Working in Groups This page intentionally left blank Working in Groups Communication Principles and Strategies Seventh Edition Isa N. Engleberg Prince George’s Community College Dianna R. Wynn Nash Community College 330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013 VP, Product Development: Dickson Musslewhite Director, Content Strategy and Development: Sharon Geary Editor in Chief: Ashley Dodge Program Manager: Carly Czech Editorial Project Manager: Janet Wehner, iEnergizer Aptara®, Ltd. Development Editor: Karen Trost, iEngergizer Aptara®, Ltd. Instructional Designer: Rashida Patel, iEnergizer Aptara®, Ltd. Asset Development Team: LearningMate Solutions, Ltd. VP, Director of Marketing: Maggie Moylan Director, Project Management Services: Etain O’Dea Project Team Lead: Vamanan Namboodiri Project Manager: Nitin Shankar Director of Field Marketing: Jonathan Cottrell Senior Marketing Coordinator: Susan Osterlitz Operations Manager: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Mary Ann Gloriande Associate Director of Design: Blair Brown Interior Design: Kathryn Foot Cover Design: Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Cover Art: Photocreo Bednarek/Fotolia Digital Studio Project Manager: Elissa Senra-Sargent Digital Studio Team Lead: Peggy Bliss Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Manas Roy, iEnergizer Aptara®, Ltd. Printer/Binder: Courier/Kendallville Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Acknowledgements of third party content appear 274–275 which constitutes an extension of this copyright page. Copyright © 2017, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions. PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING, and REVEL are exclusive trademarks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, in the U.S. and/or other countries. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Engleberg, Isa N., author. | Wynn, Dianna, author. Title: Working in groups: communication principles and strategies / Isa N. Engleberg, Prince George’s Community College, Dianna R. Wynn, Nash Community College. Description: Seventh edition. | Boston : Pearson Education, Inc., [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016009869| ISBN 9780134415529 | ISBN 0134415523 Subjects: LCSH: Group relations training. | Small groups. | Communication in small groups. Classification: LCC HM1086 .E53 2017 | DDC 302/.14--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016009869 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Books A La Carte: ISBN-13: 978-0-13-441552-9 ISBN-10: 0-13-441552-3 Brief Contents 1 Introduction to Group Communication  2 Group Development  19 3 Group Member Participation  36 4 Diversity in Groups  53 5 Group Leadership  77 6 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups  99 7 Listening and Responding in Groups  119 8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups  136 9 Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups  155 10 Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups  178 11 Planning and Conducting Meetings  195 12 Group Presentations  215 1 v This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface  About the Authors  1 xiii xvii Theory in Groups: Collective Intelligence 2.1.5: Adjourning Stage 24 24 Virtual Teams: Developmental Tasks 25 Introduction to Group Communication 1 2.2: Group Goals 2.2.1: Establishing Group Goals 26 26 Case Study: The Study Group Dilemma 2 Theory in Groups: Goal Theory and Group Work 27 1.1: The Importance of Groups 2 Group Assessment: Group Communication Competencies Survey 3 1.2: Defining Group Communication 1.2.1: Key Elements of Group Communication 4 4 Theory in Groups: Systems Theory 6 1.2.2: Types of Groups Virtual Teams: Groups in Cyberspace 1.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups GroupWork: It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst of Teams 1.3.1: Advantages of Working in Groups Groups in Balance . . . Create Synergy 1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working in Groups 1.4: The Nature of Group Communication 1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills 1.4.2: The Group Communication Process 6 2.3: Group Norms 2.3.1: Types of Norms 28 29 GroupWork: Classroom Norms 29 2.3.2: 2.3.3: Categories of Norms Conformity 30 30 31 2.4: Group Motivation 2.4.1: A Sense of Meaningfulness 2.4.2: A Sense of Choice 2.4.3: A Sense of Competence 2.4.4: A Sense of Progress 33 33 33 34 34 2.3.4: 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 13 Groups in Balance . . . Enjoy Working Together 15 1.6: Ethical Group Communication 1.6.1: Ethics in Balance 1.6.2: Credo for Ethical Communication 15 16 16 Ethics in Groups: The National Communication Association Credo for Ethical Communication 16 GroupWork: The Ethics Credo in Action 17 18 19 Case Study: Nice to Meet You, Too 19 2.1: Group Development Stages 2.1.1: Forming Stage 20 21 Groups in Balance . . . Socialize Newcomers 21 Storming Stage Norming Stage Performing Stage 28 Groups in Balance . . . Change Norms as Needed Theory in Groups: Relational Dialectics Theory 2.1.2: 2.1.3: 2.1.4: Group Assessment: How Good Is Your Goal? 8 12 12 13 Group Development 27 Ethics in Groups: Beware of Unreasonable Norms Balance as the Guiding Principle of Group Work 1.5.1: Groups in Balance 1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics 2 Balancing Group Goals and Hidden Agendas 7 1.5: Summary: Introduction to Group Communication 2.2.2: 22 23 24 Nonconformity Summary: Group Development 3 Group Member Participation 30 31 34 36 Case Study: Taming Tony the Tiger 36 3.1: Group Member Needs 3.1.1: Schutz’s Theory of Interpersonal Needs 37 37 GroupWork: Group Attraction Survey 39 3.1.2: Balancing Individual Needs and Group Needs 3.2: Member Roles 3.2.1: Group Task Roles 3.2.2: Group Social Maintenance Roles Theory in Groups: Belbin’s Team-Role Theory 3.2.3: Disruptive Behaviors 3.3: Member Confidence 3.3.1: Communication Apprehension 3.3.2: Strategies for Reducing Communication Apprehension 40 40 40 41 42 43 44 44 45 Group Assessment: Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) 46 Virtual Teams: Confidence with Technology 47 3.3.3: 3.4: Strategies for Helping Apprehensive Members Member Assertiveness Group Assessment: Assertiveness Scale 3.4.1: Balancing Passivity and Aggression 48 48 49 49 vii viii Contents Groups in Balance . . . Know When and How to Say No 3.4.2: Assertiveness Skills Ethics in Groups: Managing Manipulators Summary: Group Member Participation 4 Diversity in Groups 50 51 5.1: 78 51 Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Leadership and Followership 79 5.2: Becoming a Leader 5.2.1: Designated Leaders 5.2.2: Emergent Leaders 5.2.3: Strategies for Becoming a Leader 80 80 80 81 Group Assessment: Are You Ready to Lead? 82 5.3: Leadership and Power 5.3.1: Types of Power 5.3.2: The Power of Power 82 83 83 Ethics in Groups: Leadership Integrity 84 5.4: Leadership Theories 5.4.1: Trait Leadership Theory 5.4.2: Styles Leadership Theory 84 85 85 Groups in Balance . . . Cultivate the Two Sides of “Great” Leadership 86 53 54 54 55 55 Groups in Balance . . . Seek Intellectual Diversity 56 4.2: Obstacles to Understanding Others 4.2.1: Ethnocentrism 4.2.2: Stereotyping 4.2.3: Prejudice 4.2.4: Discrimination 56 56 57 57 57 4.3: Personality Dimensions 4.3.1: The Big Five Personality Traits 4.3.2: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® 58 58 58 Motivating Personality Types in Groups 77 77 4.1: The Value of Group Diversity 4.1.1: Culture and Diversity 4.1.2: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups 4.3.3: Group Leadership Case Study: The Leader in Sheep’s Clothing 50 Case Study: Diversity Dilemma Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Introverts and Extroverts 5 59 61 What Is Leadership? 5.4.3: Situational Leadership Theory 86 GroupWork: The Least-Preferred-Coworker Scale 88 Theory in Groups: An Abundance of Leadership Theories 90 GroupWork: Personality Types in Groups 61 4.4: Cultural Dimensions 4.4.1: Individualism–Collectivism 4.4.2: Power Distance 4.4.3: Gender Expectations 4.4.4: Time Orientations 4.4.5: High Context–Low Context 62 62 63 65 65 66 5.5: The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness 5.5.1: Model Leadership Behavior 5.5.2: Motivate Members 5.5.3: Manage Group Process 5.5.4: Make Decisions 5.5.5: Mentor Members 5.5.6: Balancing the 5 Ms of Leadership Effectiveness Virtual Teams: Cultural Dimensions and Communication Technology 66 Virtual Teams: Sharing Virtual Leadership Functions 94 Group Assessment: Cultural Context Inventory 67 4.5: Gender Dimensions 4.5.1: Collective Intelligence 4.5.2: Amount of Talk 68 68 68 5.6: Diversity and Leadership 5.6.1: Gender and Leadership 5.6.2: Leading Multicultural Groups 94 94 96 Theory in Groups: Muted Group Theory 69 4.6: Generational Dimensions 4.6.1: Four Generational Dimensions 4.6.2: Ensuring Successful Intergenerational Interactions 69 70 70 Case Study: How to Sink the Mayflower 100 4.7: 71 6.1: 100 Group Assessment: Religious Knowledge Survey 72 4.8: Adapting to Diversity 4.8.1: Be Mindful 4.8.2: Adapt to Others 4.8.3: Actively Engage Others 73 73 73 73 6.2: Team Talk 6.2.1: The Dimensions of Team Talk 101 101 Group Assessment: Auditing Team Talk 102 Ethics in Groups: Practice the Platinum Rule 73 Summary: Diversity in Groups 74 Religious Dimensions Summary: Group Leadership 6 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups Two Essential Tools 6.2.2: Use I, You, and We Language Appropriately 6.3: Language Challenges 6.3.1: Abstract Words 90 91 91 92 92 92 93 97 99 103 103 103 Contents 6.3.2: 6.3.3: 6.3.4: Bypassing Exclusionary Language Jargon 104 104 104 Ethics in Groups: Sticks and Stones May Break Your Bones, but Words Can Hurt Forever 105 6.4: Language Differences 6.4.1: Language and Gender 6.4.2: Language and Culture 106 106 106 Theory in Groups: The Whorf Hypothesis 107 6.5: 108 Nonverbal Communication Groups in Balance . . . Speak “Silently” 6.5.1: 6.5.2: 6.5.3: 6.5.4: Personal Appearance Facial Expression and Eye Contact Vocal Expression Physical Expression 108 108 108 109 109 Virtual Teams: Expressing Emotions Online 110 6.6: The Nonverbal Environment 6.6.1: Arrangement of Space 6.6.2: Perceptions of Personal Space 111 111 112 6.7: Nonverbal Differences 6.7.1: Nonverbal Communication and Gender 6.7.2: Nonverbal Communication and Culture 113 114 114 GroupWork: What is Nonverbally Normal? 114 6.8: Creating a Supportive Communication Climate 6.8.1: Defensive and Supportive Behaviors 6.8.2: Immediacy in Groups GroupWork: How Immediate Are You? Summary: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 7 Listening and Responding in Groups 115 115 116 ix 7.3: Key Listening Strategies and Skills 7.3.1: Use Your Extra Thought Speed 7.3.2: Apply the Golden Listening Rule 7.3.3: “Listen” to Nonverbal Behavior 7.3.4: Minimize Distractions 7.3.5: Listen Before You Leap 7.3.6: Take Relevant Notes 129 129 129 130 130 130 130 Virtual Teams: Listening Online 131 7.4: Listening to Differences 7.4.1: Gender Differences 7.4.2: Personality Differences 7.4.3: Cultural Differences 132 133 133 133 Groups in Balance . . . Learn the Art of High-Context Listening 133 Hearing Ability Differences 133 Ethics in Groups: Self-Centered Listening Sabotages Success 7.4.4: 134 Summary: Listening and Responding in Groups 8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 135 136 Case Study: Sociology in Trouble 137 8.1: Conflict in Groups 8.1.1: Task Conflict 8.1.2: Personal Conflict 8.1.3: Procedural Conflict 137 138 138 138 8.2: Constructive and Destructive Conflict 139 GroupWork: Conflict Awareness Log 139 Virtual Teams: Conflict in Cyberspace 140 117 8.3: Conflict Styles 8.3.1: Avoiding Conflict Style 8.3.2: Accommodating Conflict Style 141 141 141 119 Groups in Balance . . . Know How to Apologize and When to Forgive 142 117 Case Study: That’s Not What I Said 119 7.1: The Challenge of Listening in Groups 7.1.1: The Nature of Listening 7.1.2: The Need for Better Listening 120 121 121 Group Assessment: Student Listening Inventory 122 8.3.3: 8.3.4: 8.3.5: 8.3.6: Competing Conflict Style Compromising Conflict Style Collaborating Conflict Style Choosing a Conflict Style 142 143 143 143 Group Assessment: How Do You Respond to Conflict? 