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12
The Modern
Search
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F I R S T E N C O U NJ
TER
After a recent flood, youA
decide to join a much publicized community effort
Mto clear a nearby stream.
The flooding, caused by a buildup of branches and
litter under two bridges,Ihas left mounds of refuse—
including old tires and E
shopping carts—along the
sides of the streams. The cleanup is scheduled for
this coming Saturday at nine o’clock.
Local schools and 5colleges are the primary
sponsors. Students from McKinley, Central, Wash0
ington Intermediate, Roosevelt High, and many
other schools will be there.
5 So will students from
the University, where there was much damage
1
from the raging waters, especially in the basement
B to see some friends and
of the library. You expect
neighbors. You have read that you should bring
U
gloves and wear heavy old shoes.
When your arrive, you see an even larger
group than you had anticipated. Television cameras are there, too. You say hello to friends. One
face looks oddly familiar. You realize that it is the
mayor—though you hardly recognize him, since he
is wearing jeans and a red plaid shirt instead of his
trademark navy blue suit and black tie. There is a
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brief press conference. The University president says a few words of
thanks and is then followed by the head of the parks department. The
gathering of people is divided into groups, given instructions, and directed
to specific work sites.
As you work, you realize how pleasant it is to be outside, where
you can hear the birds, the water of the stream, and the wind in the
leaves of the tall trees on the stream banks. You wonder, Why is
the sound of cars so unappealing but the rustling of leaves so
wonderful? You recall something that you once heard in a high
school class: that the world of made is not the world of born.
W was unclear, but now you understand.
At first its meaning
This leads youI to think about our human relationship with
the rest of nature—the responsibility we humans have to the
natural world Land all its elements. You remember reading
about countriesS
that are creating national parks for the preservation of unique sites, and others that are setting up animal
O
sanctuaries for the protection of wildlife. Increasingly, you hear
neighbors and evenNpoliticians talking about the need to respect
trees, animals, and the processes of nature. Global warming is now
,
almost universally seen as a result of human excess and disrespect for the
environment. Is this widespread interest in the earth and all its parts a new
kind of religious development?
J In the future, will we recognize our national
parks as religious sites? Will local ecologies become the focus of political
A religions embrace environmentalism? Will
concern? Will we see traditional
we have religious festivals to honor
M nature? As you push aside a thick branch
of bamboo, you notice a partially torn plastic bag underneath. A few empty
I the bag to a nearby trash bin.
beer cans fall out, as you carry
E
MODERN INFLUENCES ON
T H E F U T U R E O F R E5L I G I O N
0
It is obvious that religions in the modern world face both challenge and
inevitable change. Numerous
5 social and technological developments are
responsible for bringing about change. Women are demanding roles in
1
arenas traditionally dominated by males—including institutional religions.
B as reproduction, genetics, and organ transScientific advances in such areas
plantation pose ethical questions that people in earlier times never had to
U
answer. Many Western cities are homes to religions, such as Hinduism and
Islam, that not too long ago were considered exotic and foreign. Finally,
television and travel expose human beings worldwide to new cultures and
their religions.
Change is happening so quickly that we must wonder about the future
of religion. What if we could return to earth a thousand years from now?
Would the religions that we know now have changed a great deal? What
religions would even still exist? Would there be new great religions?
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We cannot know exactly how the religious landscape will look in another
millennium, but we can make a guess based on the influences at work
today—influences that are pulling religions in different directions. As we’ve
seen throughout this book, religions in general tend to be conservative and
often change more slowly than their surrounding societies. But, indeed, they
do change. They change as a result of forces both from within themselves
and from their surrounding cultures.
In this chapter we will first look at a few of the modern developments
that are shaping both our future and the future of religions. We will consider
the recurrent theme of change in religion. And we will look at two alternaW
tives to organized religion. The first is the environmental
movement and its
almost religious view of nature. The second isI what has come to be called
eclectic spirituality, a union of various sources of inspiration, often expressed
L
through art and music, which are frequently associated
with spirituality.
