SPE103
FINAL EXAM
(100 Points)
EXPLORING PUBLIC SPEAKING
APPENDIX B/APPENDIX C/APPENDIX D/APPENDIX E/APPENDIX F
Mr. Gynn
1. According to your textbook, what percentage of college students change their
majors at least once? How many times does the typical college student
change their major? According to your textbook, what are the seven top
skills employers look for? Does this class fit one (or more) of the seven?
2. According to the author of your textbook, when must one cite their
information in a presentation? According to your textbook, what information
must be in the citation of an academic journal article? A magazine article? A
web page? A motion picture? According to your textbook, what is
GALILEO?
3. An Associate’s Degree is typically limited to how many college hours/credits?
A Bachelor’s Degree is typically limited to how many college hours/credits?
How many hours/credits are required for “core” classes at Dalton State
College (where the author of your textbook teaches communication studies)?
4. According to your textbook, how are college courses more demanding than
high school classes? Please identify the four primary differences between
college courses and high school classes identified in your textbook?
5. What is the “10-20-30” rule? What are seven tips your author gives for
successful online presentations? According to your textbook, what are some
positive aspects of humor in a presentation? What are some negative aspects
of humor in a presentation?
6. What does the author of your textbook mean when she says
colleges/universities are “autonomous?” Please be specific. What was the
name of the first university? When was it founded? What was the name of
the first British university? When was it founded?
7. According to you textbook, what are four core values of colleges/universities?
What are twelve characteristics of most college faculty that it is important
for students to know?
8. According to your textbook, what are seven “Don’ts” to avoid with your
college professors? What is the one keyword the author of your textbook
feels is necessary for success at the college level? What book did she learn
this from?
9. What are the six theories of learning the author of your textbook identifies?
Please identify each one, and then briefly explain each one. What are the
three steps the author idientifies to take to control both speech and test
anxiety?
10. According to your textbook, what is the difference between a college and a
university? What does the author of your textbook mean when she refers to
the term “metacognition?” What does she mean when she refers to the
phrase “time on task?” What does SQ3R mean? Please explain.
Extra Credit: According to your textbook, what is the one thing that is the “Kiss of
Death” when it comes to online speaking?
OAKTON COMMUNITY COLLEGE
COURSE SYLLABUS
EFFECTIVE SPEECH (SPE103)
MR. GYNN
OFFICE: 2729
OFFICE HOURS:
MONDAY: 3:30 to 4:00 and 5:00 to 5:30
WEDNESDAY: 4:00 to 5:00 (by appointment)
BY APPOINTMENT
(847) 635-1843
Bgynn@oakton.edu
I.
II.
Course
Prefix
Course
Number
Course
Name
SPE
103
Effective
Speech
Credit
Lecture
3
3
Lab
0
Prerequisites:
None
III.
Course Description:
Course offers opportunities to develop capability in oral communications. Content
includes rhetorical theory, organization and structure of ideas, techniques for general
speaking and listening effectiveness, practical experience in individual and group
presentations. Recommended: EGL 101 or placement in EGL 101.
IV.
Learning Objectives:
1. How to use strategies that reduce speaker anxiety.
2. How to deliver extemporaneous speeches using vocal and physical delivery.
3. How to organize ideas using clear structure.
4. How to create speeches that connect with audience demographics.
5. How to collaborate with class members in small groups.
6. How to apply research to support ideas in speeches.
SPE 103
V.
Page 2
Academic Integrity and Student Conduct:
Students and employees at Oakton Community College are required to demonstrate
academic integrity and follow Oakton’s Code of Academic Conduct. This code prohibits:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
cheating,
plagiarism (turning in work not written by you, or lacking proper citation),
falsification and fabrication (lying or distorting the truth),
helping others to cheat,
unauthorized changes on official documents,
pretending to be someone else or having someone else pretend to be you,
making or accepting bribes, special favors, or threats, and
any other behavior that violates academic integrity.
There are serious consequences to violations of the academic integrity policy. Oakton’s
policies and procedures provide students a fair hearing if a complaint is made against
you. If you are found to have violated the policy, the minimum penalty is failure on the
assignment and, a disciplinary record will be established and kept on file in the office of
the Vice President for Student Affairs for a period of 3 years.
Details of the Code of Academic Conduct can be found in the Student Handbook.
Please review the Code of Academic Conduct and the Code of Student Conduct, both
located online at www.oakton.edu/studentlife/student-handbook.pdf.
VI.
Outline of Topics:
A. Content Areas:
1. ethics
2. listening
3. audience analysis
4. topic selection
5. support materials
6. research strategies
7. organizing and outlining
8. language: figures of speech, appropriateness, semantics
9. delivery
10. presentation aids
11. informative, persuasive, demonstration, special occasion speeches
12. group dynamics
B. Course content of syllabus may be altered due to unforeseen circumstances.
C. Content areas covered are the same across sections/instructors; time
frames/methodologies vary
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SPE 103
VII.
Page 3
Methods of Instruction:
A. Lecture/discussion of necessary information, including documentation and source
citation
B. Instructor examples of effective/ineffective speeches, positive/negative
speaker/listener behaviors
C. Student presentations: conversation, entertainment; information; demonstration;
opinion support (commentary; persuasive-level one; call to action); impromptu; group
(panel; symposium; debate). Approximate time limits:
Presentation #1: Values Speech (100 points)
Presentation #2: Informative Speech with
Visual Aids (100 points)
Presentation #3: Research Speech with
Visual Aids (150 points)
*Impromptu:
3-6 minutes
4-7 minutes
5-8 minutes
1-2 minutes
D. Feedback on/evaluation of speeches
1.
2.
VIII.
Course Practices Required:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
IX.
video-taping/self evaluation
instructor/audience comments
Reading (College Level)
Typed speech outlines/typed response papers
Writing (College Level)
Oral Presentations
Critical Thinking
Structured peer evaluations
Instructional Materials:
Text (required) to be selected from most recent editions:
Exploring Public Speaking (3rd Edition) by Barbara Tucker, Kristin Barton, Amy Burger,
Jerry Drye, and Cathy Hunsicker.
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SPE 103
X.
Page 4
Methods of Evaluation:
I maintain student grades for course completion for the fall 2020 term based on the
provided scale. However, and just as important, students are expected to track their own
grades record throughout the fall term to self-monitor assignment completion and
progress. Grades are determined by numerical grades received for achievement on the
following:
Test #1 = Chapters 1-5 (Week #2: 09/28 to 10/04)
Values Speech Outline = (Week #3: 10/05 to 10/11)
Test #2 = Chapters 6-10 (Week #4: 10/12 to 10/18)
Values Speech = (Week #5 and Week #6: 10/19 to 10/25
And 10/26 to 11/01)
Test #3 = Chapters 11-15 (Week #7: 11/02 to 11/08)
Self-Evaluation #1 (Week #7: 11/02 to 11/08)
Informative-Speech with Visual Aids Outline (Week #8:
11/09 to 11/15)
Informative-Speech with Visual Aids (Week #9: 11/16 to 11/22)
Research Speech Outline (Week #10: 11/23 to 11/29)
Works Cited Page (Week #10: 11/23 to 11/29)
Self-Evaluation #2 (Week #10: 11/23 to 11/29)
Research Speech (Week #11 and Week #12: 11/30 to 12/06
and 12/07 to 12/13)
Self-Evaluation #3 (Week #12: 12/07 to 12/13)
Final Exam = Cumulative (Week #12: 12/07 to 12/13)
50 points
50 points
50 points
Total
1000 points
*Speaker Showcase Extra Credit (Week #12: 12/08/20)
(25 points)*
100 points
50 points
50 points
50 points
100 points
100 points
50 points
50 points
150 points
50 points
100 points
Final Course Grades
A
900-1000
B
800-899
C
700-799
D
600-699
F
599 and below
*Watch and Review ALL Sample Speeches Several Times—it is the expectation for your own
speeches.
*Please have potential topics for each of your three presentations ready for class discussions.
*Please work ahead as best you can. As you can see, the course becomes more demanding with
each passing week.
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SPE 103
XI.
Page 5
Other Course Information:
A.
Attendance:
Attendance is required in this course. The Speech Department maintains a formal
attendance policy. This policy will be strictly adhered to. Please familiarize
yourself with it at this time.
Rationale:
Speech 103 is a performance course, which requires a prepared, responsive audience
to be effective. Attendance is highly encouraged and taken at all ZOOM sessions.
Our ZOOM sessions start on Tuesday, August 25th and will then take place on
every subsequent Tuesday and Thursday. Please make every effort to attend.
Please be on time.
All students are expected to demonstrate the proper “Netiquette” at all times.
This includes the following:
1. No yelling please: in all situations, typing in ALL CAPS is unnecessary and
inappropriate.
2. Sarcasm can (and will) backfire in the virtual world.
3. Don't abuse anyone's mailbox, the chat box in Zoom, or any other like
communication tool, this includes both the amount of correspondence you send as
well the language you use within your correspondence—tact and diplomacy are
two keys to one’s success.
