis et al., 2012). A majority of past studies have examined race and socioeconomic status, while fewer have examined the relationship between gender and ability grouping. 3 ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 4 Chapter 2 Literature Review Grouping students by achievement is not a new concept in American elementary schools, and ability grouping is continuing to gain popularity. In many classrooms, educators are turning to ability grouping because their classrooms are becoming increasingly diverse in terms of students’ learning needs and demographic characteristics. Ability grouping is thought to help organize instruction by adapting the pace and difficulty of content to match the needs of various groups of learners (Nomi, 2010). However, past studies have resulted in positive and negative effects of ability grouping on student learning. This literature review attempts to provide a synopsis of the research findings in order to justify the need for this proposed study. Ability grouping is the grouping of students homogeneously in small groups according to their ability or skill levels (Condron, 2008). According to Condron, if ability grouping works as it is supposed to, all students benefit from receiving group-based instruction at their pace and difficulty level instead of full-class instruction. Different names for ability grouping, such as tracking and skill grouping, and different types of ability grouping, depending on the level of the grouping, exist as well. There are also two main types of ability grouping: within-class ability grouping and school-wide cluster grouping. School-wide cluster grouping involves assigning students between classrooms based on their previous academic achievement and skills (Matthews, Ritchote, & McBee, 2013). Alternatively, within-class ability grouping involves grouping students within individual classrooms based on ability, interest, or other factors as determined by the classroom teacher. Within-class ability grouping’s usage is especially common for reading and literacy instruction, and is more commonly used by teachers in rural schools Chorzempa and Graham (2006). According to Chorzempa & Graham, for reading, ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 5 within-class ability grouping involves organizing students into homogenous small reading groups based on their reading level. This reading level can be determined through informal reading assessments, standardized assessments, and/or a classroom teacher’s decision. Matthews, Ritchotte, and McBee (2013) examined within-class ability grouping and school-wide cluster grouping by conducting a quantitative study to determine the effects of these two grouping techniques on the reading and math achievement of gifted and typical 3-6 grade students. Their research study used an ex post facto design and took place over three years and sought to determine if school-wide cluster grouping produced more academic gains in gifted and typical elementary students than within-class ability grouping. The setting of the study was a dual-language immersion charter school in the United States. Participants consisted of 68 students identified as gifted and 186 students not identified as gifted. During the first year of the study, 2008-2009, within-class grouping was used and served as the baseline. During 2009-2010, school-wide cluster grouping was implemented and compared to 2008-2009 data and 2010-2011 data, the year the school moved back to within-class ability grouping. To determine the effects of both types of ability grouping on the achievement of gifted and non-gifted students, researchers used students’ MAP (Northwest Evaluation Association Measures of Academic Progress) reading and math scores. Results of the analysis of the MAP scores were inconclusive as to whether or not schoolwide cluster grouping had any beneficial or damaging effect on reading achievement, which suggested the need for more studies to determine the positives and negatives to using ability grouping in reading instruction. There was a decrease in skill achievement in reading for nongifted students during 2009-2010, but it was minimal and almost disappeared by the end of the next school year. However, both gifted and typical students had a significant increase in ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 6 mathematics skills and achievement in the years following school-wide cluster grouping, but not in the year that school-wide cluster grouping was actually used (2009-2010). This study’s results along with the results of past studies indicated that the benefits of cluster ability grouping on student achievement may not be visible until after the first year of implementation. The authors suggested that given these results, grouping, either school-wide or within-class, could be an effective teaching strategy for improving mathematics scores in all students in grades 3-6, which is significant because of the weight being placed on standardized testing scores. Matthew et al. compared school-wide cluster grouping and within class ability grouping, but most studies solely explore within class ability grouping since it is the more common practice. Chorzempa and Graham (2006) conducted a study to examine teachers’ use of ability grouping in reading in primary-grade classrooms throughout the United States, which added to previous literature on the topic of ability grouping because it sought to determine teacher perceptions of ability grouping and the how the strategy is used in early elementary school. The researchers used random sampling from the Market Data Retrieval Registry to choose the participants for their study. Two hundred and twenty-two out of 494 first, second, and third grade teachers from private and public schools agreed to participate in the current study. Participant teachers completed a questionnaire that contained questions regarding their own (educational level, sex, years taught, etc.) and their students’ (class size, children’s achievement level, students’ races, etc.) demographic information. The questionnaire also provided insights about how each teacher structured their reading instruction, each teacher’s efficacy in teaching reading, and each teacher’s beliefs about within-class ability grouping. Factor analysis and reliability of scales was used to analyze the data and determine the results from the questionnaires. ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 7 The results of the study indicated that 63% of teachers surveyed used within-class ability grouping, which was a higher percentage than previous studies. Researchers indicated that ability grouping may have undergone enough transformation (less students in groups, more groups, and moving students within groups) so that it was becoming more useful and suitable to teachers, which was why its use had increased. The most frequent reason cited by teachers for using ability grouping was to meet all students’ instructional and social needs. One reason cited for not using ability grouping was that heterogeneous ability groups were better for students. In the past there has been concerns about what teachers teach to varying levels of grouped students, but this study indicated that teachers spent considerable time with all groups on reading comprehension, and areas like vocabulary and phonics. However, according to Chorzempa and Graham, the final result of the study created some areas of concern. Teachers reported that students in lower level ability groups did not answer as many higher-order comprehension questions, read more orally, did not have as much opportunity to select their own reading content, and spent more time on non-instructional activities compared to students in higher level reading groups. These results indicated that there was inequality in achievement between ability groups in reading because students’ achievement in higher level reading groups was favored over achievement in lower level reading groups. Nomi (2010) used two theoretical frameworks, organizational perspectives and abilitygroup selectivity, to explore how first grade reading ability grouping strategies and school contexts influence the students’ reading achievement. The organizational perspectives suggests that the larger school characteristics shape classroom practices, like ability grouping. Abilitygroup selectivity suggests that selective grouping places lower achieving students together when in unselective groups, they would be placed with higher achieving students too. School contexts ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 8 affect the use of ability grouping and its effect on student achievement. Nomi investigated the following research questions, which included if reading achievement differs between first graders who are grouped by ability and those who are not grouped and does the effects of ability grouping vary based on students’ initial characteristics and school characteristics. Nomi used propensity score methods to examine data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K), which is a nationally representative sample of 21,260 kindergarteners that began 1998 and continued to spring of 2000 (first grade for the kindergartners surveyed). The actual sample used for this study was 13,512 students. For ability group measures, the ECLS-K asked first grade teachers about the number of ability groups in their classroom and then in which group was the child placed. The ECLS-K also provided information about student and school demographic characteristics. Three types of schools existed: ability grouped schools, ungrouped schools, and mixed schools. School characteristics differed according a school’s grouping status. Results of this study highlighted the impact of school contexts in the effect and use of ability grouping. School characteristics and heterogeneous student compositions help explain why some school districts use ability grouping and others do not. The study found that in many schools ability grouping does not have a positive or negative impact on students’ reading achievement. However, in some cases, ability grouping’s effect on achievement varies depending the school context. This study indicated that schools with homogenous ability compositions, usually small and private schools attended by students of high socioeconomic status (SES), Caucasian, and high initial cognitive skills, displayed positive effects as a result of ability grouping, but these types of schools do not use ability grouping as often. Alternatively, ability grouping did not improve reading achievement in schools that had students from underprivileged ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 9 backgrounds, which included a high number of minority students, larger class sizes, students with more initial cognitive differences, and lower SES. Nomi suggested that the key to understanding the effects of ability grouping on student achievement, is examining the characteristics of the school and how teachers use ability grouping in individual classrooms within the larger school context because ability grouping is always practiced differently. Nomi wanted to understand how school context affected ability grouping, but Condron had different research purposes. Condron wanted to understand how grouped (by skill level) and nongrouped students’ reading achievement compared, and if skill grouping intensified inequality in student achievement. Condron added to the existing literature on ability grouping because previous literature is lacking significant data comparing students who are skill grouping to ungrouped students because grouping is such a widespread practice in elementary schools. Condron (2008) used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), which provided information about a nationally representative sample of students who entered kindergarten in the fall of 1998. The ECLS-K also collected information on these same 13,698 students in first and third grade. Within the ECLS-K, Item Response Theory (IRT) was used to measure reading skills in first and third grade. Condron coded processes of skill grouping by asking the students’ teachers about what reading group