S
The New World Order
O
A century ago, the majority of human beings N
lived an agricultural life on
farms and in villages, and many countries were ruled by monarchs. Over a
,
relatively short amount of time, however, most kings and queens either disappeared or became largely symbolic; democracy became a common (though
not fully realized) ideal; and large numbers of J
people moved to cities.
The political and economic landscape has changed dramatically over the
past thirty years. After decades of dividing the A
world symbolically into communist and capitalist halves, the Berlin Wall came
M down in 1989. After many
of its republics declared their independence, the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991
I although it remains a comand abandoned communism. And mainland China,
munist nation, now includes highly capitalistic Hong
E Kong (returned in 1997)
and tolerates—even encourages—free enterprise. International companies are
becoming significant entities—sometimes with more real power than nations.
At one time, people traveled abroad in order
5 to experience different cultures and different foods. Now, a person can buy a Big Mac at a McDonald’s
0
in Italy or a doughnut and coffee at a Dunkin’ Donuts in Japan. And people
who live in large cities have their pick of national
5 cuisines—Chinese, Indian,
Greek, Moroccan, Vietnamese, Japanese, and Thai, to name just the most
1
common. But it is easy to go more deeply, too, into the lives of people of
B run these businesses are
different cultures. Supporting the people who
entire structures that include community centers, places of worship, and
U
even television stations that broadcast in a multitude of languages.
We cannot help but wonder how this cultural unification will affect
religion. So far, most of the world’s religions have remained fairly separate
traditions—even those that have spread to different countries and cultures. But globalism may make it impossible for separate religions to
remain separate.
Modern capitalism will also challenge religion, primarily by exposing
relatively broad segments of populations to its promotion of a fairly positive
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As if in protest, a cow
wanders past a
McDonald’s restaurant,
which in the United States
advertises hamburgers by
the “billions sold.” At this
restaurant in Jaipur, the
menu, like that of most
other Western chain
restaurants in India, does
not include beef.
J
A
M
attitude toward money—that Iis, its promotion of financial success as a means
to attaining personal satisfaction.
E In the past, many religions preached the
values of poverty, simplicity, and detachment—values that at one time were
consistent with life as experienced by the vast majority. Now, many religions
are influenced by capitalist ideals,
5 which esteem individual and group betterment; but it is a betterment that can be measured in material terms and
0
can be paid for with money. As Robert Ellwood, a noted scholar of religions,
has commented, the “idea that
5 poverty could be a state of blessedness in
itself, a favorite of preachers as recently as a century ago, is now hopelessly
1
discredited. . . . Even the most conservative pulpiteers nowadays exhort their
poor to get ahead, but to do itBby nonviolent means.”1 We know that money
can be used just as selfishly in the modern world as it was in the past. But
U
money is not always used for selfish and useless reasons—take, for example,
scholarships, contributions to disaster-relief projects, endowments to the
arts. The modern culture of money-based betterment will increasingly challenge religions to produce what material cultures value. It will challenge the
religious idealization of poverty and will question religions carefully about
how much they contribute to measurable human betterment.2
The global economic crisis that emerged in 2008 will be a further challenge
to religious thought and action. Religions may be influenced by the crisis in
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developing a new approach to the financial world, and religions could conceivably offer help in providing both theoretical and practical solutions.
Globalism will also challenge any incomplete visions of reality offered by
traditional religions. Finally, urbanism will challenge traditional religions to
confront the tribulations of large-scale city life and to take advantage of urban
opportunities, such as a wide choice of educational and career opportunities.
Multiculturalism and Interfaith Dialogue
The new world order makes cross-cultural contact practically unavoidable as
W all work to narrow the
television, radio, film, travel, books, and the Internet
gulfs that once separated people, nations, and even
I religions. It will thus be
very difficult in the future for any religion to belong to a single culture or to
L religions. With awareness
be unaware of the teachings and practices of other
often comes adaptation, a phenomenon we have
S already seen with current
religions. Certain forms of Pure Land Buddhism outside Japan, for example,
O
have adopted the use of hymns and the Christian tradition of Sunday school.