4. Attempt to find your own answer, first. If you’re confused or stuck on an
assignment, your first instinct may be to immediately ask a question. But before
you ask, take the time to try to figure it out on your own--very important skill and
ability to possess within any online forum.
5. Always make an effort to use proper punctuation, spelling and grammar.
Trying to decipher a string of misspelled words with erratic punctuation frustrates
the reader, distracts from the point of your message and often leads to additional
and unnecessary communication.
6. Set and maintain a respectful tone. Use respectful greeting and signatures, full
sentences and even the same old "please" and "thank you" you use in real life. I
either ignore or address, in a very straight away manner, any language or tone I
deem disrespectful or disingenuous. I don't respond to it.
7. Submit all assignments, papers, outlines, files, etc. the right way the first time.
You won't be printing assignments and handing to them to me in person, so
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SPE 103
Page 6
knowing how to properly submit your work online is key to your success as an
online student as well as a more stress less online experience.
8. Read and/or listen first, understand second, think-over third, think-over again
fourth, respond fifth.
9. Think before you type too : )
10. For each class session, have open simultaneously Zoom and Canvas—we will
use both platforms during class sessions.
11. Have paper and pen close (old school) by for taking notes and/or writing
comments and questions for Q/A at the end of each Zoom Session.
12. Apply kindness and always maintain professionalism. Good netiquette means
conducting yourself in an online class with the same respect, politeness and
decency that you would exhibit in a real-life classroom.
13. Please always begin your emails to me with “Prof. Gynn” or “Mr. Gynn” or
“Mr. G” as part of proper protocol, and always end your email with your first and
last name as well as your course section, especially during the first month of the
course, when I’m trying to learn and remember names—after about a month,
ending emails with your first name should be good.
In a nutshell, behave responsibly and respectfully in all parts and pieces of the
classroom and this course. Please act and conduct yourselves accordingly. Think
very carefully with the language you use and how you use it. It is extremely easy
to be misunderstood within any online environment, and no one likes to be
misunderstood. Any behavior deemed unacceptable by the instructor, in any way,
shape or form, can and may lead to a prompt dismissal from a class session and/or
this course.
Finally and most important, please remember that technology has many
many limits, and a calm, cool, and collect approach is almost always the best
approach to it (as well as in many other facets of life).
Grades for any/all late work will receive a 30% grade reduction.
All 14 assignments must be submitted via the course. I will not accept any
assignments that are emailed to me and not submitted via the course unless I
have given you specific permission to do so.
Please meet privately with instructor regarding any special or unique
circumstances.
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SPE 103
Page 7
B.
Course content or syllabus may be altered due to unforeseen circumstances and/or at
the instructor’s discretion.
C.
If you have a documented learning, psychological, or physical disability, you may
be entitled to reasonable academic accommodations or services. To request
accommodations or services, contact the Access and Disability Resource Center
at the Des Plaines or Skokie campus. All students are expected to fulfill essential
course requirements. The College will not waive any essential skill or
requirement of a course or degree program.
D.
Oakton Community College is committed to maintaining a campus environment
emphasizing the dignity and worth of all members of the community, and
complies with all federal and state Title IX requirements.
Oakton Community College is committed to combatting sexual misconduct. As
a result, college faculty and staff members are required to report any instances of
sexual misconduct, including harassment and sexual violence, to the Title IX
Coordinator so that all parties involved may be provided appropriate resources
and support options. There are two important exceptions to this requirement:
1) A list of the college’s Confidential Advisors who, as counselors and medical
professionals, do not have this reporting responsibility and can maintain
confidentiality, can be found here:
https://www.oakton.edu/studentservices/counseling/contact/
2) An important exception to the reporting requirement exists for academic
work. Disclosures about sexual misconduct that are shared as part of an
academic project, classroom discussion, or course assignment, are not
required to be disclosed to the college’s Title IX office.
Students who have been subjected to any form of sexual misconduct, are
encouraged to access these resources:
•
•
•
Office of Student Affairs: 847-635-1745
SHARE @ the Wellness Center: 847-635-1885 (8:30 AM TO 5 PM M-F)
and 847-635-1880 (after business hours to reach the Counselor on Call)
Oakton’s Title IX webpage: https://www.oakton.edu/about/title_ix/index.php
If there is a safety concern, please contact Oakton Police Department, 847-6351880.
Other reporting information is available here:
https://cm.maxient.com/reportingform.php?OaktonCC&layout_id=2
Resources and support for:
• Pregnancy-related and parenting accommodations can be found at:
https://www.oakton.edu/about/title_ix/pregnancy_parenting.php
• Resources and support for LGBTQ+ students can be found at
www.oakton.edu/lgbtq
F.
Electronic video and/or audio recording is not permitted during class unless the
student obtains written permission from the instructor. In cases where recordings
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SPE 103
Page 8
are allowed, such content is restricted to personal use only. Any distribution of
such recordings is strictly prohibited. Personal use is defined as use by an
individual student for the purpose of studying or completing course assignments.
For students who have been approved for audio and/or video recording of lectures
and other classroom activities as a reasonable accommodation by Oakton’s
Access Disabilities Resource Center (ADRC), applicable federal law requires
instructors to permit those recordings. Such recordings are also limited to personal
use. Any distribution of such recordings is strictly prohibited.
Violation of this policy will result in disciplinary action through the Code of
Student Conduct.
G.
Oakton Emergency Building Closures. When an Oakton building is closed due to
an emergency (e.g., weather-related closings), that doesn't mean instruction stops.
Students should check for communications from their instructor via D2L, other
learning environments such as myMathlab, or via email or text. If you don't
receive communication from your instructor within 24 hours of building closure,
please contact them.
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SPE 103
Page 9
SPE103 Course Schedule
Fall 2020 M/W
Reading Assignments/Speeches/Outlines/Exams/Evaluations/Other
Week #1 (09/21 to 09/23): Review Course Syllabus; Assign/Read Chapters 1 to 5 from Exploring Public
Speaking.
Week #2 (09/28 and 09/30): Assign Values Speech Outline; Assign Values Speech; Complete/Submit
Test #1 (Chapters 1 to 5 = 50 points) from Exploring Public Speaking; ZOOM #1.
Week #3 (10/05 and 10/07): Assign/Read Chapters 6 to 10 from Exploring Public Speaking;
Complete/Submit Values Speech Outline (50 points); Discuss Values Speech; ZOOM #2.
Week #4 (10/12 and 10/19): Complete/Submit Test #2 (Chapters 6 to 10 = 50 points); Finish Discussing
Values Speech; ZOOM #3.
Week #5 (10/19 and 10/21): Deliver Values Speech (100 Points); Assign/Read Chapters 11 to 15 from
Exploring Public Speaking; ZOOM #4.
Week #6 (10/26 and 10/28): Deliver Values Speech (100 points); Assign/Read Chapters 11 to 15 from
Exploring Public Speaking; ZOOM #5.
Week #7 (11/02 and 1104): Complete/Submit Test #3 (Chapters 11-15 = 50 points); Complete/Submit
Self –Evaluation #1 (50 points); Assign Informative Speech with Visual Aids; ZOOM # 6.
Week #8 (11/09 and 11/11): Submit Informative-Speech with Visual Aids Outline (50 points); Discuss
Informative Speech with Visual Aids; ZOOM #7.
Week #9: (11/16 and 11/18): Deliver/Submit Informative Speech with Visual Aids (100 points); ZOOM
#8.
Week #10 (11/23 and 11/25): Submit Research Speech Outline (100 points); Submit Works Cited Page
(50 points); Submit Self-Evaluation #2 (50 points); ZOOM #9.
Week #11: (11/30 and 12/02): Deliver Research Speech (150 points); ZOOM #10.
Week #12 (12/07 and 12/09): Deliver Research Speech (150 points); Submit Self-Evaluation #3 (50
points); Complete Final Exam (100 points); Attend Speaker Showcase (25 points extra credit); ZOOM
#11.
*Watch and Review ALL Sample Speeches Several Times—it is the expectation for your own speeches.
*Please have potential topics for each of your three presentations ready for class discussions.
*Please work ahead as best you can. As you can see, the course becomes more demanding with each
passing week. Also, I do not advise waiting until Sunday to complete/submit your work. If there are any
issues or problems doing so, and it is submitted late, there will be a 30% grade reduction. This happens
often with students who procrastinate, fyi.