144 124 8.4: Conflict Management Strategies 8.4.1: The 4Rs Method 145 145 Listening to Hear Listening to Understand 125 125 Theory in Groups: Attribution Theory and Member Motives 146 Groups in Balance . . . Ask Questions to Enhance Comprehension 126 7.1.3: 7.2: The Habits of Listeners The Listening Process Theory in Groups: The HURIER Listening Model 7.2.1: 7.2.2: 7.2.3: 7.2.4: 7.2.5: 7.2.6: Listening to Remember Listening to Interpret Listening to Evaluate Listening to Respond GroupWork: Practice Paraphrasing 123 124 126 126 127 127 128 8.4.2: 8.4.3: 8.4.4: The A-E-I-O-U Model Cooperative Negotiation Anger Management 147 147 147 Ethics in Groups: The Group and the Doctrine of the Mean 148 8.5: Conflict and Member Diversity 8.5.1: Cultural Responses to Conflict 149 149 x Contents Groups in Balance . . . Let Members Save Face 8.5.2: Gender Responses to Conflict 8.6: Group Cohesion 8.6.1: Enhancing Group Cohesion 8.6.2: Groupthink Summary: Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 9 Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups Case Study: No More Horsing Around Understanding Group Decision Making and Problem Solving 9.1.1: Clear Goal 149 Theory in Groups: Argumentative Communication 181 150 10.1.2: Deliberative Group Argumentation 181 150 150 151 153 155 156 9.1: 156 157 Group Assessment: Argumentativeness Scale 182 10.2: Understanding Arguments 10.2.1: Claim, Evidence, and Warrant 10.2.2: Backing, Reservation, and Qualifier 183 184 184 GroupWork: Analyze the Argument 185 10.3: Supporting Arguments 186 Groups in Balance . . . Document Sources of Evidence 10.3.1: Types of Evidence 10.3.2: Tests of Evidence 186 186 187 Virtual Teams: Think Critically about the Internet 187 10.4: Presenting Arguments 10.4.1: State Your Claim 188 188 159 159 159 159 GroupWork: Clarify Your Claims 188 10.4.2: Support Your Claim 10.4.3: Provide Reasons 10.4.4: Summarize Your Argument 189 189 189 9.2: Group Decision Making 9.2.1: Decision-Making Methods 160 160 Groups in Balance . . . Avoid False Consensus 161 10.5: Refuting Arguments 10.5.1: Listen to the Argument 10.5.2: State the Opposing Claim 10.5.3: Preview Your Objections 10.5.4: Assess the Evidence 10.5.5: Assess the Reasoning 10.5.6: Summarize Your Refutation 189 189 190 190 190 190 190 10.6: Adapting to Argumentation Styles 10.6.1: Gender Differences in Argumentation 10.6.2: Cultural Differences in Argumentation 10.6.3: Argumentation and Emotional Intelligence 191 191 191 Ethics in Groups: Ethical Argumentation 192 Theory in Groups: Asking Single and Subordinate Questions 9.1.2: 9.1.3: 9.1.4: 9.1.5: 9.2.2: Quality Content Structured Procedures Commitment to Deliberation Collaborative Communication Climate 157 Decision-Making Styles 161 GroupWork: What Is Your Decision-Making Style? 162 9.3: Group Problem Solving 9.3.1: Brainstorming 9.3.2: Nominal Group Technique (NGT) 9.3.3: Decreasing Options Technique (DOT) 9.3.4: The Progressive Problem-Solving Method 163 164 165 166 168 Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Analysis Paralysis 169 Virtual Teams: Mediated Decision Making and Problem Solving 170 9.4: Creativity and Problem Solving 9.4.1: Creative Thinking 9.4.2: Enhancing Group Creativity 172 172 172 Ethics in Groups: The Morality of Creative Outcomes 173 9.5: Problem-Solving Realities 9.5.1: Politics 9.5.2: Preexisting Preferences 9.5.3: Power 9.5.4: Organizational Culture 173 173 174 174 174 Group Assessment: Problem-Solving Competencies in Groups 175 Summary: Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups 10 Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 176 178 Case Study: Slicing the Pie 178 10.1: The Nature of Critical Thinking and Argumentation 10.1.1: The Value of Argumentation in Groups 179 180 Summary: Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 11 Planning and Conducting Meetings 192 193 195 Case Study: Monday Morning Blues 196 11.1: Meetings, Meetings, Meetings 11.1.1: What Is a Meeting? 196 197 GroupWork: It Was the Best of Meetings; It Was the Worst of Meetings 11.1.2: Why Do Meetings Fail? 197 198 11.2: Planning and Chairing Meetings 198 Theory in Groups: Chaos and Complexity Theories 199 11.2.1: Questions About Meetings 11.2.2: Preparing the Agenda Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Meetingthink 199 201 202 11.2.3: Chairing the Meeting 11.2.4: Preparing the Minutes 203 204 Ethics in Groups: Use Good Judgment When Taking Minutes 205 Contents 11.3: Managing Members in Meetings 11.3.1: Adapting to Problematic Behaviors 11.3.2: Adapting to Member Differences 205 205 207 Virtual Teams: Meeting in Cyberspace 207 11.4: Parliamentary Procedure 11.4.1: Who Uses Parliamentary Procedure? 11.4.2: The Guiding Principles of Parliamentary Procedure 11.4.3: The Parliamentary Players 11.4.4: Making a Motion 11.4.5: Making a Main Motion 208 209 11.5: Evaluating the Meeting 213 Group Assessment: Post-Meeting Reaction (PMR) Form 213 Summary: Planning and Conducting Meetings 12 Group Presentations 209 210 211 212 214 215 12.2.4: 12.2.5: 12.2.6: 12.2.7: xi Logistics Content Organization Delivery 219 220 220 221 Virtual Teams: Mediated Presentations 222 12.3: Group Presentations 12.3.1: Public Group Presentations 12.3.2: Team Presentations 223 223 224 Groups in Balance . . . Welcome and Encourage Questions 225 Group Assessment: Team Presentation Evaluation 227 12.4: Presentation Aids 12.4.1: Presentation Slides 227 228 Ethics in Groups: Respect Copyrights 229 12.4.2: Delivering Presentation Aids 230 Groups in Balance . . . Know When to Break the “Slide” Rules 230 GroupWork: Re-envision the Visual 232 Summary: Group Presentations 232 Case Study: Team Challenge 215 12.1: Presentations in and by Groups 216 12.2: Presentation Guidelines 12.2.1: Purpose 12.2.2: Audience 12.2.3: Credibility 217 217 218 219 Glossary 234 Notes 245 Credits 274 Theory in Groups: Aristotle’s Ethos 219 Index 276 This page intentionally left blank Preface O ne central question has always guided our research and writing for Working in Groups: What do college students enrolled in a group communi- cation course really need to know? Our guiding question led us to include both classic and current theories of group communication that focus on “how groups work” as well as practical group communication strategies and skills that emphasize “how to work in groups.” Comprehensive Topic Coverage The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups strengthens the text’s scholarship and applicability. Review the detailed table of contents to get a feel for the depth and breadth of topic coverage. We include classic and traditional group communication subject matter, such as • Group Development • Member Diversity Unified Perspective: Balance and Group Dialectics Beginning with the first edition of Working in Groups, we have used the concept of balance as a central metaphor for learning how to work in groups. A group that reaches a decision or completes a task is not in balance if group members dislike or mistrust one another. A group that relies on two or three members to do all the work is not in balance. Effective groups balance factors such as task and social maintenance functions, individual and group needs, and leadership and followership. We further developed the balance metaphor into a unique model of group dialectics—the interplay of opposing or contradictory forces inherent in group work. A dialectic approach examines how group members negotiate and resolve the tensions and pressures they encounter while working together to achieve a common goal. We apply contemporary theories and research to illuminate the nine group dialectics that characterize the delicate balance achieved by effective groups. Group Dialectics Individual Goals Conflict Conforming Task Dimensions Homogeneous Leadership n Group Goals n Cohesion n Nonconforming n Social Dimensions n Heterogeneous n Followership • Verbal and Nonverbal Communication • Decision Making and Problem Solving • Group Norms and Roles • Leadership Theories and Power • Group Cohesiveness and Conflict • Planning and Conducting Meetings We also include cutting-edge theories, research, and communication strategies, such as • Group Dialectics and Balance • “Team Talk” Strategies and Skills • Communication Apprehension in Groups • Communication Ethics in Groups • Group Goal Setting and Motivation • Adapting to Group Diversity • Group Deliberation • Virtual Teams • Argumentation in Groups • Brownell’s HURIER Listening Model • Personality Traits in Groups • Decision-Making Styles • 5M Model of Effective Leadership • The Collective Intelligence of Groups Pedagogical Features The pedagogical features of this Seventh Edition that link the theories of group communication (how groups work) with related communication strategies and skills (how to work in groups) include the following: Structure n Spontaneity Case Studies Engaged n Disengaged Provided at the beginning of every chapter, original case studies and accompanying questions enable students to Open System n Closed System xiii xiv Preface anticipate, discuss, and apply chapter content. The case study questions do not offer a single or correct answer; rather, they ask students to apply what they learn in the chapter and to explore what they believe are appropriate responses to the case study questions. Video Scenarios Incorporated into the first 11 chapters, video scenarios highlight important group communication theories, strategies, and skills. Instructors can use these videos to supplement classroom lectures and discussions, as the basis for exam questions, or as cases for analysis. Groups in Balance The Groups in Balance feature calls attention to group dialectics and the need to balance the contradictory forces inherent in all group work. The feature also examines the ways in which groups negotiate and resolve a variety of tensions using a both/and a­ pproach. Many of the Groups in Balance features are new or revised for the Seventh Edition. Theory in Groups Throughout this edition, we use the Theory in Groups feature to explain why groups succeed or fail and how related strategies and skills in this book can enhance group effectiveness. Many of the theories in the Seventh Edition are revised or new to the text. Ethics in Groups Every chapter includes an Ethics in Groups feature that examines the many ethical issues and dilemmas that frequently arise when interdependent group members collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal. Virtual Teams In each chapter, the Virtual Teams feature offers strategies and skills to help groups and members achieve common goals both in mediated face-to-face settings and in virtual teams that communicate across time, distance, and organizational boundaries. GroupWork GroupWork features in each chapter demonstrate and apply group communication principles in structured individual and/or interactive activities. This feature offers personal insights and opportunities for critically thinking about the ways in which related theories, strategies, and skills affect how and why group members collaborate with one another to achieve a ­common goal. Group Assessment Group Assessment features provide new and revised measures for evaluating student and group understanding of important theories, strategies, and skills. End-of-Chapter Summary and Quiz Questions Chapter Summary Sections review the major concepts in each chapter. Students should be able to explain and apply summary statements to a variety of group situations and contexts. End-of-chapter Quiz Questions link to chapter learning outcomes and give students the opportunity to assess their understanding, application, analysis, and evaluation of chapter content. New to this Edition The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups includes up-todate research and expanded coverage of contemporary topics that build on our tradition of intellectual rigor, practical focus, and commitment to student learning. • Updated, contemporary