In Western forms of Zen and Tibetan Buddhism,
N married laypersons sometimes take leadership roles that have traditionally been performed by monks.
,
African and Native American forms of Christianity now deliberately make
use of native art, music, and dance. Roman Catholicism, which only a generation ago celebrated its rituals in Latin with uniform
prayers and music, is
J
today often as much a reflection of its specific community or church group
Aother religious groups have
as it is of Rome. Some Christian monasteries and
adopted Zen meditation. Moreover, entirely new
M religions may frequently
blend elements from several religions. We see this, for example, in religions
such as the Unification Church, which began inI Korea and blends Christianity and Confucianism, and in new Shinto religious
E offshoots, some of which
blend elements of Shinto, Buddhism, and Christianity.
Another response to the growing awareness of cultural multiplicity can
be seen in the increasingly frequent meetings held
5 by representatives of different religions. The fact that these interreligious meetings are now being
0
held is really a hopeful new direction. (It was not typical in the past.)
Although religions have too often battled each 5
other or even promoted war,
they all preach human harmony and offer visions of peace. They have much
1
to gain from and share with each other. One natural focus of discussion
B to value honesty and disapplies to basic rules of living—all religions seem
play a concern for the disadvantaged. Another possible discussion focus
U
involves mystical experience, which is described similarly in quite different
religions. A third focus for discussion is the changing role of women in
religion. And a fourth focus will increasingly be the practical problems of
the world—poverty, overpopulation, destruction of natural resources—and
what religions can do jointly to help.
One of the earliest examples of modern religious dialogue was the first
World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893. Swami Vivekananda
(1863–1902), a disciple of Ramakrishna, brought the inclusivist Hindu
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Today it is not unusual for
people of different faiths
to pray together. Here, a
Sikh, a Native American,
and a Buddhist join for
meditation and prayer in
Bloomington, Indiana.
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approach to the attention of the world through his insistence at that conference that all religions value holiness
and love. And in 1993, Chicago hosted
J
a second World Parliament of Religions, with simultaneous meetings of religious leaders at many places A
around the world. At the tenth annual Convocation for Peace, held in Rome,
M Yasumi Hirose, a Japanese representative of
Omoto, used the language of several religions to speak of his hope. “Unless
I
we awake to the love and compassion
of the God who created the heavens
and earth, and realize that allE
creatures are filled with Divine Spirit and live
by the grace of Amida Buddha, it will be impossible to change history to
bring about a new century of co-existence. By rethinking the significance of
human life and returning to the
5 sources of religion, it is my deep hope that
all the world’s religions can work and pray together to realize a . . . future
0
where peaceful co-existence between the races and nations of this earth is
possible.”3 There is ongoing dialogue
as well in less spotlighted circles, such
5
as the Ecumenical Institute at Saint John’s Abbey in Minnesota, where schol1
ars of different faiths spend months in conversation, study, and reflection.
B a new path for religion in the future.
These dialogues may well chart
U
Women’s Rights Movements
Some of the most significant movements of the past hundred years have
involved efforts to liberate women from oppression and inequality. Just as
the nineteenth century is seen as the century in which slavery was abolished
worldwide, the present century may well be seen by future generations as
the century in which women worldwide achieved full equality and political
freedom.
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533
Young monks share school
desks with female
students, an uncommon
occurrence in Buddhist
cultures even today.
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In many societies, women have been restricted by tradition in multiple
ways. They have been kept from acquiring an education,
owning land, having
J
professional careers, traveling, marrying and divorcing as they wish, voting,
and holding office. But education and women’sApolitical movements—along
with scientific advances that produced contraceptives
M and minimized the complications of pregnancy and childbirth—have slowly changed attitudes toward
women’s roles and rights. As a result, women Iare now indispensable in the
workplaces of many cultures; they are earning their
E own incomes and making
use of their new economic power. This new independence has led women
closer to equality in government, business, and the arts.