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GALILEO, University System of Georgia
GALILEO Open Learning Materials
Communication Open Textbooks
Communication
Summer 2018
Exploring Public Speaking: 3rd Edition
Barbara Tucker
Dalton State College, btucker@daltonstate.edu
Kristin Barton
Dalton State College, kmbarton@daltonstate.edu
Amy Burger
Dalton State College, aburger1@daltonstate.edu
Jerry Drye
Dalton State College, jdrye@daltonstate.edu
Cathy Hunsicker
Dalton State College, chunsicker@daltonstate.edu
See next page for additional authors
Follow this and additional works at: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/communication-textbooks
Part of the Communication Commons
Recommended Citation
Tucker, Barbara; Barton, Kristin; Burger, Amy; Drye, Jerry; Hunsicker, Cathy; Mendes, Amy; and LeHew, Matthew, "Exploring Public
Speaking: 3rd Edition" (2018). Communication Open Textbooks. 1.
https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/communication-textbooks/1
This Open Textbook is brought to you for free and open access by the Communication at GALILEO Open Learning Materials. It has been accepted for
inclusion in Communication Open Textbooks by an authorized administrator of GALILEO Open Learning Materials. For more information, please
contact affordablelearninggeorgia@usg.edu.
Authors
Barbara Tucker, Kristin Barton, Amy Burger, Jerry Drye, Cathy Hunsicker, Amy Mendes, and Matthew
LeHew
This open textbook is available at GALILEO Open Learning Materials: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/communication-textbooks/1
Exploring Public Speaking
i
Exploring Public Speaking:
The Free Dalton State College
Public Speaking Textbook
3rd Edition
A Creative Commons Licensed
Open Educational Resource
for Introductory College Public Speaking Courses
Exploring Public Speaking
ii
Primary Author and Editor: Dr. Barbara G. Tucker
Contributors:
Ms. Amy Burger
Mr. Jerry Drye
Ms. Cathy Hunsicker
Ms. Amy Mendes
Mr. Matthew LeHew
Consultants:
Mr. Nick Carty
Ms. Kim Correll
Ms. Jackie Daniels
Dr. Clint Kinkead
Dr. Sarah Min
Dr. Tami Tomasello
In Memory of Dr. Kristin Barton, Originator of the Project and First Editor
For questions regarding this textbook, contact:
Dr. Barbara G. Tucker
Department of Communication
Dalton State College
650 College Drive
Dalton, GA 30720
Lorberbaum Liberal Arts 107B
(706) 272-4411
btucker@daltonstate.edu
Exploring Public Speaking
iii
This text exists under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, and as such it may be used for non-commercial purposes. Any portion of this text may be altered or edited; however,
author attribution is required, and if you remix, transform, or build upon
the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. Portions of this text were adapted from a free, opensource textbook without attribution as requested by the work’s original
creator(s) and licensee(s). The authors of Exploring Public Speaking
request that you let them know if you plan to use all or a major part of this
textbook as a primary text for your basic communication classes.
Exploring
Public Speaking: The Free Dalton State Col- lege Public Speaking Textbook by Barbara G. Tucker & Kristin M. Barton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Photographs are used by permission of the Office of Marketing and Communication at Dalton State College and are copyrighted 2017.
Exploring Public Speaking
iv
Introduction to Third
Edition of Exploring
Public Speaking
Exploring Public Speaking: The Free College Public Speaking Textbook
began as the brainchild of Dr. Kris Barton, Chair of the Department of
Communication at Dalton State College. It also was made possible through
a generous Textbook Transformation Grant in 2015 from Affordable Learning Georgia, a highly successful program of the University System of Georgia. Dr. Barton asked me to help him author/compile the text.
The goal was to provide a high-quality, usable, accessible, and low-cost
textbook for the hundreds of students who take COMM 1110 at Dalton
State College every year. This course is required of all degree-seeking students. We have been able to save students hundreds of thousands of dollars
already with this text. Unexpectedly and happily, the text has also been
downloaded close to 14,000 times (as of August 2018) all over the world
and has been adopted at many other institutions.
Dr. Barton and I worked on creating the textbook from July 2015 until May
2016, with the goal of going live with the text in Summer of 2016. Tragically Dr. Barton passed away in early May, a reality that still does not seem
real. He has been greatly missed as a friend, colleague, father, scholar,
teacher, and mentor.
The launch of the book proceeded; however, due to the loss of Dr. Barton,
the ancillaries were not finished. In Summer 2017 I took on a significant
revision and updating which I named the Second Edition. I included in
that edition information on college student success in the appendices. In
January 2018, a colleague, Matthew LeHew, and I won a grant from the
University System to create the ancillaries and improve the format for more
accessibility. I decided to remove the “Dalton State” from the title and
most examples for wider appeal. An appendix on library research retains
the information for specific use of Roberts Library on our campus.
Over 90% of the book is original with Dr. Barton, me, or other colleagues at
Dalton State College. Some parts, specifically from Chapters 9, 10, and 15,
are adapted from another open resource public speaking text whose author
prefers not to be cited.
This Third Edition, along with including necessary updates and being formatted with different software, includes four more appendices: one on online speaking, one on APA, one on humor and storytelling in public speaking, and one on Dalton State’s Library. I have also tried to clarify concepts,
Exploring Public Speaking
v
to provide “case studies” to show the rhetorical process, and include more
outlines and examples. We think this book is especially useful in coverage
of PowerPoint, audience responsiveness, ethics in public speaking, special
occasion speeches, and structure of speeches. Three ancillaries are available: electronic “flash cards” for study, Powerpoints on the 15 main chapters, and test banks for the 15 main chapters.
Thank you for downloading Exploring Public Speaking, and the co-authors
and I truly wish you happy teaching and learning with it. We welcome input. If you choose to use it, let us know at btucker@daltonstate.edu.
Exploring Public Speaking
i
Table of Contents
Introduction to Third Edition of Exploring Public Speaking.............................................................. iv
Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking...............................................................................................1
1.1 – What is Public Speaking?....................................................................................................... 2
1.2 – Anxiety and Public Speaking................................................................................................. 4
1.3 - Understanding the Process of Public Speaking....................................................................10
1.4 – The Value of Public Speaking in Your Life...........................................................................15
1.5 – Getting Started in Public Speaking......................................................................................16
Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and Listening....................................................................................... 20
2.1 – The Importance of Audience Analysis.................................................................................21
2.2 – Demographic Characteristics...............................................................................................21
2.3 – Psychographic Characteristics............................................................................................ 29
2.4 – Contextual Factors of Audience Analysis........................................................................... 34
2.5 – Listening in Public Speaking Settings................................................................................ 36
Chapter 3: Ethics in Public Speaking................................................................................................... 43
3.1 – Sources of Ethical Stances on Communication and Public Speaking................................ 44
3.2 – Credibility and Ethics..........................................................................................................48
3.3 – Plagiarism............................................................................................................................ 50
Chapter 4: Developing Topics for Your Speech...................................................................................60
4.1 – Getting Started with Your Topic and Purpose.....................................................................61
4.2 – Formulating a Specific Purpose Statement........................................................................ 62
4.3 – Formulating a Central Idea Statement...............................................................................68
4.4 – Problems to Avoid with Specific Purpose and Central Idea Statements............................ 71
Chapter 5: Researching Your Speeches................................................................................................77
5.1 – Primary and Secondary Research....................................................................................... 78
5.2 – Research on the Internet..................................................................................................... 79
5.3 – Conducting Your Own Research......................................................................................... 85
5.4 - Accessing Information Through a Library..........................................................................88
Exploring Public Speaking
ii
Chapter 6: Organizing and Outlining Your Speech............................................................................. 95
6.1 – Why We Need Organization in Speeches............................................................................ 96
6.2 - Patterns of Organization......................................................................................................98
6.3 – Connective Statements...................................................................................................... 106
6.4 – Outlining.............................................................................................................................111
Chapter 7: Supporting Your Speech Ideas.......................................................................................... 114
7.1 – Why Supporting Materials are Needed.............................................................................. 115
7.2 – Types of Supporting Materials...........................................................................................119
7.3 – Attention Factors and Supporting Material......................................................................133
Chapter 8: Introductions and Conclusions.........................................................................................139
8.1 – General Guidelines for Introductions and Conclusions................................................... 140
8.2 – Structuring the Introduction............................................................................................. 141
8.3 – Examples of Introductions................................................................................................152
8.4 – Structuring the Conclusion................................................................................................154
8.5 – Examples of Conclusions.................................................................................................. 160
Chapter 9: Presentation Aids in Speaking..........................................................................................162
9.1 - What Are Presentation Aids?..............................................................................................163
9.2 – Functions of Presentation Aids..........................................................................................164
9.3 – Types of Presentation Aids................................................................................................172
9.4 – Using Presentation Slides..................................................................................................187
9.5 – Low-Tech Presentation Aids............................................................................................. 198
Chapter 10: Language.........................................................................................................................202
10.1 – What Language Is and Does............................................................................................203
10.2 – Standards for Language in Public Speaking...................................................................206
10.3 – Developing Your Ability to Use Effective Language in Public Speaking.........................217
Chapter 11: Delivery...........................................................................................................................220
11.1 – The Importance of Delivery..............................................................................................221
11.2 – Methods of Speech Delivery............................................................................................ 222
11.3 – Preparing For Your Delivery............................................................................................ 225
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iii
11.4 – Practicing Your Delivery...................................................................................................231
11.5 – What to Do When Delivering Your Speech..................................................................... 234
Chapter 12: Informative Speaking..................................................................................................... 244
12.1 – What is an Informative Speech?...................................................................................... 245
12.2 – Types of Informative Speeches....................................................................................... 246