approaches to traditional topics such as group roles, listening, leadership, conflict resolution, and problem solving • Expanded and updated sections on virtual teams and communication technology in every chapter, with an emphasis on applying group theory, strategies, and skills to working in virtual teams • Greater focus on collaboration and deliberation as vital components of group effectiveness • Expanded topic coverage focusing on successfully resolving conflict, avoiding groupthink, managing problematic group members, preparing for team presentations, and using parliamentary procedure • Updated sections on adapting to group diversity incorporated throughout most chapters, with contemporary research on gender and intercultural communication • New Theories, Research, and Practical Applications: Collective Intelligence; Gender and Leadership; Cultural Synergy; Cosmopolitanism and Ethics; The 4Rs of Conflict Management; Group Deliberation and Decision Making; The Progressive Problem-Solving Method; Organizational Culture and Problem Solving; Deliberative Argumentation; A Parliamentary Procedure Primer • Excerpts from text-specific video scenarios applicable to specific sections of chapters followed by related questions for group discussion or writing assignments Preface • Revised learning objectives for every chapter and linked to specific chapter content, as well as the endof-chapter summary and quiz questions REVEL™ Educational technology designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and students nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected Pearson content. REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course. Learn more about REVEL - http://www.pearsonhighered. com/revel Available Instructor Resources The following instructor resources can be accessed in the left hand navigation of Revel under “Resources” or by visiting http://www.pearsonhighered.com/irc • Instructor Manual: includes chapter summary, learning objectives, handouts and additional resources. • Test Bank: includes additional questions beyond the REVEL in multiple choice and essay response—­formats. • PowerPoint Presentation: provides a core template of the content covered throughout the text. Can easily be added to customize for your classroom. • MyTest: Create custom quizzes and exams using the Test Bank questions. You can print these exams for ­in-class use. Visit: http://www.pearsonhighered.com/mytest xv Acknowledgments Although the title page of Working in Groups features our names, this project exemplifies the value of collaborating with our talented and creative publishing team. We are particularly grateful to the group of content editors, copy editors, production editors, graphic designers, photo editors, behind-the-scenes technicians, and what we describe as our “online transformers” who literally transformed a traditional manuscript into a digital text. We extend very special thanks to Carly Czech, who became our sounding board, quality-assurance expert, and go-to fixer in the production process. We also extend our gratitude to the Working in Groups Development Team including Karen Trost, our resourceful, supportive, and insightful Development Editor, whose professionalism, innovative ideas, and kindness made all the difference. Rashida Patel, our Instructional Designer, for demonstrating the versatility of digital media in transforming flat, linear content into new learning tools that individual and groups of students can ask, answer, interact with, and learn from interactive activities. Marla Sussman, our Assessment Writing Supervisor, taught us more about writing, analyzing, and maximizing quiz questions than we have learned from anyone else in many years of creating tests and exams. Manas Roy, our Digital Publishing Project Manager, demonstrated a perfect combination of the expertise, efficiency, patience, and diplomacy needed to transform our text into digital form. In addition to our publishing team, we enjoyed, learned a great deal from, and made needed changes based on the advice of our conscientious reviewers, whose excellent suggestions and comments enriched every edition of Working in Groups. We are particularly indebted to the students and faculty members who have shared their opinions and provided valuable suggestions and insights about our teaching and our text. They are the measure of all things. Isa Engleberg and Dianna Wynn This page intentionally left blank About the Authors Isa Engleberg, professor emerita at Prince George’s Community College in Maryland, is a past president of the National Communication Association. In addition to writing seven college textbooks in communication studies and publishing more than three dozen articles in academic journals, she earned the Outstanding Community College Educator Award from the National Communication Association and the President’s Medal from Prince George’s Community College for outstanding teaching, scholarship, and service. Her professional career spans appointments at all levels of higher education as well as teaching abroad. Dianna Wynn is an adjunct professor at Nash Community College in North Carolina. Previously, she taught at Midland College in Texas and Prince George’s Community College in Maryland, where students chose her as the Outstanding Teacher of the Year. She has co-authored three communication textbooks and written articles in academic journals. In addition to teaching, she has many years of experience as a communication and trial consultant, assisting attorneys in developing effective courtroom communication strategies. xvii This page intentionally left blank Working in Groups This page intentionally left blank Chapter 1 Introduction to Group Communication Like most successful groups, formation skydiving requires the collaboration of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a common goal. Learning Objectives 1.1 1.2 1.3 Explain why employers consistently rank teamwork and the ability to collaborate with others as essential skills Explain the importance of the five key elements in the definition of group communication Compare the advantages and disadvantages of working in groups 1.4 Describe how understanding the components of the group communication process can enhance group effectiveness 1.5 Explain how successful groups balance various dialectic tensions by using a collaborative both/and approach 1.6 Practice the ethical principles included in the National Communication Association’s Credo for Ethical Communication 1 2 Chapter 1 Case Study: The Study Group Dilemma Grace has always wanted to be a pediatric nurse. When she was accepted into the nursing program at a local college, she looked forward to studying for her dream job. However, her first day in Anatomy and Physiology class turned her hopes into fears. Her professor explained that every student must learn and understand the significance of more than 15,000 terms! As she looked around the classroom, she could see that many of the other new nursing majors seemed just as stunned as she was. After class was over, she walked down the hallway with four classmates. The mood was gloomy. After an uncomfortable period of silence, one of the other students suggested that they form a study group. Grace had her doubts. She thought, “A study group will just take up a lot of my time and energy with no guarantee that it will help me earn a good grade. As much as I’d like to get to know these students better, I can probably learn more by studying alone. Besides, what if we don’t get along? What if I end up doing most of the work or the others don’t show up?” Grace’s concerns—like those of many people—are understandable. Groups use a lot of time, energy, and resources. In some cases, a single person can accomplish just as much or more by working alone. And even if a study group has the potential to aid learning, it also has the potential for interpersonal conflicts and long-lasting resentments. Critical Thinking Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following critical thinking questions: 1. Given Grace’s concerns about spending a lot of her valuable time and energy in a study group, what would you say to encourage her to join? 2. What communication strategies should a study group use to ensure that members are satisfied with the group experience? 3. Which dialectic tensions are most likely to affect how well Grace and her study group achieves its goal? 4. Is it ethical for a study group to work together in order to improve their chances of earning a good grade when other students in the same class study alone? If yes, why? If not, why not? 1.1: The Importance of Groups 1.1 Explain why employers consistently rank teamwork and the ability to collaborate with others as essential skills All of us work in groups—at school, on the job, in voluntary organizations, and in interactive leisure activities. Depending on the situation, group members can be family members, friends, colleagues, and new acquaintances. Meeting locations range from sports fields and battlefields to courtrooms and classrooms, and even from cyberspace to outer space. Individual performance was once the measure of personal achievement, but success in today’s complex world depends on your ability to work in groups. Researchers Steve Kozlowski and Daniel Ilgen describe our profound dependence on groups: Teams of people working together for a common cause touch all of our lives. From everyday activities like air travel, fire fighting, and running the United Way drive to amazing feats of human accomplishments like climbing Mt. Everest and reaching for the stars, teams are at the center of how work gets done in modern times.1 Working in groups may be the most important skill you learn in college. A study commissioned by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) asked employers to rank essential learning outcomes needed by college graduates entering the workplace. In two of four major categories (“Intellectual and Practical Skills” and “Personal and Social Responsibility”), the top-ranked outcome was “teamwork skills and the ability to collaborate with others in diverse group settings.” Recent graduates ranked the same learning outcomes as top priorities.2 A business executive in the same study wrote that they look for employees who “are good team people over anything else. I can teach the technical.”3 In another major study, employers identified group-related communication skills as more important than written communication, proficiency in the field of study, and computer skills.4 Introduction to Group Communication 3 Group Assessment Group Communication Competencies Survey5 What are the critical group communication skills identified by employers? Fortunately, there are many research-based competencies that characterize effective group member behavior. As a way of introducing you to the theories, strategies, and skills in this text, assess the importance of each of the competencies presented in the Group Communication Competencies Survey. Directions: On a 5-point scale, where 5 is “Extremely Important” and 1 is “Not at All Important,” rate the following group competencies in terms of their importance for becoming an effective group member. Select only one number for each item. When you are finished, ask yourself this question: How competent am I in the “Extremely Important” areas? Group Competencies 1. Reduce your nervousness when speaking in a discussion or meeting. 2. Understand, respect, and adapt to diverse group members. 3. Communicate openly and honestly. 4. Assume critical task roles (ask questions and analyze ideas) and social maintenance roles (motivate and support members). 5. Influence group members to change their attitudes and/or behavior. 6. Correctly interpret and appropriately respond to members’ feelings. 7. Develop clear group goals. 8. Listen appropriately and effectively to other members. 9. Intervene appropriately to resolve member and group problems. 10. Develop positive interpersonal relationships with group members. 11. Manage and resolve interpersonal conflicts. 12. Develop and follow a well-organized meeting agenda. 