Many religions, following traditional patterns,
5 have been slow to allow
women to assume leadership roles. But there have been notable exceptions;
0
this has been especially true of smaller, more charismatic groups, such as
some of the New Religions derived from Shinto5
and those Christian churches
(such as the Christian Science Church and the Foursquare Gospel Church)
1
whose founders were female. Christian churches in the Lutheran and in the
Episcopal and Anglican traditions now ordainB
women priests and bishops.
And in 2006, the American Episcopal Church elected a female bishop,
U
Katharine Jefferts Schori, as its presiding bishop.
Resistance to allowing women in key roles is, however, still strong. In
Christianity, the Catholic and Orthodox Churches so far have staved off
pressures to ordain women or otherwise allow them full participation in
decision making. In Judaism, females have been ordained in the Reform and
Conservative branches. The Orthodox, however, still will not accept the
notion of a female rabbi. Buddhism is seeing stirrings in its communities of
nuns, who traditionally have played only a small role in the religion.
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Women’s gains have been broader in areas that don’t affect a religion’s
basic power structure. Thus we find new translations of sacred literature and
prayer forms that attempt to be more gender-neutral. For example, words
such as Ruler, Creator, and Parent are used in place of the exclusively male
terms Lord and Father in some translations of the Bible. Unity Church congregations address God as Father-Mother—a term used as early as 1875 by
Mary Baker Eddy (see Chapter 9), the founder of Christian Science, in her
explanation of the Lord’s Prayer.
There is also heightened interest in religions that envision the divine as
being female or that value its feminine aspect. This explains the renewed
attention paid to early natureW
religions that worshiped a major female deity
(such as Astarte) or in whichI women have had an important role. As discussed in Chapter 11, Wicca worships the Goddess in nature and in all
L
women. In Judaism and Christianity,
research into the contributions of
women is common and even S
encouraged. Bible studies now talk of the great
matriarchs, as well as the patriarchs, of Hebrew history. In Christianity, there
O
is growing interest in medieval female mystics such as Hildegard of Bingen
(see Chapter 9), Margery Kempe
N (c. 1373–1438), and Mechtild of Magdeburg
(c. 1210–1285). Likewise, Hinduism is being appreciated not only for its
,
female divinities but also for the many female gurus it has produced; Shinto
and shamanistic religions are being studied for the important roles women
have played; and Daoism is receiving
attention for its female imagery.
J
Much of this new insight still remains academic and theoretical.
A
Whether male-dominated religions
will be able to stand firm against the
momentum of women’s movements
is anyone’s guess. But many observers
M
assume that women’s liberation efforts, at least in industrialized countries,
I
will eventually succeed.
E
Reassessment of Human Sexuality
Scientific developments as well5as the economic and ideological developments
that we have already discussed in this chapter have all broadened our under0
standing of human sexuality to include more than procreation as its purpose.
At the same time, through its5development of artificial insemination and in
vitro fertilization, science has expanded the possibilities for reproduction. The
1
result of these developments is that reproduction has become a more intenB and public sanitation have led to an explotional event. Medicine, clean water,
sion of the world population. This fact, combined with our new understanding
U
of sexuality, has forced the rethinking of the purpose of marriage. Psychology
has contributed an understanding of sexuality as being essential to the makeup
of human beings. Biology has demonstrated the human connection with the
animal world and revealed the great variety of animal sexual expression.
Anthropology has made people aware of the variety in attitudes toward sex
among different cultures and across historical periods.
As a result of these advances and findings, many people now grant that
sex has key functions in human existence beyond the creation of children;
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among these are intimacy, pleasure, self-expression, and even selfunderstanding. The acknowledgment of these functions has led many to
question traditional sexual ethics and to rethink the appropriateness of sexual
prohibitions in religious traditions.