12.3 – Guidelines for Selecting an Informative Speech Topic................................................... 250
12.4 – Guidelines for Preparing an Informative Speech........................................................... 252
Sample Outline: Informative Speech on Lord Byron................................................................ 254
Sample Outline: Informative Speech on Haunted Places in Gettysburg.................................. 257
Chapter 13: Persuasive Speaking.......................................................................................................260
13.1 – Why Persuade?..................................................................................................................261
13.2 – A Definition of Persuasion................................................................................................261
13.3 – Why is Persuasion Hard?................................................................................................ 265
13.4 – Traditional Views of Persuasion.....................................................................................268
13.5 – Constructing a Persuasive Speech....................................................................................271
Sample Outline: Persuasive Speech on Facebook Usage...........................................................281
Chapter 14: Logical Reasoning...........................................................................................................284
14.1 – What is Correct Reasoning?............................................................................................ 285
14.2 – Inductive Reasoning........................................................................................................286
14.3 – Deductive Reasoning.......................................................................................................290
14.4 – Logical Fallacies............................................................................................................... 293
Chapter 15: Special Occasion Speaking.............................................................................................302
15.1 – Understanding Special Occasion Speeches.....................................................................303
15.2 – Types of Special Occasion Speeches................................................................................ 305
15.3 – Special Occasion Language..............................................................................................317
15.4 – Special Occasion Delivery................................................................................................ 318
Appendix A: Cultural Diversity in Public Speaking........................................................................... 322
Benefits and Challenges............................................................................................................. 322
Implications................................................................................................................................ 325
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Appendix B: Succeeding as a College Student................................................................................... 328
Part 1: How To Be a College Student.........................................................................................328
Part 2: Learning to Learn............................................................................................................341
Part 3: Reading Your Textbooks and Other Resources............................................................. 353
Part 4: Effective Memorization.................................................................................................. 356
Part 5: Test Anxiety/Speech Anxiety......................................................................................... 359
Part 6: Test-taking......................................................................................................................360
Part 7: Avoiding Plagiarism........................................................................................................ 364
Appendix C: Public Speaking Online................................................................................................. 369
Preparation for Online Speaking............................................................................................... 369
During the Web Speech...............................................................................................................371
Ending......................................................................................................................................... 372
Speaking for an Online Class..................................................................................................... 372
Appendix D: Humor Appendix (is that anything like the funny bone?)........................................... 374
Humor and Audiences: Positives and Negatives....................................................................... 374
Humorous Speaking Tips........................................................................................................... 375
Appendix E: APA Citation.................................................................................................................. 378
E.1– Citation............................................................................................................................... 378
E.2—When to Cite...................................................................................................................... 379
E.3- Elements of Citation........................................................................................................... 379
E.4-APA Resources.....................................................................................................................380
E.5-Reference List......................................................................................................................380
Appendix F: Research with Dalton State Library Resources............................................................. 384
“GIL-Find,” the Library Catalog.................................................................................................384
GALILEO.................................................................................................................................... 387
What to Do with All These Sources.............................................................................................391
Appendix G: Glossary......................................................................................................................... 392
Appendix H: References.....................................................................................................................403
Exploring Public Speaking
1
Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
Chapter 1: The Basics of
Public Speaking
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define public speaking, channel, feedback, noise, encode, decode,
symbol, denotative, and connotative;
• Explain what distinguishes public speaking from other modes of communication;
• List the elements of the communication process;
• Explain the origins of anxiety in public speaking;
• Apply some strategies for dealing with personal anxiety about public
speaking;
• Discuss why public speaking is part of the curriculum at this college
and important in personal and professional life.
Chapter Preview
1.1 – What is Public Speaking?
1.2 – Anxiety and Public Speaking
1.3 – Understanding the Process of Public Speaking
1.4 – The Value of Public Speaking in Your Life
1.5 – Getting Started in Public Speaking
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
1.1 – What is Public Speaking?
What is your mental picture when you think about “public speaking?” The
President of the United States delivering an inaugural address? A sales
representative seeking to persuade clients in a board room? Your minister,
priest, or rabbi presenting a sermon at a worship service? Your professor
lecturing? A dramatic courtroom scene, probably from Law & Order? Politicians debating before an election? A comedian doing stand-up at a night
club?
All of these and more are instances of public speaking. Be assured that
public speaking takes many forms every day in our country and across the
world. Now let’s get personal: Do you see yourself as a public speaker? And
when you do, do you see yourself as confident, prepared, and effective? Or
do you see a person who is nervous, unsure of what to say, and feeling as if
they are failing to get their message across?
You find yourself in this Fundamentals of Speech course and probably
have mixed emotions. More than likely, it is required for graduation in
your major. Perhaps you have taken a formal public speaking course
before. Although they are not as common in secondary education as in
colleges (Education Commission of the States, 2015), public speaking
instruction may have been part of your high school experience. Maybe
you competed in debate or individual speaking events or you have acted
in plays. These activities can help you in this course, especially in terms of
confidence and delivery.
On the other hand, it might be that the only public speaking experience
you have had felt like a failure and therefore left you embarrassed and
wanting to forget it and stay far away from public speaking. It might have
been years ago, but the feeling still stays with you. This class is not something you have been looking forward to, and you may have put it off. Maybe your attitude is, “Let’s just get it over with.” You might think that it’s
just another course you have to “get through” in order to study your major—what really interests you—and start a career in your field.
These are all understandable emotions because, as you have probably
heard or read, polls indicate public speaking is one of the things Americans fear the most. As Jerry Seinfeld has said in his stand-up comedy
routine,
According to most studies, people’s number one fear is public
speaking. Number two is death. Death is number two. Does that
sound right? This means to the average person, if you go to a funeral, you’re better off in the casket than doing the eulogy.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
While it is a stretch to think that most people fear death less than giving
a short speech, aversion toward public speaking situations and tasks is
common.
Before we go any further, though, what do we mean by “public speaking?”
The most obvious answer is “talking in front of a group of people.” For
the purposes of this class and this book, public speaking is more formal
than that. Public speaking is an organized, face-to-face, prepared, intentional (purposeful) attempt to inform, entertain, or persuade a group
of people (usually five or more) through words, physical delivery, and (at
times) visual or audio aids. In almost all cases, the speaker is the focus of
attention for a specific amount of time. There still may be some back-andforth interaction, such as questions and answers with the audience, but the
speaker usually holds the responsibility to direct that interaction either
during or after the prepared speech has concluded.
As Stephen A. Lucas (2015) has written, public speaking is an “enlarged
conversation,” and as such it has some similarities to conversations but
some major differences, too. As a conversation, it has elements of:
• awareness of and sensitivity toward your audience (in this case, more
than one person);
• an exchange of explicit messages about content (facts, ideas, information) and less explicit ones about relationship (how you relate to
one another, such as trust, liking, respect);[this content/relationship
dichotomy will come up again in this book and is characteristic of all
communication];
• a dependence on feedback to know if you are successful in being understood (usually nonverbal in public speaking, but still present);
• the fact that the public speaking communication is (almost always)
face-to-face rather than mediated (through a computer, telephone,
mass media, or writing).
As an “enlarged conversation” public speaking needs to be more purposeful (to entertain, inform, or persuade); highly organized with certain
formal elements (introduction and clear main points, for example); and
usually dependent on resources outside of your personal experience (research to support your ideas).
Of course, the delivery would have to be “enlarged” or “projected” as
well—louder, more fluid, and more energetic, depending on the size and
type of room in which you are speaking—and you will be more conscious
of the correctness and formality of your language. You might say, “That
sucks” in a conversation but are less likely to do in front of a large audience in certain situations. If you can keep in mind the basic principle that
public speaking is formalized communication with an audience designed
to achieve mutual understanding for mutual benefit (like a conversation),
Public speaking
an organized, face-toface, prepared, intentional (purposeful)
attempt to inform,
entertain, or persuade
a group of people
(usually five or more)
through words, physical delivery, and (at
times) visual or audio
aids.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
rather than a “performance,” you will be able to relate to your audience on
the human and personal level.
1.2 – Anxiety and Public Speaking
Glossophobia
a severe fear of public
speaking
Why are so many people afraid of public speaking? This is a complex
question, and the answer is tied to many personal and psychological factors such as self-efficacy, self-confidence, past experience, training, culture,
and context. The term “glossophobia,” combining the two Greek words
for “tongue” and “fear or dread,” has been coined to refer to
…a severe fear of public speaking. People who suffer from glossophobia tend to freeze in front of any audience, even a couple
of people. They find their mouth dries up, their voice is weak and
their body starts shaking. They may even sweat, go red and feel
their heart thumping rapidly. (“Do You Suffer From Glossophobia?,” 2015)
This fear may be in situations such as responding to a professor in class or
having to interact with a stranger, not just giving formal speeches as this
book is addressing.
