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Management and Organizational Behavior Management and Organizational Behavior Quandre L. Berryman MGMT 3000 Berryman 1 Management and Organizational Behavior Berryman Abstract Management and Organizational Behavior have been a corner stone to mankind from the beginning of time. Understanding and utilizing management skills along with organizational behavior have help big name companies, militaries, and small locally ran businesses. This paper will cover many of the important tool, outlooks, and thought processes in organizational behavior and management. 2 Management and Organizational Behavior Berryman 3 Perceptions are an important part of organizational behavior. Almost without exception an integral part of organizations are their ability to recognize individual differences and promote an objective and unbiased environment. Integral within the organizational environment is interviews, performance development reviews, staff ratings and the making of important decisions based on interpretation of issues and behaviors. All of these activities generally undertaken by management have an inherent perceptive component involved. Robbins, Millet, Cacioppe and Marsh (5) (2001) define perception as the way individuals process their respective sensory impressions in order to define their environment. In an organizational sense, Robbins and colleagues (2001) identified selective perception, stereotyping, contrast effect, projection and the halo effect, as five frequently used shortcuts, used by managers, to judge others. Because perceiving and interpreting others is a rather tiresome task shortcuts are employed to assist with the process. These shortcut techniques can be valuable in the sense that they allow perceptions to be made quickly, it is not without problems. Two of these shortcuts, projection and the halo effect, will be examined to see the possible implications they have, when used by managers. Projection occurs when a person unknowingly attributes his own instinctual impulses or threats of his own conscience to other people or to the external world. It is then easier to deal with an anxiety that arises from these internal impulses and threats. All of us have undesirable traits or qualities that we do not acknowledge even to ourselves and projection helps us deal with this. Projection originated from the writings of the famous psychological theorist Sigmund Freud. Freud postulated that projection was one Management and Organizational Behavior Berryman 4 of the important defense mechanisms within human beings used to cope with anxieties. Freud maintained that all defense mechanisms have two characteristics in common. One is that they deny falsify or distort reality and secondly they operate unconsciously so that the person is not aware of what is taking place. (Hall, 1954) (2) Projection allows individuals to protect themselves from recognizing their own undesirable qualities by assigning them in exaggerated amounts to other people or in the case of managers, to subordinates or other work colleagues. Similarly, we also have positive traits, which we like in ourselves, which can also be projected. An example of this is a manager attributing future success to an interview applicant due to his or her resume indicating particular attention to spelling, presentation and neatness. (Tosi, Mero & Rizzo, 2000) (6) In this case the manager sees a resume reflecting qualities that the manager believes he or she possesses and extrapolates that to the applicant achieving similar heights within the organization as the manager has achieved. Another example of projection in organizational behavior is the manager who assumes that the needs of subordinates are the same as his or her own. The manager may enjoy responsibility and achievement in the work place but have subordinates whose work is viewed by the manager as dull and routine. There may be a strong desire in this case for the manager to redesign these jobs and help the subordinates achieve higherlevel satisfactions in order that they experience things that the manager personally values in work. This may be viewed as detrimental because, with the manager projecting his or her needs on the subordinates, individual differences evaporate. Individual differences are important in maintaining a competent and harmonious work force. In this example the Management and Organizational Behavior Berryman 5 subordinates may be perfectly happy and satisfied doing jobs that the manager sees as dull and routine. Another shortcut used by managers that can result in significant distortions being made is the halo effect. The halo effect was a phenomenon first named in 1920 by Edward Lee Thorndike. (7) (1920) It was so named due to the perfection associated with angels. The term is described in Chaplin’s (1) (1975) dictionary of psychology as “the tendency to rate individuals either too high or too low on the basis of one outstanding trait. The halo effect is a characteristic defect in rating scales”. The outstanding trait referred to in this definition may be an individual’s hair color, attractiveness, body type or perhaps another non-visual attribute such as confidence or personality. Freitz Heider (3) (1958) claims that the halo effect occurs because individuals want impressions tied up in neat non-contradictory packages. He further purports that we like individuals and situations to be consistent, so much so, that we will distort information. In so doing we will ignore certain things or enhance our judgments to make them consistent. While this desire to maintain consistency is important, it interferes with objective and unbiased judgments being made; something that is critical in this age of equal opportunity and appointment to positions being made on merit. In an organizational context, managers selecting potential subordinates through an interview process can result in the manager making implicit predictors about future behavior based on a particular trait. Sometimes these predictors are erroneous. The first impressions may be distorted because of the focus on one particular characteristic that is especially likeable or dislikeable and managers can let this bias their perception of other aspects of the interviewee. This is problematic in the sense that managers need to know Management and Organizational Behavior Berryman 6 something about the individual’s honesty, ability to handle stress and other such important factors. This type of assessment of future employees needs to be objective and unbiased. The halo error, which is generally common to all ratings, is aptly highlighted in the situation where a manager is asked to rate a particular employee on a review where traits are marked. The manager rates the individual low on everything and when asked why by his CEO, states that he doesn’t like people with small mouths and this employee had a small mouth. A previous experience may have led the manager to associate small mouths with an undesirable kind of personality and this factor colors his or her experiences of individuals who had that incidental trait. Conversely a manager could view a subordinate as intelligent and responsible simply because they have a good attendance record at work with no sick leave taken. The halo effect can also be related to our own self-image. We may provide very positive evaluations to people who possess characteristics that we believe we have. As a manager, we may always be punctual for work and therefore be favorably disposed towards subordinates who are punctual but negatively disposed towards those who arrive late. (Tosi et al, 2000) Both projection and the halo effect are perceptual distortions that compromise the manager’s ability to respond to individual differences in the work place. Managers and executives depend on information received from their environment to make decisions. Good and competent decisions are in turn critical for the smooth running and profitability of an organization. (Milton, Entrekin & Stening, 1984) (4). Much of the information required for the optimal running of an organization is obtained through interpersonal Management and Organizational Behavior Berryman 7 relationships with superiors, subordinates and other individuals involved in interactions both outside and inside the work place. Perception is the process by which the manager or executive receives, organizes and interprets the information from this spectrum of sources. As the accuracy of the perception process increases or decreases, the quality of a manager’s decision-making and actions will be affected accordingly. As perception is a cognitive process, it is affected by a variety of situational variables as well as other factors. A manager who is aware of the influence of these factors influencing perception can recognize when they are contributing to inaccurate or biased perceptions of people or situations. There is no doubt that perception influences the way people make decisions. Limited cognitive abilities to receive and process information result most often in a behavioral style of decision-making. Only a limited number of action alternatives can thus be considered and the first satisfactory solution is made at perhaps the cost of the optimum one. The use of behavioral style decisionmaking reminds all managers that their perceptions must be especially accurate in order to ensure that good results are achieved. Shortcuts in perceiving and interpreting others with phenomenon such as the halo affect and projection, pose a threat to decision makers. A well-trained and informed manager can control each distortion, once recognized. Management and Organizational Behavior Berryman Work Cited (1) Chaplin, J.(1975). Dictionary of psychology. New York : Dell (2) Hall, C.S., (1954). A primer of Freudian psychology. New York : World (3) Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York : Wiley (4) Milton,C.R., Entrekin, L., & Stening, B.W.(1984).Organizational behaviour in Australia. Netley : Prentice Hall (5) Robbins,S.P.,Millett B., Cacioppe,R. & Waters-Marsh, T.(2001). Organizational behaviour. Frenchs Forest :Prentice Hall (6) Tosi, H.l.,Mero, N.P.,& Rizzo, J. R.(2000). Managing organizational behavior (4th ed.) Oxford : Blackwell (7) Thorndike, E.L. (1920). A Constant Error on Psychological Rating, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 4, 25-29 8
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Management and Organizational Behavior