13. Actively contribute to group discussions. 14. Use gestures, body language, facial expressions, and eye contact effectively. 15. Demonstrate effective leadership skills. 16. Research and share important ideas and information with group members. 17. Use presentation aids and presentation software (PowerPoint) effectively. 18. Plan and conduct effective meetings. 19. Use appropriate procedures for group decision making and problem solving. 20. Ask questions to clarify ideas and get needed information. 21. Motivate group members. 22. Use assertiveness strategies and skills confidently and effectively. 23. Respect and adapt to group norms (standards of behavior). 24. Promote equal participation in discussions by all members. 25. Prepare and deliver an effective presentation or oral report. 26. Use appropriate and effective words in a group discussion. 27. Use effective technologies and skills to communicate in virtual teams. 28. Develop and present valid arguments and opinions in a group discussion. 29. Provide appropriate emotional support to group members. 30. Other strategies or skills: a. b. c. 5 Extremely Important 4 Very Important 3 Somewhat Important 2 Not Very Important 1 Not at All Important 4 Chapter 1 Explain the importance of the five key elements in the definition of group communication When does a collection of people become a group? Do people talking in an elevator or discussing the weather at an airport constitute a group? Are the members of a church congregation listening to a sermon or fans cheering at a baseball game a group? Although the people in these examples are groups, they are not necessarily working for or with other members. There are two basic uses of the word group. The first describes people brought together by a circumstance, such as a group of fans at a sporting event or concert, a group of people waiting in line for a bus or at airport check-in, or a group assembled at a political rally or a wedding. The second use of the word identifies a group as people who interact with one another to accomplish something. (Table 1.1) In this textbook, we concentrate on the second meaning in which group members are highly focused and dependent on communication. We define group communication as the collaboration of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a common goal. Table 1.1 Shared Goals OR Shared Circumstances Classification People who work with their neighbors to pick up trash on Earth Day People who interact with one another to accomplish a shared goal People discussing the weather at an airport People brought together by a shared circumstance People who are members of a church congregation listening to a sermon People brought together by a shared circumstance People who get together to choose a scholarship winner from among high school honors students People who interact with one another to accomplish a shared goal People who get together to watch a Presidential candidates’ debate on television People brought together by a shared circumstance Now, let’s break down our definition into the five essential components of group communication shown in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1 Components of Group Communication rs be em M Go a Group Communication tion Although people frequently assemble in a variety of circumstances and settings, group members who actively collaborate with one another to achieve a shared goal have the most influence and impact on their own lives and the lives of others. When describing group communication, we use the terms group and team interchangeably. Thus, a group of friends organizing an annual block party can be just as diligent and productive as a corporate team organizing and conducting a stockholders’ meeting. Although we don’t call a football team a football group or family members a team (unless they’re playing a sport or game together), we can The Green Bay Packers have won more championships than any other team in National Football League history. How do the Packers exemplify the definition of group communication: the collaboration of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a common goal? ra abo Coll Examples 1.2.1: Key Elements of Group Communication ls king 1.2 safely say that all of these people are working together in order to achieve a common goal. Wor 1.2: Defining Group Communication Interdependence The saying “Two’s company, three’s a crowd” recognizes that a conversation between two people is fundamentally different from a threeperson discussion. If two people engage in a conversation, Jill communicates with Jack and Jack communicates with Jill. Three or More Members Introduction to Group Communication But if a third person is added, the dynamics change: A third person can be the listener who judges and influences the content and style of the conversation. While two group members talk, support, or criticize one another, a third person can offer alternatives and make a tie-breaking decision if the other two people can’t agree. We do not identify two people as a group because researchers note that two people working together perform at about the same level as the same two people working alone.6 As the size of a group increases, the number of possible interactions (and potential misunderstandings) increases exponentially. For example, a group with five members has the potential for 90 different interactions; if you add just two members, a group of seven has the potential for 966 different interactions.7 At this point, you may wonder whether there is an ideal group size. The answer is: It depends. It depends on members’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills; on the nature and needs of the task; and—most importantly—on the group’s common goal. Fortunately, researchers have looked at the group-size question and given us some useful guidelines: • Most group members and leaders prefer groups of three to nine members. • Groups larger than nine members are generally less productive.8 • Groups of five to seven members are generally more effective for problem-solving discussions. • To avoid tied votes, an odd number of members is usually better than an even number. Smaller groups are generally more effective than larger groups. As group size increases, cohesion and effective collaboration decreases, and members tend to divide into subgroups. In large groups, members are more argumentative, less unified, and more competitive than cooperative. Some members may feel left out or inconsequential, and as a result, member satisfaction decreases as group size increases.9 The best advice is the simplest: limit “group size to the smallest number of members necessary to accomplish group goals.”10 Many organizations have learned the importance of creating groups in a size most likely to achieve specific goals. For example, successful megachurches in the United States may have thousands of members in their congregations, but small groups are often the key to their success. Church members are encouraged to create or join tightly knit groups of five to seven people who meet in a member’s home to pray and support one another in times of need. Worshipers match their interests with those of other group members—new parents, retired accountants, moun- 5 tain bike riders—and use their commonalities as the basis for religious discussions, member support, and volunteer projects. Thus, although successful megachurches boast large congregations that share a common belief system, they rely on the motivation, comfort, and work of small groups to sustain religious faith and church membership.11 WRITING PROMPT Key Elements of Group Communication Think about the task groups in which you’ve been a member. Choose one or two examples and explain how the size of the group and the nature of the task affected its ability to achieve a common goal. The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor. Submit Collaboration Collaboration is a fairly common word that encompasses such behaviors as coordination, cooperation, interaction, and teamwork. In groups, collaboration is characterized by coordinated group interaction in which members share a common goal, respect others’ perspectives and contributions, and work together to create a successful group experience. Effective collaboration ensures that members share relevant information and opinions, make responsible decisions, and develop positive interpersonal relationships. The way in which group members communicate does more than reveal group dynamics; it creates them.12 Members learn which behaviors are appropriate, and which are inappropriate. Whether members meet face to face or in cyberspace, effective group communication requires collaboration. Interdependence  Interdependence refers to the influ- ence of each group member on the thoughts and actions of other members. A successful group with interdependent members functions as a cohesive team in which all members feel responsible for doing their part. The failure of a single group member can adversely affect the entire group. For example, if one student in a study group fails to read and explain an important section of an assigned chapter, the entire group will be unprepared for questions related to the material covered in that chapter. Few tasks can be accomplished by a group without information, advice, support, and assistance from its interdependent members. Working Working describes the physical and/or mental effort group members expend when trying to accomplish something. That “something” can be a social goal, such as getting friends together for a surprise party; 6 Chapter 1 a family goal, such as deciding jointly where to go on vacation; a medical team’s goal of planning training sessions for improving patient care; or a management goal, in which group members develop a strategic plan for their organization. Working in a group is not about hard labor. Rather, when we work effectively in groups, we join others in a productive and motivating experience in which members combine their talents and energy to achieve a worthy goal. Common Goal Group members come together for a reason. Their collective reason defines and unifies the group. A group’s common goal represents the shared purpose or objective toward which group work is directed. A group’s goal guides its actions, sets standards for measuring success, provides a focus for resolving conflict, and motivates members. Large-scale studies have found that a clear common goal is the most significant factor separating successful groups from unsuccessful groups.13 It doesn’t matter whether you call it a goal, an objective, a purpose, a mission, an assignment, or a vision. Without a common goal, group members would have difficulty answering several critical questions: Why are we meeting? Why should we care or work hard? Where are we going? How will we know when we get there? Some groups have the freedom to develop their own goals. For example, a gathering of neighbors may meet to discuss ways of reducing crime in the neighborhood, or nursing students may form a study group to prepare for and do well on an upcoming exam. Other goals are assigned. A marketing instructor may require a semesterlong project to assess a student group’s ability to develop a marketing campaign. An industrial company may assemble a group of employees with the purpose of developing recommendations for safer storage of hazardous chemicals. Whatever the circumstances, effective groups work to accomplish a common goal. Figure 1.2 Components of Systems Theory Example: Typical Work Group Task requirements; member characteristics, skills, expertise, attitudes Planning; leadership; cohesiveness; conflict resolution; decision making and problem solving Group performance; decisions; achieving the common goal; member satisfaction Group Output Becomes New Input Components of Systems Theory INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT Group Process Becomes New Input Example: Professional Football Team Game rules, team composition, and player skills (task requirements); the personal traits and attitudes of owners, coaches, players, and