For many people, fear of public speaking or being interviewed for a job
does not rise to the level of a true “phobia” in psychological terms. A phobia is defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV as a state where
someone experiences “significant and persistent fear when in the presence
of, or anticipating the presence of, the object of fear, which may be an
object, place or situation” (Grohol, 2013). They are just uncomfortable in
public speaking situations and need strategies for addressing the task.
Why Anxiety and Public Speaking?
Scholars at the University of Wisconsin-Stout (“Public Speaking Anxiety,”
2015) explain that anxiety in public speaking can result from one of several
misperceptions:
• “all or nothing” thinking—a mindset that if your speech falls short
of “perfection” (an unrealistic standard), then you are a failure as a
public speaker;
• overgeneralization—believing that a single event (such as failing at a
task) is a universal or “always” event; and
• fortune telling—the tendency to anticipate that things will turn out
badly, no matter how much practice or rehearsal is done.
Likewise, many new college students operate under the false belief that
intelligence and skill are “fixed.” In their minds, a person is either smart
or skilled in something, or she is not. Some students apply this false belief
to math and science subjects, saying things like “I’m just no good at math
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
and I never will be,” or even worse, “I guess I am just not smart enough to
be in college.” As you can tell, these beliefs can sabotage someone’s college
career. Also unfortunately, the same kind of false beliefs are applied to
public speaking, and people conclude that because public speaking is hard,
they are just not “natural” at it and have no inborn skill. They give up on
improving and avoid public speaking at all costs.
Modern research by Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck (2007)
and others shows that intelligence and related skills are “malleable,”
meaning that they are open to change and growth. Understanding and
accepting that your intelligence and skill in different areas is not fixed
or “stuck,” but open to growth, will have a significant influence on your
success in life. It will also help you see that just because learning a subject
or task is hard does not mean you are not good at it. Obstacles and barriers that make learning hard are opportunities for growth, not “getting off
places.”
There is more to Dr. Dweck’s research. I would recommend her book
Mindset. Many students enter a public speaking class thinking “I’m just no
good at this and never will be,” just like some students feel about college
algebra or science. Dr. Dweck and other learning psychologists show that
learning a new skill might be hard work, but the difficulty is not a sign that
learning is impossible.
Along with the wrong way of thinking about one’s learning and growth,
two other fears contribute to anxiety in public speaking. The first is fear
of failure. This fear can result from several sources: real or perceived bad
experiences involving public speaking in the past, lack of preparation, lack
of knowledge about public speaking, not knowing the context, and uncertainty about one’s task as a public speaker (such as being thrown into a
situation at the last minute).
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
It is not the goal of this book to belittle that fear. It is real and justified to
some extent, because you might lack understanding of the public speaking task or lack good speaking experiences upon which to build. One of
the goals and fringe benefits of this course is that you are not just going to
learn about public speaking, but you are going to do it—at least four or five
times—with a real audience. You will overcome some of your fears and feel
that you have accomplished something of personal benefit.
The second fear is fear of rejection of one’s self or one’s ideas. This one is
more serious in some respects. You may feel rejection because of fear of
failure, or you may feel that the audience will reject your ideas, or worse,
you as a person. Knowing how to approach the public speaking task and
explain your ideas can help. However, you should ask yourself deep and
probing questions as to why you believe that your audience will reject you
because this fear is rooted in a belief. You should ask yourself what possibly false belief is causing your anxiety.
One of the core attitudes an effective and ethical public speaker must have
is respect for and empathy with the audience. Your audience in this class
is your peers who want to learn and want to get through the class successfully (just like you do). Your audience also includes your instructor who
wants to see you succeed in the course as well. Believe me, public speaking
teachers get a lot of pleasure from hearing successful student speeches!
Your audience wants you to succeed if for no other reason than a good
speech is much easier and pleasant to listen to than a poor one! Again,
gaining practice in this class with a real, live audience can help you work
through the roots of your fear of rejection.
Beyond dealing with the root fears that may cause you to have a “fright or
flight” response when it comes to public speaking, there are some practical
answers to dealing with fears about public speaking. Of course, fear responses can be reduced if you know how public speaking works, as you will
see throughout this textbook. But there are some other strategies, and all
of them have to do with preparation.
Addressing Public Speaking Anxiety
Mental Preparation
If your neighbor’s house were on fire, getting to the phone to call the fire
department would be your main concern. You would want to get the address right and express the urgency. That is admittedly an extreme example, but the point is about focus. To mentally prepare, you want to put your
focus where it belongs, on the audience and the message. Mindfulness and
full attention to the task are vital to successful public speaking. If you are
concerned about a big exam or something personal going on in your life,
your mind will be divided and add to your stress.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
The main questions to ask yourself are “Why am I so anxiety-ridden about
giving a presentation?” and “What is the worst that can happen?” For example, you probably won’t know most of your classmates at the beginning
of the course, adding to your anxiety. By midterm, you should be developing relationships with them and be able to find friendly faces in the audience. However, very often we make situations far worse in our minds than
they actually are, and we can lose perspective. One of the authors tells her
students, “Some of you have been through childbirth and even through
military service . That is much worse than public speaking!” Your instructor will probably try to help you get to know your classmates and minimize
the “unknowns” that can cause you worry.
Physical preparation
The first step in physical preparation is adequate sleep and rest. You might
be thinking such a thing is impossible in college, where sleep deprivation
and late nights come with the territory. However, research shows the
extreme effects a lifestyle of limited sleep can have, far beyond yawning
or dozing off in class (Mitru, Millrood, & Mateika, 2002). As far as public
speaking is concerned, your energy level and ability to be alert and aware
during the speech will be affected by lack of sleep.
Secondly, you would be better off to eat something that is protein-based
rather than processed sugar-based before speaking. In other words, cheese
or peanut butter on whole grain toast, Greek yogurt, or eggs for breakfast
rather than a donut and soft drink. Some traditionalists also discourage
the drinking of milk because it is believed to stimulate mucus production,
but this has not been scientifically proven (Lai & Kardos, 2013).
A third suggestion is to wear clothes that you know you look good in and
are comfortable but also meet the context’s requirements (that is, your instructor may have a dress code for speech days). Especially, wear comfortable shoes that give you a firm base for your posture. Flip- flops and really
high heels may not fit these categories.
A final suggestion for physical preparation is to utilize some stretching or
relaxation techniques that will loosen your limbs or throat. Essentially,
your emotions want you to run away but the social system says you must
stay, so all that energy for running must go somewhere. The energy might
go to your legs, hands, stomach, sweat glands, or skin, with undesirable
physical consequences. Tightening and stretching your hands, arms, legs,
and throat for a few seconds before speaking can help release some of the
tension. Your instructor may be able to help you with these exercises, or
you can find some on the Internet.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
Contextual preparation
The more you can know about the venue where you will be speaking, the
better. For this class, of course, it will be your classroom, but for other
situations where you might experience “communication apprehension,”
you should check out the space beforehand or get as much information as
possible. For example, if you were required to give a short talk for a job
interview, you would want to know what the room will be like, if there is
equipment for projection, how large the audience will be, and the seating
arrangements. If possible, you will want to practice your presentation in a
room that is similar to the actual space where you will deliver it.
The best advice for contextual preparation is to be on time, even early. If
you have to rush in at the last minute, as so many students do, you will not
be mindful, focused, or calm for the speech. Even more, if you are early,
you can make sure equipment is working, and can converse with the audience as they enter. Professional speakers often do this to relax themselves,
build credibility, and gain knowledge to adapt their presentations to the
audience. Even if you don’t want to “schmooze,” being on time will help
you create a good first impression and thus enhance your credibility before
the actual speech.
Speech preparation
Procrastination, like lack of sleep, seems to just be part of the college life.
Sometimes we feel that we just don’t get the best ideas until the last minute. Writing that essay for literature class at 3:00 a.m. just may work for
you. However, when it comes to public speaking, there are some definite
reasons you would not want to do that. First, of course, if you are finishing up your outline at 3:00 a.m. and have a 9:00 speech, you are going to
be tired and unable to focus. Second, your instructor may require you to
turn in your outline several days ahead of the speech date. However, the
main reason is that public speaking requires active, oral, repeated practice
before the actual delivery.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
You do not want the first time that you say the words to be when you are in
front of your audience. Practicing is the only way that you will feel confident, fluent, and in control of the words you speak. Practicing (and timing
yourself) repeatedly is also the only way that you will be assured that your
speech meets the assignment’s time limits, and speaking within the expected time limits is a cardinal rule of public speaking. You may think your
speech is five minutes long but it may end up being ten minutes the first
time you practice it—or only two minutes!