The ongoing clash between traditional views of sexuality—views often
codified in religions—and the modern outlook on sexuality probably will
not be resolved anytime soon. What we are likely to see, however, is greater
tolerance for beliefs and practices that are somewhat contradictory—as is
evident in teachings about the indissolubility of marriage as compared to
the actual toleration of divorce or annulment. The arena of birth control is
Wforbidding the practice of
particularly fertile ground for debate. Although
birth control acknowledges the primacy of the Iprocreative purpose of sex, it
also risks pushing people and even world populations beyond the point
L needs.
where they can satisfy physical and educational
Another area of controversy exists regarding
Ssame-gender sexual expression and relationships. Some religions hold that all homosexuality runs
O
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535
Some countries, some
states, and some faiths
recognize and perform
same-sex marriages.
Nonetheless, almost all
issues relating to sex
continue to divide faith
communities.
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counter to divine or natural laws. Although some religions and denominations accept homosexuality as an orientation that occurs naturally in some
people, they say that acting out that orientation in sexual behavior is wrong;
still others value love, compassion, individuality, and privacy more than any
traditional judgment of sexual acts and thus accept gay men and lesbians as
full members. Of course, for heterosexual men and women, with full membership come the rights to a religious marriage and ordination; few religions,
however, have yet to extend the same benefits to gays and lesbians. Nonetheless, as the contradictions in a partial acceptance of gay members become
more obvious and even painful, religions are beginning to reconsider past
W ceremonies are celebrated in increasing
practice. Same-gender commitment
numbers of religious congregations—examples
are to be found among Jewish
I
congregations, Unitarians, Quakers, the Metropolitan Community Church,
L and Lutherans. In 2003 the Episcopal
the Unity Church, Episcopalians,
Church in the United States S
consecrated as bishop a man who is in a gay
relationship; but this has caused conflict with other branches of the Church
O
of England, particularly in Africa.
While debate over whatN
constitutes legitimate sexual expression will
continue, there is no denying the impact the sexual revolution has had on
,
religion. Traditions that emphasize conservative principles will be most challenged by the changing views on sexuality.
J
A
One of the engines that powers
Mto some degree all of the movements we are
analyzing has been science. Modern science made great early progress in the
I
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
with the work of Copernicus (1473–1543),
Galileo (1564–1642), Kepler (1571–1630),
and Newton (1642–1727). At first, the
E
Science and Technology
developments were theoretical, without much practical application. While
theoretical science continued to advance, applied science in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries led to many
5 practical benefits, including the invention of
machinery that could do the work that human beings had formerly done by
0
hand. Scientists investigated the mysteries of lightning and electricity; inventors made engines powered by5steam and coal; researchers made advances in
understanding and preventing diseases; engineers designed train tracks that
1
linked large cities to each other; and the telephone and electric light became
B came the airplane, radio, television, and
commonplace. In the next century
computers. Over these same centuries, scientific theory advanced, resulting in
U
the theory of evolution, molecular theory, the theory of relativity, and theories
regarding astronomy and quantum physics. These accomplishments have
transformed both our physical world and our view of the universe.
Some religions have tried to reject or even ignore the contributions of
science, arguing that science displaces God, questions religious belief, and
undermines morality. Scientists, however, argue that science gives us a valuable view of the universe that should be appreciated. It represents, they say,
the collective work of thousands of people over many centuries. If we think
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about how long it took for human beings to draw a map of the whole earth
(accomplished by Gerardus Mercator in 1538), 5
we can admire the efforts of
science to give us an even grander “map”—a general view of reality.