referees (interpersonal factors) Practice, including how to deal with various field/weather conditions (planning); choice and execution of specific plays during a game (leadership); support or lack of support from fans (unified or conflicting); team players/substitutes on game days and adaptation to opponents (decision making and problem solving) Wins or losses and point spread (group performance); individual player performance records (member performance); player health and attitudes, and fan jubilation or misery (member satisfaction) ing together to form a complex whole that adapts to a changing environment. However, groups are not the only systems in our lives. In biology, we study the digestive system, the nervous system, and the immune system, and recognize that when one of these biological systems fails, it can affect the others with serious or even deadly consequences. We embrace the democratic system of government, marvel at our solar system, and hope that our computer system doesn’t crash. One way of looking at groups and systems is through Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) models. Inputs come from both outside the group and within the group. Process takes place within the group as it works to achieve its common goal. Output, the results of input and process, can influence future input and processes. Understanding how your group functions as a system is just as important as doing your personal best in helping your group succeed. WRITING PROMPT Theory in Groups Systems Theory Objective: Provide an example that shows how the Input-ProcessOutput Model of Systems Theory demonstrates the complex nature of group communication. Systems Theory (Figure 1.2) encompasses a group of theories that examines how interdependent factors affect one another in a complex environment. In communication studies, Systems Theory recognizes that “communication does not take place in isolation, but rather necessitates a communication system.”14 Every group we describe in this textbook is a system, a collection of interacting and interdependent elements work- Systems Theory Identify the input, process, and output of a college study group, and explain how the group’s process and output can affect input. The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor. Submit 1.2.2: Types of Groups Like their individual members, groups have diverse characteristics and goals. Although a basketball team, a study group, a corporate board of directors, and a homecoming Introduction to Group Communication committee are groups in which interdependent members collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal, each one has unique features and functions. The most common types of groups fall into eight categories that span a wide range of groups, from the most personal and informal types of groups to more formal, structured types. You can identify each type of group (primary, social, self-help, learning, service, civic, organizational, and public) by observing its purpose (why the group meets) and examples of membership (who is in the group), as shown in Table 1.2. 7 belong to several organizational groups. You may be a member of a production team or a work crew. You may belong to a sales staff, service department, management group, or research team. As noted in Table 1.2, public group members interact in front of or for the benefit of the public. Although public groups may engage in information sharing, decision making, or problem solving, they are also concerned with making a positive impression on a public audience. Virtual Teams Table 1.2 Types of Groups Examples of Membership Type of Group Purpose Primary To provide members with affection, support, and a sense of belonging Family, best friends Social To share common interests in a friendly setting or participate in social activities Athletic team, college sororities and fraternities Self-Help To support and encourage members who want or need help with personal problems Therapy groups, Weight Watchers Learning To help members gain knowledge and develop skills Study groups, ceramics workshops Service To assist worthy causes that help other people outside the group Kiwanis, charity or volunteer groups Civic To support worthy causes that help people within the group Parent Teacher Associations (PTA), neighborhood associations Organizational To achieve specific goals on behalf of a business or organization Management teams, committees Public To discuss important issues in front of or for the benefit of the public Open-to-the-public panel discussions, governance groups The eight types of groups are not absolute categories. Many of them overlap. A Girl Scout belongs to both a social group and a learning group, and their scout leaders, who operate under the direction of the national association, belong to both a service group and an organizational group. The last two types of groups in Table 1.2—organizational groups and public groups—serve the interests of recognized organizations and public audiences. Organizational groups may have goals as complex as reengineering a global corporation or as simple as sharing relevant information at a weekly staff meeting. Most organizational groups work within a system that has its own rules, vocabulary, levels of power, and member responsibilities. If you are employed, you probably Groups in Cyberspace Objective: List the fundamental requirements of an effective virtual team, regardless of the medium or media members use to collaborate with one another. Today, regardless of when or where you work in groups, you already do or inevitably will participate as the member of a virtual team. Virtual teams rely on one or more mediated technologies to collaborate, often across time, distance, and organizational boundaries. Thousands of miles and several time zones may separate virtual team members, whereas others work in the same room using technology to collaborate on a group project. Diverse and geographically distributed teams are now the model for businesses and governments around the world. In fact, research concludes that “with rare exceptions all organizational teams are virtual to some extent.”15 Virtual teams are everywhere. At least 75 percent of U.S. companies allow employees to work remotely—and that number is expected to increase significantly.16 Surveys of multinational corporations reported that 80 percent of the respondents were part of a virtual team; 63 percent indicated that about half of these teams were located in other countries. In one survey of major corporations, 52 percent reported that virtual teams are used by top management, and 79 percent are used for project teams.17 Some companies—with names such as Art & Logic, Automattic, Basecamp, and peopleG2—operate completely or mostly in virtual teams.18 The increasing prevalence of virtual teams creates new challenges: Employees rated tasks such as managing conflict, making decisions, expressing opinions, and generating innovative ideas as more difficult in virtual teams than in face-toface meetings. In addition, 95 percent reported that their greatest challenge was overcoming the inability to read nonverbal behavior in text-only contexts. And 90 percent said they don’t have enough time during virtual meetings to build relationships. The top-rated characteristics of an effective virtual teammate include: 1. a willingness to share relevant information, 2. active engagement and interaction with others, and 3. the ability to collaborate. 8 Chapter 1 These are also essential communication competencies needed by the members of all groups—whether meeting face to face or via cyberspace with members across the globe.19 Groups must balance the advantages and disadvantages of using technology. On the one hand, organizations spend billions of dollars on technology that allows employees to communicate with one another, collaborate on projects, and participate in virtual meetings. On the other hand, “hundreds of millions of those dollars will be wasted chasing fads and installing technology that people will use to work the same way they worked before the technology was installed.”20 Virtual teams are complex. Members may come from a variety of organizations, cultures, time zones, and geographic locations, not to mention the many technologies they can use. For example, their levels of experience and expertise in using a particular virtual medium may vary. They may also have computer systems with different capabilities, such as older or newer versions of the software being used for group communication. As a result, virtual teams develop distinct group dynamics compared to groups that meet face to face.21 In addition to the ones you know best (email, social media tools, instant messaging, and frequently-used video and audio conferencing systems), hundreds of commercially available tools help virtual teams manage their work in different time/space configurations. Table 1.3 provides examples of virtual team products by function. By the time you read this list, there are sure to be new, improved, and more innovative tools for groups to use. Have you used any of these tools? Did they help or hinder your group? What other products would you add to the list? Table 1.3 Virtual Tools for Virtual Teams22 Function Sample Products Collaboration Redbooth, Slack, Blackboard Collaborate Project Management Microsoft Project, Basecamp, Primavera Document Storage/File Sharing Dropbox, Google Drive, Share Point Electronic Meetings WebEx, GoToMeetings, Google Hangouts High-End Video Conferencing Cisco Telepresence, Polycrom Telepresence, Logitech LifeSize Meeting Schedulers Doodle, Timebride, ScheduleOnce Document Co-Creation Google Docs, Prezi, Conceptboard Whether you welcome the benefits of working in virtual teams or not, they are here to stay. These powerful tools will become increasingly prevalent in all types of groups. Certainly, in organizational environments, virtual teams will become “the norm in conducting business.”23 To help you succeed in these groups, we offer strategies and skills throughout this textbook that focus on working effectively and efficiently in virtual environments. The following are fundamental requirements for an effective virtual team: • adequate resources (funding, people, skills, etc.) to achieve a group’s common goal, • appropriate and effective information technology and support, • members with adequate and appropriate electronic communication skills, • members with adequate and appropriate collaboration skills suited to a mediated environment, and • members who serve as role models for others in virtual interactions.24 1.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups 1.3 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of working in groups If you’re like most people, you probably have suffered through at least one long, boring meeting run by an unskilled and incompetent leader. Perhaps you have lost patience with a group that couldn’t accomplish a simple task that you could do easily by yourself. Even so, the potential advantages of working in effective groups far outweigh the disadvantages. Let’s begin by acknowledging several certainties about group work. There is no question that some tasks are impossible for one person to complete alone. Prehistoric people joined together in groups to hunt large, ferocious animals and to protect their families and clan. Today, we form groups to build skyscrapers and rocket ships, to perform life-saving surgery and classical symphonies, and to play football games and clean up oil spills. In our daily lives, we also rely on smaller groups such as mobile emergency medical teams, study groups, neighborhood safety committees, coaching staffs, and our families to make decisions and solve problems. Do these groups do a better job than one person can? If the group is poorly organized, lacks a clear goal, and includes unmotivated members with limited or inappropriate knowledge and skills, the answer is no. However, when groups work effectively, efficiently, and ethically, they have the potential to outperform individuals working alone and can make significant contributions to the quality of our lives. The critical question is not, “Are groups better than individuals?” Rather, ask yourself this: “How can we become a more effective group?”25 Introduction to Group Communication GroupWork It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst of Teams Directions: This activity is designed to help you identify some of the advantages and disadvantages of working in groups based on your own experiences and the experiences of others. Consider one of the groups in which you have worked. Then think about what you liked and disliked about working in that group. Now you should be able to identify characteristics unique to the best groups and worst groups. The Best of Teams Example: One member kept track of everyone’s birthday. On the meeting day closest to a birthday, we presented a card signed by everyone and shared a cake or cookies. 