Your practicing should be out loud, standing up, with shoes on, with someone to listen, if possible (other than your dog or cat), and with your visual
aids. If you can record yourself and watch it, that is even better. If you do
record yourself, make sure you record yourself from the feet up—or at least
the hips up—so you can see your body language. The need for oral practice
will be emphasized over and over in this book and probably by your instructor. As you progress as a speaker, you will always need to practice but
perhaps not to the extent you do as a novice speaker.
As hard as it is to believe,
YOU NEVER LOOK AS NERVOUS AS YOU FEEL.
You may feel that your anxiety is at level seventeen on a scale of one to ten,
but the audience does not perceive it the same way. They may perceive it
at a three or four or even less. That’s not to say they won’t see any signs of
your anxiety and that you don’t want to learn to control it, only that what
you are feeling inside is not as visible as you might think. This principle relates back to focus. If you know you don’t look as nervous as you feel, you
can focus and be mindful of the message and audience rather than your
own emotions.
Also, you will probably find that your anxiety decreases throughout the
class (Finn, Sawyer, & Schrodt, 2009). In her Ted Talk video, Harvard
Business School social psychologist Amy Cuddy discusses nonverbal communication and suggests that instead of “faking it until you make it,” that
you can, and should, “fake it until you become it.” She shares research
that shows how our behavior affects our mindsets, not just the other way
around. Therefore, the act of giving the speech and “getting through it”
will help you gain confidence. Interestingly, Dr. Cuddy directs listeners
to strike a “power pose” of strong posture, feet apart, hands on hips or
stretched over head to enhance confidence.
Final Note: If you are an audience member, you can help the speaker with
his/her anxiety, at least a little bit. Mainly, be an engaged listener from
beginning to end. You can imagine that a speaker is going to be more
nervous if the audience looks bored from the start. A speaker with less
anxiety is going to do a better job and be more interesting. Of course, do
not walk into class during your classmates’ speeches, or get up and leave.
In addition to being rude, it pulls their minds away from their message
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
and distracts the audience. Your instructor will probably have a policy on
this behavior, too, as well as a dress code and other expectations on speech
days. There are good reasons for these policies, so respect them.
1.3 - Understanding the Process of Public
Speaking
Earlier it was stated that public speaking is like an enlarged or projected
conversation. Conversation and public speaking are two forms of human
communication, of which there are also small group communication, organizational communication, mass communication, and intercultural communication. All human communication is a process composed of certain
necessary elements:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Communicaton
sharing meaning
between two or more
people
People (often referred to as senders and receivers);
context;
message;
channel;
noise;
feedback; and
outcome.
With all these elements working together, the act of communication can
be very complex. The famous German philosopher Johann Goethe said
that if we understood how complex communication really is, we probably
would not attempt it! Perhaps here we can demystify some of it. Communication is a process, not a singular event. Later we will look at models of
communication, which can be helpful for understanding communication
but are basically snapshots because a model cannot capture the dynamic
process of communication. A simple, basic definition of communication
is “sharing meaning between two or more people.” Beyond a definition, we
can break it down into its part or components and examine each.
Human communication first involves people. That is pretty obvious, but
we do not want to be so focused on the message or channel that we forget
that people are at the center of communication. In public speaking it is
common to call one person (the speaker) the “sender” and the audience
the “receiver(s),” but in the real world it is not always as simple as that.
Sometimes the speaker initiates the message, but other times the speaker
is responding to the audience’s initiation. It is enough to say that sender
and receiver exchange roles sometimes and both are as necessary as the
other to the communication process.
Human communication and public speaking secondly requires context.
Context has many levels, and there are several “contexts” going on at the
same time in any communication act. These contexts can include:
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
• Historical, or what has gone on between the sender(s) and receiver(s)
before the speech. The historical elements can be positive or negative,
recent or further back in time. In later chapters we will see that these
past events can influence the speaker’s credibility with the audience,
as well as their understanding.
• Cultural, which sometimes refers to the country where someone was
born and raised but can also include ethnic, racial, religious, and regional cultures or co-cultures. Culture is defined (Floyd, 2017) as “the
system of learned and shared symbols, language, values, and norms
that distinguish one group of people from another.”
• Social, or what kind of relationship the sender(s) and receiver(s) are
involved in, such as teacher-student, co-workers, employer-employee, or members of the same civic organization, faith, profession, or
community.
• Physical, which involves where the communication is taking place
and the attributes of that location. The physical context can have
cultural meaning (a famous shrine or monument) that influences the
form and purpose of the communication, or attributes that influence
audience attention (temperature, seating arrangements, or external
noise).
Culture
the system of learned
and shared symbols,
language, values, and
norms that distinguish
one group of people
from another
Each one of these aspects of context bears upon how we behave as a communicator and specifically a public speaker.
Third, human communication of any kind involves a message. That message may be informal and spontaneous, such as small talk with a seatmate
on a plane, conversing for no other reason than to have someone to talk to
and be pleasant. On the other hand, it might be very formal, intentional,
and planned, such as a commencement address or a speech in this course.
In this textbook all the chapters will be devoted to the creation of that
formal message, but that does not diminish the importance of the other
elements. The message is a product of all of them.
Fourth, public speaking, like all communication, requires a channel. We
think of channel in terms of television or something like a waterway (The
English Channel). Channel is how the message gets from sender to receiver. In interpersonal human communication, we see each other and hear
each other, in the same place and time. In mediated or mass communication, some sort of machine or technology (tool) comes between the people—phone, radio, television, printing press and paper, or computer.
The face-to-face channel adds to the immediacy and urgency of public
speaking, but it also means that physical appearance and delivery can
affect the receiver(s) positively and negatively. It also means that public
speaking is linear in time and we do not always get a “redo” or “do-over.”
This element of channel influence structure, transitions, and language
choices, which are discussed later in the book.
Channel
the means through
which a message gets
from sender to receiver
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Feedback
direct or indirect messages sent from an audience (receivers) back
to the original sender
of the message
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
The fifth element of human communication is feedback, which in public
speaking is usually nonverbal, such as head movement, facial expressions,
laughter, eye contact, posture, and other behaviors that we use to judge
audience involvement, understanding, and approval. These types of feedback can be positive (nodding, sitting up, leaning forward, smiling) or
less than positive (tapping fingers, fidgeting, lack of eye contact, checking
devices).
Can you think of some others that would indicate the audience is either not
engaged in, confused about, or dis-approving of the message or speaker?
Feedback is important because we use it in all communication encounters
to evaluate our effectiveness and to decide the next step to take in the specific communication interaction. For example, a quizzical expression may
mean we should explain ourselves again. Someone’s turning away from us
is interpreted as disapproval, avoidance, or dismissal.
These examples are all of nonverbal feedback, which is most common in
public speaking. There are times when verbal feedback from the audience
is appropriate. You may stop and entertain questions about your content,
or the audience may fill out a comment card at the end of the speech. You
should stay in control of the verbal feedback, however, so that the audience does not feel as if they can interrupt you during the speech.
Noise
anything that disrupts,
interrupts, or interferes with the communication process
The sixth element of human communication is noise, which might be
considered interruptions or interference. Some amount of noise is almost
always present due to the complexity of human behavior and context.
There are just so many things that can come into the communication process to obscure the messages being sent. Some of the ways that noise can
be classified include:
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
• Contextual – something in the room or physical environment keeps
them from attending to or understanding a message
• Physical – the receiver(s)’ health affects their understanding of the
message, or the sender’s physical state affects her ability to be clear
and have good delivery.
• Psychological – the receiver(s) or sender(s) have stress, anxiety, past
experience, personal concerns, or some other psychological issue that
prevents the audience from receiving an intended message.
This short list of three types of noise is not exhaustive, but it is enough
to point out that many things can “go wrong” in a public speaking situation, enough to make us agree with Mr. Philosopher Goethe. However, the
reason for studying public speaking is to become aware of the potential
for these limitations or “noise” factors, to determine if they could happen
during your speech, and take care of them. Some of them are preventable;
for example, ones related to physical context can be taken care of ahead of
time. Others can be addressed directly; for example, if you know the audience is concerned about a recent event, you can bring it up and explain
how it relates to your topic.
The final element of the communication process is outcome or result,
which means a change in either the audience or the context. For example,
if you ask an audience to consider becoming bone marrow donors, there
are certain outcomes. They will either have more information about the
subject and feel more informed; they will disagree with you; they will take
in the information but do nothing about the topic; and/or they will decide
it’s a good idea to become a donor and go through the steps to do so. If
they become potential donors, they will add to the pool of existing donors
and perhaps save a life. Thus, either they have changed or the social context has changed, or both. This change feeds back into the communication
process.
It is common for textbooks on public speaking and communication to
provide models of the communication process, depicting the relationship
of these factors. There are several varieties of such models, some of which
are considered foundational to the field of communication (such as Shannon and Weaver’s original linear, transmissional model from 1949) and
some more recent ones. One model that focuses more on the process is
the transactional model of communication. In it, the emphasis is more
on the relationship between the communicators and co-meanings created
between them. This textbook depends on a transactional model. If you go
to Google images and search for “models of communication,” you will find
many. You can also see an example of a communication model specific to
public speaking in Figure 9.2 of this book.