Management and Organizational Behavior
Quandre L. Berryman
MGMT 3000

Berryman

1

Management and Organizational Behavior

Berryman

2

Abstract
Management and Organizational Behavior have been the basis of strong
foundation in the success of mankind from the start of time. Companies, militaries and
small businesses have been successful in the business environment as a result of efficient
managerial skills and effective organizational behavior. This paper will review various
management and organizational behavior tools, outlooks, and thought processes that are
essential in success of mankind.

Management and Organizational Behavior

Berryman

3

The effectiveness of organizational behavior depends on the knowledge and
awareness or perception of the existence of these behaviors among individuals. Although
organizational behaviors depend on awareness from individuals it is also important to
consider the differences between these individuals. For a favorable working environment
to be established, organizations should be in a position to understand individual
differences. This why organizations should include activities such as interviews,
performance development reviews and staff ratings so as to understand each person and
base decisions on the reviews. All activities are mostly directed by management where
each of the activity has intrinsic perceptive element involved. Robbins, Millet, Cacioppe
and Marsh (5) (2001) describe perception as the way people process their individual
sensory impressions in order to classify their surroundings.
In an organizational sense, Robbins and colleagues (2001) acknowledged
selective perception, stereotyping, contrast effect, projection and the halo effect, as the
most frequent utilized shortcuts by managers to judge others. Managers avoid the act of
perceiving and interpreting individuals as they find this a tedious task to work with and as
such end up using shortcuts to make their work easier. Shortcuts are preferred as they are
fast in delivering the required outcomes without any problems. To establish possible
repercussions resulting from ...


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