1. 9 Figure 1.4 Advantages of Working in Groups Advantages Better Decision Making Superior Resources Member Satisfaction Enhanced Learning Greater Creativity considered are the ways in which group communication can enhance member satisfaction, learning, and creativity. Better Decision Making Do groups or individuals 2. 3. 4. The Worst of Teams Example: The boss or leader refused to explain her decisions. When we’d ask why we could or couldn’t do something, she’d say, “Because I said so.” 1. 2. 3. 4. Figure 1.3 notes that, in most cases, the potential advantages of group collaboration far outweigh the potential disadvantages. Figure 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working • Better Decision Making • Superior Resources • Member Satisfaction • Enhanced Learning • Greater Creativity • More Time, Energy, and Resources • Potential for Conflicts • People Problems Disadvantages Advantages in Groups 1.3.1: Advantages of Working in Groups The advantages of working in groups (Figure 1.4) outweigh the disadvantages when group members collaborate effectively with one another in pursuit of a common goal. The first two advantages—Better Decision Making and Superior Resources—are the most obvious. What you may not have perform better and make better decisions? The answer is: It depends. When a task is fairly simple and routine (e.g., write a memo, total the day’s receipts), an individual working alone may perform it as well as or better than a group. A simple, routine task such as putting stamps on envelopes does not require a group because collaboration and interdependence are unnecessary. Even a more difficult task or problem that has one right answer may be solved more easily by a smart person or expert working alone than by a group. However, when a task is complex and the answers or solutions are unclear or require an understanding of multiple perspectives, a group has the potential to do a better job than individuals working alone. Once researchers understood the types of jobs that groups do best, their findings were nearly universal: groups usually outperform the average of their members’ individual judgments.26 Of course, there are exceptions. In a “bad” group of poorly chosen or too-busy members lacking sufficient information, motivation, and structured techniques, failure is likely. Every group member brings a wide variety of resources, including different life experiences, special expertise, and unique perspectives as well as ideas, information, and opinions about a variety of issues. When group members share what they know and what they believe, it broadens and enriches the group’s knowledge base. These collective ideas, information, and perspectives are likely to result in better-informed, more meaningful, and more effective group decision making and problem solving. With rare exceptions, a group has more and better resources to call upon than an individual working alone. Superior Resources The social benefits of group work can be just as important as task achievement. People belong to and work in groups because groups give them the opportunity to make friends, socialize, receive peer support, and feel part of a unified and successful team. Not surprisingly, the more opportunities group members have to communicate with one another, the more satisfied they are with the group experience. Member Satisfaction 10 Chapter 1 Working in groups is a collective learning experience in which members share ideas, information, and opinions relevant to a common goal. Research comparing cooperative, group-based learning with traditional approaches in college courses indicates that collaborative learning promotes higher individual achievement in knowledge acquisition, retention, accuracy, creativity in problem solving, and higher-level reasoning.27 New members learn from veterans, and amateurs learn from experts. In addition to learning more about the topics under discussion, members also learn more about how to work as a group. Enhanced Learning In addition to performing better than individuals working alone, groups also generate more innovative ideas and creative solutions. As MIT management professor Peter Senge writes, “If you want something really creative done, you ask a team to do it—instead of sending one person off to do it on his or her own.”28 Lee Towe, author of Why Didn’t I Think of That? Creativity in the Workplace, writes that the “key to creativity is the mental flexibility required to mix thoughts from our many different experiences.”29 When you combine your thoughts with those of other group members, you increase the group’s creative potential. In addition to providing a creative multiplier effect by tapping more information, more brainpower, and more insights, groups have “awesome superiority” when trying to unleash creativity and solve challenging problems.30 Greater Creativity Groups in Balance . . . Create Synergy When three or more interdependent group members collaborate and work toward achieving a common goal, they have the potential to create a synergy. The term synergy, often expressed as the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, comes from the Greek word synergos, meaning “working together.” Synergy does not occur when people work alone; it only occurs when people work together. In terms of group communication, synergy is a state in which the effective collaboration of group members produces better results than what would be expected given the sum of skills and abilities of individual members working alone. A sports team of good players may, by the virtue of synergy, defeat a team with several superstars. A design team at a high-tech company may surprise the world with new technological breakthroughs that the individuals on the team could not have developed alone. Effective groups are synergistic. Baseball teams without superstars have won the World Series. Companies with executives who earn modest salaries have surpassed other companies in which CEOs are paid millions of dollars. Ordinary groups have achieved extraordinary results. Synergy occurs when the knowledge, talents, and dedication of group members merge into a force that surpasses anything group members could have produced without collaboration. 1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working in Groups The advantages are clear when groups are working efficiently and effectively. The disadvantages (Figure 1.5) are more likely to occur when working in a group is not the best way to achieve a goal, when members don’t work to their full potential, or when problems interfere with group members’ willingness and ability to communicate. The most common complaints about working in groups concern the amount of time, energy, and resources expended by groups and the conflicts and people problems that can arise. Figure 1.5 Disadvantages of Working in Groups Disadvantages More Time, Energy, and Resources Potential for Conflicts People Problems Working in groups costs time, energy, and resources. Nonproductive meetings, poor communication, and vague group objectives can gobble up as many as two of every five workdays. Workers report spending an average of 5.6 hours a week in meetings, and rate 69 percent of those meetings as ineffective.31 The wasted psychic and physical energy expended in poorly run meetings can lead to counterproductive stress and indifference. We spend a lot of time and energy in groups; if that time and effort are wasted, we are throwing away valuable resources. More Time, Energy, and Resources Potential for Conflict  Very few people enjoy or seek out conflict, but when group members work together to achieve a common goal, there is always the potential for disagreement. Members who habitually disagree may be seen as aggressive or disruptive. As a result, some people will do almost anything to avoid conflict and confrontation. They may go out of their way to avoid working in groups, even though discussing different perspectives and exploring alternative options promote better group problem solving and decision Introduction to Group Communication making. Some group members avoid meetings in which controversial issues are scheduled for discussion; others are unwilling to express their opinions when they do attend. 1.4: The Nature of Group Communication People Problems As much as we may want others to share our interests, viewpoints, and willingness to work, there is always the potential for individual group members to create problems. Like anyone else in our daily lives, group members can be stubborn, lazy, and even cruel. The presence of certain members can even influence decisions about whether to participate in a particular group. To avoid conflict or extra work, some members may go along with the group or play “Follow the leader” rather than search for the best solution to a problem. Strong, domineering members can put so much pressure on others that they effectively stifle productive discussion and constructive dissent. Although no one wants to work with a group of unpleasant members, there may be circumstances in which people problems cannot be avoided. Fortunately, this textbook provides a wide range of effective strategies and skills for conducting successful and efficient meetings, managing the inevitable conflicts that arise in groups, and coping with and overcoming inappropriate member behavior. 1.4 Watch The Group Project 11 Describe how understanding the components of the group communication process can enhance group effectiveness Now that you have learned the basic components and types of groups, two concepts can help you to better understand the complex nature of group communication: (1) the critical functions of communication theories, strategies, and skills; and (2) the nature of the group communication process. 1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills Throughout this textbook, we examine the theories, strategies, and skills needed to promote and balance group productivity and member satisfaction.32 • A theory is a clear, systematic, and predictive explanation of a phenomenon. Unlike the personal hunches or guesses you may have about how effective groups work, who will win Dancing with the Stars, or the impact of climate change, valid theories are based on the interpretation of knowable and verifiable facts. Group communication theories help us understand what is occurring in a group as well as why groups succeed or fail. • A strategy is a method, guideline, or technique for dealing with the issues and problems that arise in groups. Watch a clip of the video “The Group Project,” which illustrates several disadvantages of working in groups as well as questions about member ethics. WRITING PROMPT Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups 1. 