What these models have in common is the idea of process in time. They
also will often use the word encode to express the process of the sender
Encode
the process of the
sender putting his/her
thoughts and feelings
into words or other
symbols
Exploring Public Speaking
Decode
the process of the
listener or receiver
understanding the
words and symbols of
a message and making
meaning of them
Symbol
a word, icon, picture,
object, or number that
is used to stand for or
represent a concept,
thing, or experience
Denotative
the objective or literal
meaning shared by
most people using the
word
Connotative
the subjective or personal meaning the
word evokes in people
together or individually
14
Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
putting his/her thoughts and feelings into words or other symbols. Models
also use the word decode to express the process of the listener or receiver
understanding those words and symbols and making meaning of them for
him- or herself personally. Models of communication attempt to show the
interplay of the many elements that take place in the communication act.
Em Griffin (1987), a professor of communication at Wheaton College and
author of several textbooks, compares the communication process to three
games, dependent on one’s theory of how it works. Some think of communication like bowling, where the speaker throws a message at an audience
in order to knock them down. The audience does not really respond or
have very much to say about the act; they only react. Some think of communication like table tennis (ping-pong); there is back and forth between
the participants, but the goal is to win. Griffin says the better game metaphor is charades, or Pictionary®, where a team together tries to understand meaning and one player has to make many attempts to get the team
to guess the right answer. It is collaborative and involves trial and error.
Models of communication that show the value of feedback in recalibrating
the message are like the image of charades. An ethical speaker sees public
speaking as more than attacking the audience and more than winning.
Additionally, communication is referred to a symbolic process. In this
context, a symbol is a word, icon, picture, object, or number that is used
to stand for or represent a concept, thing, or experience. Symbols almost
always have more than one specific meaning or concept they represent. A
flag, for example, is a symbol of a country or political unit, but it also represents the history, culture, and feelings that people in that country experience about various aspects of the culture.
The word “car” or “automobile” represents a machine with four tires,
windows, metal body, internal combustion engine, and so on, but it also
represents personal, individual experiences and associations with cars. We
call this difference denotative (the objective or literal meaning shared by
most people using the word) and the connotative (the subjective, cultural, or personal meaning the word evokes in people together or individually). One of the authors and her husband recently visited the National
Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky. Nothing like a car museum
shows that “car” has deep and broad cultural meanings beyond metal, rubber, and glass.
Now that we have looked at the process of communication, let’s apply it to
public speaking. The speaker originates and creates a structured message
and sends it through the visual/oral channel using symbols and nonverbal
means to the audience members as a group , who provide (mostly nonverbal) feedback. The speaker and audience may or may not be aware of the
types of interference or noise that exist, and the speaker may try to deal
with them. As a result of the public speaking, the audience’s minds, emotions, and/or actions are affected, and possibly the speaker’s as well.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
Public speaking as an art form and a social force has been around a long
time. Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C. E.) was the most renowned politician,
orator, and advocate of rhetoric in the late Roman Republic. For centuries he was considered the role model for aspiring public speakers. He
discussed the process of public speaking in a unique way, proposing that
a speaker go through the “canons (laws) of rhetoric” to create a speech.
These steps are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
invention (creating content),
disposition (organization and logic of arguments),
style (choosing the right level and quality of vocabulary),
memory (actually, memorizing famous speeches to learn good public
speaking technique), and
5. delivery (nonverbal communication).
This book will take this same basic approach as the canons of rhetoric in
helping you walk through the process of constructing a presentation.
1.4 – The Value of Public Speaking in Your Life
Despite the long history of public speaking, dating back to at least 500
BCE, it is not unusual for students to question why this course is included
in the curriculum of their major. You might have put it off or be taking it
in your first semester. You might believe that it will have little use in your
future career. The actual experience of completing the course may change
your mind, and we would encourage you to do some research on our own
about the question of how public speaking fits into your career. Perhaps
you could talk to some professionals in your future career field, or perhaps
your instructor will discuss this in class or assign a short speech about it.
However, here are three reasons why you can benefit from this course.
First, public speaking is one of the major communication skills desired by
employers. Employers are frequently polled regarding the skills they most
want employees to possess, and communication is almost always in the top
three (Adams, 2014). Of course, “communication skills” is a broad term
and involves a number of abilities such as team leadership, clear writing in
business formats, conflict resolution, interviewing, and listening. However,
public speaking is one of those sought-after skills, even in fields where the
entry-level workers may not do much formal public speaking. Nurses give
training presentations to parents of newborn babies; accountants advocate
for new software in their organizations; managers lead team meetings.
If you are taking this class at the beginning of your college career, you
will benefit in your other future classes from the research, organizational,
and presentational skills learned here. According to the National Survey
on Student Engagement, college freshmen tend to think they will not be
giving many presentations in college classes, but that is wishful thinking.
Different kinds of presentations will be common in your upcoming classes.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
Another reason for taking a public speaking course is the harder-to-measure but valuable personal benefits. As an article on the USAToday College
website states, a public speaking course can help you be a better, more informed and critical listener; it can “encourage you to voice your ideas and
take advantage of the influence you have;” and it gives you an opportunity
to face a major fear you might have in a controlled environment (Massengale, 2014). Finally, the course can attune you to the power of public
speaking to change the world. Presentations that lead to changes in laws,
policies, leadership, and culture happen every day, all over the world.
1.5 – Getting Started in Public Speaking
To finish this first chapter, let’s close with some foundational principles
about public speaking, which apply no matter the context, audience, topic,
or purpose.
Timing is everything
We often hear this about acting or humor. In this case, it has to do with
keeping within the time limits. As mentioned before, you can only know
that you are within time limits by practicing and timing yourself; being
within time limits also shows preparation and forethought. More importantly, being on time (or early) for the presentation and within time limits
shows respect for your audience.
Public speaking requires muscle memory
If you have ever learned a new sport, especially in your teen or adult years,
you know that you must consciously put your body through some training
to get it used to the physical activity of the sport. An example is golf. A golf
swing, unlike swinging a baseball bat, is not a natural movement and requires a great deal of practice, over and over, to get right. Pick up any golf
magazine and there will be at least one article on “perfecting the swing.”
In fact, when done incorrectly, the swing can cause severe back and knee
problems over time.
Public speaking is a physical activity as well. You are standing and sometimes moving around; your voice, eye contact, face, and hands are involved. You will expend physical energy, and after the speech you may be
tired. Even more, your audience’s understanding and acceptance of your
message may depend somewhat on how energetic, controlled, and fluid
your physical delivery. Your credibility as a speaker hinges to some extent
on these matters. Consequently, learning public speaking means you must
train your body to be comfortable and move in predictable and effective
ways.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
Public speaking involves a content and relationship dimension
You may have heard the old saying, “People don’t care how much you
know until they know how much you care.” According to Watzlawick,
Beavin, and Jackson (1967), all human communication has two elements
going on at the same time: content and relationship. There are statements
about ideas, facts, and information, and there are messages communicated about the relationship between the communication partners, past and
present. These relationship message have to do with trust, respect, and
credibility, and are conveyed through evidence, appeals, wording (and
what the speaker does not say) as well as nonverbal communication.
That said, public speaking is not a good way to provide a lot of facts and
data to your audience. In fact, there are limits to how much information
you can pile on your audience before listening is too difficult for them.
However, public speaking is a good way to make the information meaningful for your audience. You can use a search engine with the term “Death by
PowerPoint” and find lots of humorous, and too true, cartoons of audiences overwhelmed by charts, graphs, and slides full of text. In the case, less is
more. This “less as more” principle will be re-emphasized throughout this
textbook.
Emulation is the sincerest form of flattery
Learn from those who do public speaking well, but find what works best
for you. Emulation is not imitation or copying someone; it is following a
general model. Notice what other speakers do well in a speech and try to
incorporate those strategies. An example is humor. Some of us excel at
using humor, or some types of it. Some of us do not, or do not believe we
do, no matter how hard we try. In that case, you may have to find other
strengths to becoming an effective speaker.
Know your strengths and weaknesses
Reliable personality inventories, such as the Myers Briggs or the Gallup
StrengthsQuest tests, can be helpful in knowing your strengths and weaknesses. One such area is whether you are an extravert or introvert. Introverts (about 40% of the population) get their psychological energy from
being alone while extraverts tend to get it from being around others. This
is a very basic distinction and there is more to the two categories, but you
can see how an extravert may have an advantage with public speaking.