the student was in, and the total number of reading groups that teacher had. The ECLS-K also measured students’ socioeconomic status (SES), numerous demographic characteristics, disability information, and data about his or her school and teacher. Condron conducted this quantitative study to compare the reading achievement of grouped students (low, middle, and high level) with nongrouped students. Condron hypothesized that within-class grouping would intensify the inequality in reading achievement between ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 10 students because students placed in high-achieving skill groups would learn more and students placed in low-achieving skill groups would learn less than nongrouped students with similar skill levels. He used logistic regression, hierarchal modeling, and propensity score matching techniques to analyze the data and determine the results. The results of the study indicated that skill grouping increased learning among highgrouped students, but decreased learning among low-grouped students when compared to the learning that would have taken place without any skill grouping. Thus, grouping students increases the inequality in reading achievement among grouped students. Cordon advocated that these results are significant because closing achievement gaps is a targeted issue in education. This study indicated that an answer to the problem of achievement gaps could be no longer grouping students by skill, even though skill grouping was found to offer advantages to highachieving students. Another significant result of this study found that certain populations of students were more likely to be placed into certain grouping levels. Lower SES, black and Hispanic, male, and students from non-traditional family structures were placed into lower-level reading groups. This hinders students from these demographic categories because it is more difficult for them to catch up to their peers in terms of reading achievement. This again suggests that skill grouping can positively benefit some students at the expense of other students. A limitation of this study, though its sample was nationally representative and large, was that it only analyzed withinclassroom reading skill grouping among first and third graders so the findings cannot be generalized to any other populations of students with differing levels stage in schooling, or to other subjects. ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 11 Lleras (2006) was also concerned with the racial and socioeconomic achievement gaps that exist in elementary and secondary schools. Ability grouping is seen as a key component in creating this inequality and less opportunities to learn for certain students. Lleras investigated educational inequality, more specifically racial differences in school achievement, which is influenced by ability group placements, the impact of that placement on achievement in later grade levels. To do this, Lleras examined the following research questions, which included are Hispanic and African American students more likely to be placed in lower reading groups in kindergarten, first, and third grade, is a student more likely to be placed in a lower reading group because of previous lower group placement, and by the end of third grade, are students in lower reading groups more likely to have worse behavior, lower perceptions of their reading skills, and lower reading achievement. This study’s data was taken from the base year (kindergarten), and first and second follow-up surveys of the Early Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K), which is a nationally representative sample of 22,000 kindergartners, who started school in 1998. The sample used for this study included 8,377 Hispanic, African American, and Caucasian students, who were in classes that use ability grouping and do not use ability grouping. Measures were used to gain information about ability group usage, ability group placement, reading achievement, student behavior, students’ perceptions of their own reading skills and interests, and student characteristics. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the data taken from these measures. Results of the study indicated that African American and Hispanic student were more likely than Caucasian students to be placed in lower reading groups in kindergarten for reading instruction. This was the case even when the researcher controlled for teacher ratings and ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 12 previous reading skills. This gap lessoned in first grade, when the researcher controlled for prior placement, achievement, and behavior, but reemerged in third grade. The researcher found that students’ placement in lower ability groups in the first year of school, increased their chance of being placed in lower reading groups in the following years of schooling, despite their achievement and behavior. Hispanic and African American students were more likely to be placed in lower achieving groups in kindergarten, thus they have more likelihood of being placed in lower reading groups in first and third grade. Finally, the results indicated that students placed in higher reading groups in third grade, had higher perceptions of their reading skills and have an increased interest in reading. This perception was taken regardless of previous reading achievement and classroom behavior. Lleras suggested that this study’s results indicated that students’ lower reading group placement negatively impacts students’ behavior and achievement in elementary school, and this problem is even more prevalent in African American and Hispanic students as they are more likely than white students to be placed in lower ability groups in kindergarten. Finally, Catsambis, Mulkey, Buttaro, Steelman, and Koch (2013) conducted a quantitative study to examine gender differences and inequality in reading ability group assignment in 5,178 kindergartners in the United States. Research has consistently found that girls tend to be placed in higher reading groups, but the reasons behind these placements are not conclusive. Catsambis et al. add to the existing literature about gender and ability grouping by researching each gender’s accessibility to different levels of reading ability groups in kindergarten because this grade level sets the stage for future learning experiences and there are national concerns over boys’ literary achievement. ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 13 Catsambis et al. investigated the following research questions, which included if boys and girls are equally likely to be assigned to all levels or reading groups, and if not, what gender differences are present in the various ability groups, and do teachers’ evaluations of boys’ and girls’ reading abilities and their classroom actions influence differences in reading group placement even if test scores were similar. They used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), which is a national data set that included information about 5,178 American kindergartners’ skills, educational backgrounds, and demographic characteristics in 1998. Catsambis et al. also controlled for student demographic features, used reading test scores, teacher evaluation of students’ reading abilities and classroom behaviors while in reading groups. To analyze the data and determine the results, the researchers used multinomial logistic regression and univariate and bivariate statistics. The results of the study indicated that almost two-thirds of students experienced some level of ability grouping in reading during kindergarten. Further, the results highlighted discrepancies in the number of boys and girls in the high and low level reading groups, but there was an equal percentage of each gender in the average level reading groups. Catsambis et al. found that 39.4% of girls, compared to 31% of boys were part of high level reading groups. Alternatively, 29.1% of boys, compared to 21% of girls were part of the lower level reading groups. These results suggest that boys had less achievement and learning opportunities in reading due to their group placement. Differences between girls and boys also occurred in teacher evaluations of reading abilities and student’s behavior in reading groups. Students in low reading groups, especially boys, were rated by their teachers as having less positive learning behaviors. Lastly, Catsambis et al. suggested that when students’ test scores are not as high, teachers may have resorted to ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 14 gender stereotypes in their evaluations about students’ abilities, which could affect the gender differences in reading group placements. So the results indicated that teacher evaluations could contain gender stereotypes, but further research was suggested to gain additional information. The researchers also recommended that since boys were overrepresented in low reading groups, it would be valuable to increase policies that could help parents and preschool programs with their students’ reading practices so that boys are more prepared for kindergarten and the rest of their schooling. Summary Research shows that ability grouping is a widely used instructional strategy in elementary schools, especially for reading instruction. According to one study, within-class ability grouping was use by 63% of teachers surveyed. Ability grouping is expected to increase students’ learning because students receive instruction and material that is more conducive to their pace and difficulty level. However, ability grouping is a highly debated strategy, though it is often used. Controversy surrounds this practice because of the way students are assigned to ability groups and its mixed effects on student achievement. Proponents argue that it is a way to meet the needs of all students, vary instruction, and increase student achievement. Alternatively, opponents argue that it decreases learning and motivation, especially in lower-achieving students, and it increases achievement gaps. Research shows that a main concern of ability grouping is the effect it has on achievement gaps. Many studies have found that students in high ability groups tend to learn more than those in low ability groups, as a result of within-class ability grouping. Discrepancies in achievement were also found, as a result of within-class ability grouping placement and achievement, when examining students’ demographic characteristics. Differences in achievement ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER have been found when comparing socioeconomic status, racial/ethnic background, and even gender. 15 ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 16 Chapter 3 Statement of Research Problem Within-class ability grouping, especially in reading, is a common practice in most American elementary schools. Ability grouping is an attractive strategy because it is seen as a way to differentiate instruction to meet the academic needs of varying levels of students within a single classroom. However, previous research is inconclusive about the effects, both positive and negative, of within-class ability grouping on elementary-aged students’ reading achievement. One of the main concerns of ability grouping is that it increases inequality among students through the way students are placed into different ability groups and through the amount of learning that occurs within the groups. Ability grouping can cause the achievement gaps to widen. The lower achievement levels are usually occupied by students who are a racial minority or from a family of low socioeconomic status. However, a student’s gender is another demographic area, of limited research, where achievement gaps as a result of ability grouping. This is problematic because, according to previous research, males are already underachieving in reading when compared to females. Statement of Research Question Do male or female students show statistically significant higher levels of reading comprehension when included in a class that uses within-class ability grouping? Hypothesis Female students will show statistically significant higher reading comprehension scores than male students, when included in a class that uses within-class ability grouping. ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 17 Methods Participants For the purpose of this study, the researcher will use students in third grade classrooms from rural school districts in Northeast Missouri that utilize within-class ability grouping for reading instruction. School districts examined in this study will be public, from Pike, Audrain, Monroe, and Ralls, Marion, Knox, Macon, Knox, Lewis, Adair, Scotland, and Clark counties, have below 600 kindergarten-twelfth grade enrollment, and have at least 40% of students qualified for free and reduced lunch. The school district that meet these requirements include: Pike Co. R-III, Boncl R-X, Louisiana R-III, Community R-VI, Van-Far R-1, Holliday C-2, Madison C-3, Middle Grove C-1, Paris R-II, Marion Co. R-II, Knox Co. R-1, Scotland Co. R-1, Gorin R-III, Lewis Co. C-1, Canton R-V, La Plata R-II, Bevier C-4, Atlanta C-3, Callao C-8, Macon Co. R-VI, Luray 33, Adair Co. R-1, and Adair Co. R-II (Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, 2015). The socioeconomic status of students is considered lower or lower-middle class, and students are predominately Caucasian. Instruments Questionnaires will be issued to third grade classroom teachers at the above schools to identify if they utilize ability grouping during reading instruction, how many ability groups they have in their classroom, which ability group each student is placed in, and demographic information (including gender) about their students and school. Each student’s reading comprehension will be measured through the Measures of Academic Progress (MAP). The MAP assessment is a computer adaptive, standardized test that assesses achievement in reading, language usage, and mathematics (Northwest Evaluations Association, 2015). The reading ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 18 portion of the MAP assessment measures students’ reading comprehension and ability to use vocabulary to increase comprehension (National Assessment Governing Board, 2012). Procedures This study will take place across an entire school year. To begin this study, parents of all students in the third grade classrooms will be informed about the purpose of the study, the role of their child in the research process, and why their participation is needed through emails. Parents will also be given a consent form to sign and return to the researcher before their student will be able to participate in the study. Classroom teachers will complete the questionnaires in August. This information will then be used to determine how each boy and girl falls in ability group placement (are they in high, average, or low achieving groups). Teachers will also receive a brief training (a total of 8 hours) on MAP test administration prior to the beginning of the school year to increase consistency in its results. The Northwest Evaluation Association recommends using this test 3-4 times a year with fall, winter, spring, and summer intervals. For the purpose of this study, the reading portion of the MAP assessment will be given three times during the school year, at the end of September, end of December, and end of March, which are equally spaced apart. The scores of this assessment will be compared by gender and by ability group placement. Students’ reading MAP scores from second grade will also be used as comparison data. Data Analysis A bivariate t-test will be use to examine the data gathered from the questionnaire. The ttest was chosen because it can assess whether or not the two independent populations (boys and girls) have different mean values on some measures from the questionnaire. The null hypothesis assumes that there is no statistical difference between boys’ and girls’ reading comprehension ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 19 MAP scores so a t-test can evaluate this null hypothesis. A linear growth model can be used to fit the reading MAP score outcomes for students’ score at the end of grade 2 and at all three testing points in grade 3. This linear model will make comparisons easier between boys’ and girls’ test scores. ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER 20 References Catsambis, S. S., Mulkey, L. M., Buttaro, A., Steelman, L. C., & Koch, P. R. (2012). Examining gender differences in ability group placement at the onset of schooling: The role of skills, behaviors, and teacher evaluations. Journal Of Educational Research, 105(1), 8-20. Chorzempa, B. F., & Graham, S. (2006). Primary-grade teachers' use of within-class ability grouping in reading. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 529-541. Condron, D. J. (2008). An early start: Skill grouping and unequal reading gains in the elementary years. The Sociological Quarterly, 49(2), 363-394. Lleras, C. (2006). Looking for roots of educational inequality: The role of ability grouping practices in elementary school. American Sociological Association, (2)1, 1-20. Matthews, M.S., Ritchotte, J. A., & McBee, M. T. (2013). Effects of schoolwide cluster grouping and within-class ability grouping on elementary school students’ academic achievement growth. High Ability Studies, 24(2), 81-97. Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (2015). District demographic data. Retrieved July 9, 2015 from http://mcds.dese.mo.gov/quickfacts/Pages/District-andSchool-Information.aspx National Assessment Governing Board. (2012). Reading framework for the 2013 National Assessment of Educational Progress. Retrieved July 9, 2015 from http://www.nagb.org/content/nagb/assets/documents/publications/frameworks/reading/20 13-reading-framework.pdf Nomi, T. (2010). The effects of within-class ability grouping on academic achievement in early elementary years. Journal Of Research On Educational Effectiveness, 3(1), 56-92. ABILITY GROUPING AND GENDER Northwest Evaluation Association. (2015). Measure student progress with MAP. Retrieved July 9, 2015 from https://www.nwea.org/assessments/map/ 21
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