2. The chapter text identifies several types of groups. Which type or types would best describe the group in the video? To what extent did one member’s gossip about Sarah influence the group leader? How would a comment like this influence you in a similar group? The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor. Submit Effective strategies are based on theories. Without theories, you won’t know why a particular strategy works in one situation yet fails in another. If, contrary to leadership theory, you believe that a domineering leadership style is more effective than a democratic one, you may find yourself at odds with group members and even out of your leadership job. • A skill is a specific ability that helps a group engage in collaborative work to achieve its common goal. Communication skills are the most important skills available to group members. Like strategies, skills are most effective when their use is based on theories. For example, although active and empathic listening skills are difficult to master, theories and research demonstrate they are well worth the effort because they enhance the quality of group collaboration. A group member may know what strategies and skills to use, but may have no idea why the strategies work or how to perform the required skills. Eager to solve problems or achieve a common goal, a group may use inappropriate skills or hunches that don’t address the true causes of a problem or help achieve the goal. Using strategies and 12 Chapter 1 skills without an understanding of appropriate theories can make the process of working in groups inefficient, ineffective, and frustrating for all members. 1.4.2: The Group Communication Process Figure 1.6 illustrates the interactions among the six basic elements of group communication. Figure 1.6 The Group Communication Process k MEMBER #3 sa es k M ac ls ls ne an es db ne sa ee an ge /F Ch /F ee db ac k Channels Channels Ch ls ac db ne ee an ge /F k ac db ee M ls /F MEMBER #1 Explain how successful groups balance various dialectic tensions by using a collaborative both/ and approach ne ge Ch sa Message/ Feedback an Ch es M ge sa es M CONTEXT CONTEXT Channels Channels 1.5: Balance as the Guiding Principle of Group Work 1.5 MEMBER #2 CONTEXT Communication is complex enough when just two people interact, and becomes even more complicated when additional people are involved. At its most fundamental level, the group communication process includes six basic elements common to all forms of human communication: members, messages, context, channels, feedback, and noise. These elements are described in Table 1.4. CONTEXT MEMBER #4 = Noise Effective communication helps group members create a worthy common goal, share relevant information and opinions, make sound decisions, effectively solve problems, and develop supportive interpersonal relationships. At the heart of this textbook is an important guiding principle: An ideal group succeeds because it achieves balance, a state of equilibrium in which extreme approaches neither dominate nor interfere with the group’s ultimate ability to achieve its common goal. In group communication, the group’s common goal is the point on which members must balance many factors. A group that makes a decision or completes an assigned task is not in balance if group members end up hating one another. A group that relies on one or two members to do all of the work is not in balance. Effective groups weigh factors such as the group’s task and social functions, individual and group needs, and the responsibilities of leadership and followership. Achieving balance requires an understanding of the interplay of the contradictory forces that operate in all groups. 1.5.1: Groups in Balance All of us balance competing options every day. Should you work or play? Should you spend or save? Should you eat a Table 1.4 Basic Elements of Group Communication Basic Elements of Group Communication Description Group Examples Members People with distinct knowledge, experiences, personality traits, attitudes, skills, and cultural backgrounds who are recognized as belonging to the group A surgical team includes one or more surgeons, an anesthesiologist, and function-specific surgical nurses. Messages The ideas, information, opinions, claims, and/or feelings expressed by group members that generate meaning in others Group members ask for and share relevant ideas, information, and opinions. Context The physical and psychological environment in which a group communicates, including factors such as group size, working conditions, and the relationships among members A study group meeting in the college cafeteria communicates in a different context than a corporate marketing team holding a video conference with international clients. Channels The media through which group members share messages using one or more of their five senses in face-to-face or mediated settings Group members express themselves verbally (words), nonverbally (facial expressions, body language, vocal cues) and/or through various mediated channels. Feedback Verbal and/or nonverbal responses from members that indicate how well others received and interpreted a message Group members noticeably respond verbally, nonverbally, and/or through mediated channels to the meaning of others’ messages. Noise Any external (sounds, room conditions) or internal (attitudes, beliefs, and values) factors that interfere with how well members express themselves or interpret the messages of others External Noise: Hallway sounds, hot/cold room, poor lighting, uncomfortable seating Internal Noise: Biases, worried thoughts, anger, fatigue, hunger, headaches Introduction to Group Communication 13 by ongoing, dialectic tensions among the multiple contradictions, complexities, and changes in human experiences.33 The following pairs of common folk proverbs illustrate such contradictory, dialectic tensions: “Opposites attract,” but “Birds of a feather flock together.” “Two’s company; three’s a crowd,” but “The more, the merrier.”34 Successful groups learn to balance the competing and contradictory forces that operate in all groups. big bowl of ice cream or a piece of fresh fruit for dessert? Such tensions are best resolved by taking a both/and approach rather than the either/or perspective just described. For example, if you’re lucky, you may have both a job that pays well and one in which you enjoy working. If you both spend wisely and save more, you can look forward to a more secure financial future. If you eat both small portions of ice cream and fresh fruit, the result is a more balanced diet. Even in close personal relationships, a couple may both cherish their time together and respect each other’s need for time apart. As you will see, a both/and approach helps group members collaborate with one another in pursuit of a common goal. 1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics The term dialectics, a method for examining and resolving two contradictory or opposing ideas, may be new to you. Linked to the notion of dialectics is the need for balance as a means of maintaining equilibrium between the competing pressures in groups. It may help you to remember that the prefix di- means two, as in diagonal (joining two opposite points) or dialogue (a conversation between two people). Effective groups engage in a cooperative effort to balance group dialectics through effective communication strategies. Rather than trying to prove that one of these contradictory proverbs is truer than the other—an either/or response— relational dialectics takes a both/and approach. Unlike relational dialectics and more narrow in scope, group dialectics are the inevitable, contradictory tensions group members experience as they collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal. Researchers describe several ways in which groups try to resolve such dialectic tensions. We have consolidated these options into four categories, each of which is followed by an example. The first three are usually less effective than the fourth, which is both the most effective and (not surprisingly) the most difficult.35 • Do Nothing A group and its members ignore, deny, or pretend to fix dialectic tensions. In other words, they do nothing. If the tensions are trivial or diminish with time, this strategy can work. Suppose a person invited to join the group because of a specialized expertise or talent dominates discussions and belittles less-informed group members; the group may tolerate the resulting tension, hoping that group pressure eventually will modify the new member’s behavior. • Select Only One and Ignore the Other A group chooses only one of the dialectic behaviors, such as stick to a strict agenda or rely on creativity. Or even though a group knows that two absent members would vote against a proposal, they go ahead and make the decision anyway—all in the name of avoiding tensions. • Choose Different Options for Different Situations Say that a group’s monthly meeting usually adheres to a highly structured agenda. When group members have difficulty coming up with new ideas or a range of solutions to a problem, they may choose a dissimilar approach: set aside the agenda and do some unstructured brainstorming. Switching back and forth may work when the group carefully chooses techniques compatible with the group’s task and member traits. • Collaborate Theory in Groups Relational Dialectics Theory Objective: Evaluate the different methods groups use to balance the dialectic tensions that arise when members collaborate to achieve a shared goal. Communication scholars Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery use the term dialectics to describe the complex and contradictory nature of personal relationships. Their Relational Dialectics Theory claims that relationships are characterized In our definition of group communication, we use the term collaboration to describe coordinated group interaction in which interdependent members share a common goal, respect others, and work together. Effective collaboration also occurs when a group recognizes dialectic tensions and attempts to work out creative, both/ and responses to it.36 Depending on the nature of the problem—be it the potential for conflict between members, a domineering member, tension between structure and spontaneity, or any other tension—the group may choose any of the above three options, or collaborate with one another by balancing a both/and approach. 14 Chapter 1 When members collaborate, they openly acknowledge and honestly confront the dialectic tensions. Only then can they discuss ways to balance the contradictory tensions in the hope that the problems will be resolved. A group’s inability to recognize and appropriately address serious dialectic tensions can result in failure to achieve a common goal as well as member dissatisfaction and antagonism. Restoring balance and resolving dialectic tensions are critical tasks in all groups seeking to achieve a common goal.37 Successful groups balance dialectic tensions by using a collaborative both/and approach. You may both enjoy warm friendships with some members and effectively cope with members who are difficult. Your group may want both a stable, predictable process of problem solving and the freedom to experiment and seek creative outcomes. Table 1.5 presents nine group dialectic tensions that call for a balanced approach to their resolution.38 Table 1.5 Group Dialectics Group Dialectics Balancing Group Dialectics Individual Goals m Group Goals Members’ personal goals are balanced with the group’s common goal. Conflict m Cohesion The value of constructive conflict is balanced with the need for unity and cohesiveness. Conforming m Nonconforming A commitment to group norms and standards is balanced with a willingness to differ and change. Task Dimensions m Social Dimensions The responsibility and motivation to complete tasks are balanced with promoting member relationships. A group will not function well—or at all—if members focus entirely on their individual goals rather than on the group’s common goal. When a group agrees on a clear and important goal, members can pursue both individual and group goals as long as their personal goals do not undermine the common goal. For example, if you join a group because you’re interested in forming a romantic attachment with another member, your support of the group’s common goal may impress the person you desire, allowing you to attain your individual goal. In the best of groups, your personal goals support the group’s common goal. If you do not share the group’s