However, the extravert may be tempted not to prepare and practice as
much because he or she has so much fun in front of an audience, while the
introvert may overprepare but still feel uncomfortable. Your public speaking abilities will benefit from increased self-awareness about such characteristics and your strengths. (For an online self-inventory about introversion and extraversion, go to http://www.quietrev.com/the-introvert-test/)
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
Remember the Power of Story
Stories and storytelling, in the form of anecdotes and narrative illustrations, are your most powerful tool as a public speaker. For better or worse,
audiences are likely to remember anecdotes and narratives long after a
speech’s statistics are forgotten.Your instructor may assign you to do a
personal narrative speech, or require you to write an introduction or conclusion for one of your speeches that includes a story. This does not mean
that other types of proof are unimportant and that you just want to tell
stories in your speech, but human beings love stories and often will walk
away from a speech moved by or remembering a powerful story or example more than anything.
Conclusion
This chapter has been designed to be informative but also serve as a bit
of a pep talk. Many students face this course with trepidation, for various
reasons. However, as studies have shown over the years, a certain amount
of tension when preparing to speak in public can be good for motivation. A
strong course in public speaking should be grounded in the communication research, the wisdom of those who have taught it over the last 2,000
years, and reflecting on your own experience.
John Dewey (1916), the twentieth century education scholar, is noted for
saying, “Education does not come just from experience, but from reflecting
on the experience.” As you finish this chapter and look toward your first
presentation in class, be sure to give yourself time after the experience to
reflect, whether by talking to another person, journaling, or sitting quietly
and thinking, about how the experience can benefit the next speech encounter. Doing so will get you on the road to becoming more confident in
this endeavor of public speaking.
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Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking
Something to Think About
Investigate some other communication models on the Internet. What do
they have in common? How are they different? Which ones seem to explain communication best to you?
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Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and
Listening
Chapter 2: Audience
Analysis and Listening
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define audience-centered, audience analysis, and demographic characteristics;
• List and explain the various demographic characteristics used to analyze an audience;
• Define the meanings of attitudes, beliefs, values, and needs;
• Diagram Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and explain its usefulness to
public speaking;
• Describe contextual factors that should be considered when preparing a speech;
• Describe typical barriers to listening in public speaking situations;
• Explain ways an individual can improve his/her listening when in an
audience; and
• Apply what he/she knows about listening to improve personal preparation of a speech.
Chapter Preview
2.1 – The Importance of Audience Analysis
2.2 – Demographic Characteristics
2.3 – Psychographic Characteristics
2.4 – Contextual Factors of Audience Analysis
2.5 – Listening in Public Speaking Settings
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Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and
Listening
2.1 – The Importance of Audience Analysis
One of the advantages of studying public speaking and improving your
own skills is that you become much more aware of what other speakers do.
In one respect, we are able to look for ways to emulate what they do—for
example, how they might seamlessly incorporate stories or examples into
their speaking, or how they might use transitions to help audiences follow
the speech’s logic. In another respect, we become aware of how a speaker
might use dramatic delivery or emotional appeals to hide a lack of facts or
logic. A course in public speaking should include ways to improve one’s
listening to public speaking.
This chapter will look at the audience from both sides of the lectern, so to
speak. First it will examine how a presenter can fully understand the audience, which will aid the speaker in constructing the approach and content
of the speech. Secondly, this chapter will examine the public speaker as
audience member and how to get the most out of a speech, even if the topic does not seem immediately interesting.
Audience analysis
examining and looking
at your audience first
by its demographic
characteristics and
then by their internal
psychological traits
Demographic
characteristics
the outward characteristics of the audience
Stereotyping
generalizing about a
group of people and
assuming that because
a few persons in that
group have a characteristic, all of them do
As discussed in Chapter 1, we have Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and
Don Jackson (1967) to thank for pointing out to us that communication always involves a content dimension and a relationship dimension. Nowhere
does that become more important than when we look into what is commonly known as audience analysis. Their concept about content and relationship dimension will guide this chapter. You are not using the speech to
dump a large amount of content on the audience; you are making that content important, meaningful, and applicable to them. Additionally, the way
the audience perceives you and your connection to them—such as whether
there is mutual trust and respect—will largely determine your success with
the audience. The speaker must respect the audience as well as the audience trusting the speaker.
2.2 – Demographic Characteristics
When we use the term audience analysis, we mean looking at the audience first by its demographic characteristics and then by their internal
psychological traits. “Demo-” comes the Greek root word demos meaning
“people,” and “-graphic” means description or drawing. Demographic
characteristics describe the outward characteristics of the audience.
This textbook will discuss eleven of them below, although you might see
longer or shorter lists in other sources. Some of them are obvious and
some not as much. But before we get into the specific demographic characteristics, let’s look at three principles.
First, be careful not to stereotype on the basis of a demographic characteristic. Stereotyping is generalizing about a group of people and assuming
that because a few persons in that group have a characteristic, all of them
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Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and
Listening
do. If someone were sitting near campus and saw two students drive by in
pickup trucks and said, “All students at that college drive pickup trucks,”
that would be both stereotyping and the logical fallacy of hasty generalization (see Chapter 14). At the same time, one should not totalize about
a person or group of persons. Totalizing is taking one characteristic of a
group or person and making that the “totality” or sum total of what that
person or group is. Totalizing often happens to persons with disabilities,
for example; the disability is seen as the totality of that person, or all that
person is about. This can be both harmful to the relationship and ineffective as a means of communicating. If a speaker before a group of professional women totalizes and concludes that some perception of “women’s
issues” are all they care about, the speaker will be less effective and possibly unethical.
Avoiding stereotyping and totalizing are important because you cannot
assume everything about an audience based on just one demographic
characteristic. Two or three might be important. The age of a group will be
important in how they think about investing their money, but so will the
socio-economic level, career or profession, and even where they live. Even
their religious beliefs may come into it. A good speaker will be aware of
more than one or two characteristics of the audience.
Second, in terms of thinking about demographic characteristics, not all of
them are created equal, and not all of them are important in every situation. When parents come to a PTA meeting, they are concerned about their
children and playing the important role of “parent,” rather than being
concerned about their profession. When senior citizens are thinking about
how they will pay for their homes in retirement years, their ethnicity probably has less to do with it as much as their age and socio-economic level.
Third, there are two ways to think about demographic characteristics: positively and negatively. In a positive sense, the demographic characteristics
tell you what might motivate or interest the audience or even bind it together. In a negative sense, the demographic characteristic might tell you
what subjects or approaches to avoid. Understanding your audience is not
a game of defensive tic-tac-toe, but a means of relating to them.
For example, a common example is given about audiences of the Roman
Catholic faith. Speakers are warned not to “offend” them by talking about
abortion, since official Roman Catholic teaching is against abortion. However, this analysis misses three points. First, even if most Roman Catholics
take a pro-life position, they are aware of the issues and are adults who can
listen and think about topics. Additionally, not all Roman Catholics agree
with the official church stance, and it is a complex issue. Second, Roman
Catholics are not the only people who hold views against abortion. Third,
and most important, if all the speaker thinks about Roman Catholics is
that they are against something, he or she might miss all the things the
audience is for and what motivates them. In short, think about how the
Totalizing
taking one characteristic of a group or person
and making that the
“totality” or sum total
of what that person or
group is
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Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and
Listening
demographic characteristics inform what to talk about and how, not just
what to avoid talking about.
There is one more point to be made about demographic characteristics
before they are listed and explained. In a country of increasing diversity,
demographic characteristics are dynamic. People change as the country
changes. What was true about demographic characteristics—and even
what was considered a demographic characteristic—has changed in the
last fifty years. For example, the number of Internet users in 1980 was
miniscule (mostly military personnel). Another change is that the percentage of the population living in the Great Lakes areas has dropped as the
population has either aged or moved southward.
What follows is a listing of ten of the more common demographic characteristics that you might use in understanding your audience and shaping
your speech to adapt to your audience.
Age
The first demographic characteristic is age. In American culture, we have
traditionally ascribed certain roles, behaviors, motivations, interests, and
concerns to people of certain ages. Young people are concerned about career choices; people over 60 are concerned about retirement. People go to
college from the age of 18 to about 24. Persons of 50 years old have raised
their children and are “empty nesters. These neat categories still exist for
many, but in some respects they seem outdated.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2015), 38% of
college students are over 25 years old. Some women and men wait until
their late thirties to have children, and thus at 50 have preteens in the
house. More and more grandparents—middle and lower incomes—are
raising grandchildren. Combining the longer lives Americans are living
with the economic recession of 2008 and following, 62 is not a reasonable
age for retirement for many.
Therefore, knowing that your audience is 18, 30, 55, or 70 is important,
but it is just one of many factors. In your classroom audience, for example, you may find 30-year-old returning, nontraditional college students,
young entrepreneurs, 17-year-old dual enrollment students, and veterans
who have done three or four tours in the Middle East as well as 18-year-old
traditional college students.
Gender
The second demographic characteristic commonly listed is gender. This
area is open to misunderstanding as much as any other. Despite stereotypes, not all women have fifty pairs of shoes with stiletto heels in their
closets, and not all men love football. In almost all cases you will be speak-
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Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and
Listening
ing to a “mixed” audience of men and women, so you will have to keep
both groups in mind. If you are speaking to a group of all men or all women and you are of the same gender as the audience, you might be able to
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