goal, you may become frustrated or even try to undermine the group. In ideal groups, members negotiate their personal needs and interests to achieve a balance between the dialectic tension of being an independent member of an interdependent group. Conflict is unavoidable in effective groups. How else can members express disagreements that may lead to better solutions? How else can groups ensure that ethical standards are upheld? Groups without constructive conflict are groups without the means to analyze the wisdom of their decisions. At the same time, groups also benefit from cohesion—the mutual attraction and teamwork that holds the members of a group together. All for one and one for all! Cohesive groups are committed and unified, but they are also willing to disagree and engage in conflict when necessary. Group norms are specific standards of behavior expected by members of a particular group. Norms affect the quality and quantity of work by group members. Dialectic tensions can arise when one or more members challenge a group norm or standard. Effective groups recognize that constructive criticism contributes to group success. Contradictory group norms highlight the need for both conformity and nonconformity. The best groups negotiate the task dimensions 4 social dimensions dialectic by balancing work with social interaction. A group’s task dimensions focus on achieving its goal. The social dimensions focus on the interpersonal relationships among group members. Thus, a group discussing a department’s budget primarily focuses on its task. If, however, at the end of the meeting, the group surprises a member with a cake in celebration of her birthday, the group’s focus shifts to the social dimension. More often, groups exhibit both task and social dimensions when they get the job done in a way that makes everyone feel socially accepted and valued. When groups balance work and play, they are more productive. Think of how frustrating it is to work on a group task when members don’t get along. Think of how disappointing it is to work with friends who don’t take a task seriously or don’t make significant contributions. The old saying “All work and no play makes Jack [or Jill] a dull boy [or girl]” certainly applies to groups. However, all play and no work can make you unemployed.39 Homogeneous m Heterogeneous Member similarities are balanced with member differences in skills, roles, personal characteristics, and cultural perspectives. The prefixes homo and hetero come from the Greek language. Homo means “same or similar”; hetero means “different.” A homogeneous group is composed of members who are the same or very similar to one another. The members of a heterogeneous group are different from one another. Not surprisingly, there is no such thing as a purely homogeneous group because no two members can be exactly the same. Certainly, some groups are more homogeneous than heterogeneous. For example, the Black Caucus in the U.S. Congress is more homogeneous than the Congress as a whole. The legal team representing a client is more homogeneous in terms of education, income, professional experience, and lifestyle than the jury selected to hear the case. Every person on this Earth—and thus every member of a group—is different, and that’s a good thing. If every group member were exactly alike, the group would not achieve much more than one member working alone. At the same time, similarities assure members that they share some common characteristics, traits, and attitudes. Leadership m Followership Effective and ethical leadership is balanced with committed and responsible followership. Effective leadership has many components and challenges. It is not a solo task—it also requires competent and responsible followers. Effective leaders have the confidence to put their egos aside and bring out the leadership in others.40 When group members assume specific leadership functions, the group has achieved an optimum balance of both leadership and followership. Introduction to Group Communication 15 Table 1.5 Group Dialectics (Continued) Group Dialectics Balancing Group Dialectics Structure m Spontaneity The need for structured procedures is balanced with the need for innovative and creative thinking. Engaged m Disengaged Member energy and labor are balanced with the group’s need for rest and renewal. Group communication scholar Marshall Scott Poole claims that procedures are “the heart of group work [and] the most powerful tools we have to improve the conduct of meetings.”41 Structured procedures help groups balance participation, resolve conflicts, organize discussions, and solve problems. However, if a group becomes obsessed with rigid procedures it misses out on the benefits of spontaneity and creativity. Whether it’s just “thinking outside the box” or organizing a creative problem-solving session, groups can reap enormous benefits by encouraging innovation and “what-if” thinking. Effective groups balance the need for structure with time for spontaneous and creative thinking. The engaged–disengaged dialectic has two dimensions—one related to the amount of activity, the other related to the level of commitment. Groups often experience two opposite types of activities: high-energy, nonstop action, relieved by periods of relaxation and renewal. Effective groups understand that racing toward a distant finish line may only exhaust group members and leave some sitting on the sidelines panting for breath. At the same time, low energy and inaction accomplish nothing. Balancing the urge to run with the need for rest and renewal challenges most groups. Open System m Closed System External support and recognition are balanced with internal group solidarity and rewards. All groups are systems. Effective groups maintain a balance by moving between open and closed systems. When a group functions as an open system, it welcomes input from and interaction with its environment. That input can be the opinions of nongroup members, information from outside research, or challenges from competing groups. When a group functions as a closed system, it guards its boundaries and discourages input or interaction with the outside. Depending on the situation, a group may open its boundaries and welcome input, or close them to protect the group and its work. Effective groups understand that there are times when they must function as an open system and other times when they must close the door and work in private. For example, a hiring committee may function as an open system in order to recruit candidates and research their backgrounds. When they have finished this process, they meet privately and confidentially to evaluate the candidates and make a hiring recommendation. ally committed, and appropriately rewarded for their work. Stopping to recharge or relax would only frustrate a group with pent-up energy. At the other end of the dialectic spectrum, members who plod through group work with little enthusiasm may feel unmotivated, uncaring, and unrewarded. Asking such groups to pick up speed would only increase their resentment. Groups in Balance . . . Enjoy Working Together Have you or a group you’re in ever been totally caught up in what you were doing, wholly focused on it, and also able to perform at a very high level with ease?42 If your answer is yes, you have had an optimal group experience in which all group members are caught up in the group’s work and are performing at a high level of achievement. When group participation becomes an optimal experience, members are highly motivated. They are committed and inspired. Creative thinking comes easily, and working on the task is pleasurable. Hard work is energizing rather than exhausting. Some groups find the optimal experience so pleasurable that they’d rather do group work than relax or socialize.43 To achieve this optimal level of motivation, you and your group must negotiate several dialectic tensions. First, you must have a worthy goal that motivates both individual members and the group as a whole. You must balance both task and social dimensions by encouraging members to complete tasks and by promoting strong interpersonal relationships. You must both support and reward member engagement and accommodate members who need to disengage by pausing, recharging, and relaxing. Sometimes, high-energy action is unstoppable because group members are extremely motivated, person- 1.6: Ethical Group Communication 1.6 Practice the ethical principles included in the National Communication Association’s Credo for Ethical Communication Ethics requires understanding whether you and other group members behave in a way that meets agreed-upon standards of right and wrong.44 Ethical questions—Are we doing the right thing? Is he dishonest? Is she tolerant of different viewpoints?—arise whenever we communicate because communication has consequences. What you say and do can help or hurt both group members and other people affected by the group’s decisions and actions. 16 Chapter 1 1.6.1: Ethics in Balance All of the characteristics, guidelines, dialectics, theories, strategies, and skills in this chapter are questionable if a group and its members fail to behave ethically. Ethics embodies an understanding of whether group members’ communication behaviors meet agreed-upon standards of right and wrong. Initially, you may think that the “rules” of ethical behavior are absolute: “Thou shalt not steal” or “Thou shalt not lie.” Is it ethical, however, to steal a loaf of bread if your family is starving? Is it acceptable to lie if telling the truth would do more harm than good? There are often dialectic tensions involved in making ethical decisions. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle offered his doctrine of the mean as an ethical principle based on moderation and appropriateness.45 In this doctrine, the term mean is used as in “a point between extremes,” rather than mean as in “nasty” or “cruel.” The doctrine of the mean counsels that when you face an ethical decision, you should select an appropriate reaction somewhere between two extremes. Aristotle’s golden mean constitutes the essence of the and/or approach to group dialectics. For example, highly effective groups learn how to appropriately balance individual and group goals, conflict and cohesion, structure and spontaneity, as well as six other dialectics. Ethical questions arise whenever you work in groups. Is it ethical to share questionable rumors about a job candidate to make sure your group doesn’t hire an unsuitable person? Is it acceptable to tell exaggerated, heartbreaking stories about hungry children to persuade a group to provide financial support to a local food bank? Is it fair for some group members to boycott a meeting because they are strongly opposed to the politics of a person who has been invited to participate? Aristotle would tell us to avoid a yes or no answer. An ethical group and its members seek an appropriate and ethical both/and response. Throughout this text, we provide regular features about group ethics that address issues facing you and your group as you work toward a common goal. 1.6.2: Credo for Ethical Communication The National Communication Association, the largest professional communication association in the world, formulated and adopted the NCA Credo for Ethical Communication, a set of guiding principles that assess how well communication behaviors meet agreed-upon standards of right and wrong.46 In Latin, the word credo means “I believe.” Thus, an ethics credo is a belief statement about what it means to be an ethical communicator. All of the ethical principles in the NCA Credo apply to working in groups. Ethical communication requires an understanding of the tensions that operate in all groups as well as a desire to communicate in a way that meets agreedupon standards of right and wrong. Ethics in Groups The National Communication Association Credo for Ethical Communication Objective: Understand the NCA Credo for Ethical Communication Preamble Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people ...
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