1
The current scientific view of reality can be summarized quickly. Scientific
B
theory and research state that our universe emerged
in a great explosion
approximately ten to fifteen billion years ago. (What came before the explosion
U
is not and possibly cannot be known by science.) In fact, the universe is still
The orbiting Hubble
telescope has provided a
myriad of reminders that
the earth is but a tiny dot
in the universe. This photo
shows two galaxies—
billions of stars and their
planets—slowly colliding.
expanding from that explosion—although scientists debate whether the universe will contract or continue to expand indefinitely. As the universe cooled,
galaxies formed; there are at least a hundred billion galaxies, each containing
about a hundred billion stars. Our planet, earth, is about six billion years old,
belongs to a galaxy we call the Milky Way, and travels around a sun whose
energy will be exhausted in another six billion years. All physical things are
made of smaller units, called molecules, which in turn consist of even smaller
537
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units, called atoms, electrons, neutrons, and other particles; and, ultimately,
the physical world can be seen as various forms of energy. Phenomena
such as lightning and earthquakes have natural causes. Carbon-based lifeforms—possibly assisted by lightning, volcanic eruptions, and matter from
comets—began to emerge on earth in one-celled form several billion years ago
and, growing more complex, evolved in many directions on land and sea,
finally producing the plants and animals we know today. The human being,
which first appeared on earth several million years ago, is part of the same
evolutionary process but is the most complex life-form known so far.
Although some scientific positions, such as those concerning evolution
and molecular structure, areW
still called theories, they have enough proof
underpinning them that theyI will almost certainly not be supplanted. The
current general scientific vision of reality thus seems fairly firm; and although
L
intriguing discoveries will certainly
be made over the next centuries, the
basic vision will probably notSbe totally overturned.
Just as science has advanced our understanding of reality, so it has
O
replaced earlier worldviews. For example, we now see the earth not as a flat
surface but as a sphere, in orbit
N around the sun; we understand most sickness to be caused by germs; and we know that earthquakes are generally
,
caused by the movement of tectonic plates. Just as surely as electricity, television, and basic literacy are penetrating to the far corners of the world, so
also will the scientific model J
of reality. Prescientific religions may continue
to exist in the remotest cultures, but major religions will have to accommoA It is the anvil on which all religions will
date the scientific view of reality.
be hammered and tested.
M
I
E
Science and technology have broadened our knowledge and enriched our lives.
Science and Ethical Issues
In addition, they have given people new choices. Some of these choices pose
ethical questions, at least in some
5 cultures and religious traditions; and having
choices can force people to examine their most basic philosophical positions.
Following are some areas0that may raise ethical questions in some of the
religious traditions we’ve considered
in this text:
5
Fertility assistance Through
1 fertility drugs and in vitro fertilization,
medical science has made conception or a viable pregnancy possible
for some women who in B
earlier times could not have conceived or
carried a pregnancy to term.
U But multiple births among women who
have taken fertility drugs are common; women sometimes carry as
many as seven or eight babies in the same pregnancy, knowing that
some of them may die. Is the survival of one or a few babies worth
the potential loss of the others?
Birth control The number of contraception options for women and
men is growing all the time; a pill for males will be available in the
future. In some religious traditions the number of children born is
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viewed as originating in divine will. Is it moral then to use any means
to limit the number of one’s children? Is it moral or immoral to use
condoms? (Since condoms are helpful in controlling the spread of
AIDS, this question has gained increased urgency.)
Ethical termination of pregnancy At what point in its development is an
embryo or a fetus to be considered a human being and thus accorded
basic human rights? Is there a moral difference between early abortion
and late-term abortion? Is a mother’s right to life greater than that of
an embryo or fetus? Several techniques now exist for examining an
embryo or fetus for gender and for genetic abnormalities. Should such
W
knowledge be seen as justification for terminating a pregnancy?
I have the right to end
Ethical termination of adult life Do individuals
their own lives? Do they have the right toL
end the lives of others,
such as spouses, relatives, or friends? What might be reasonable
S
circumstances for euthanasia? Is there a right to “death with dignity”?
Should a doctor be permitted to speed theO
death of a dying patient?
Should the life of a person who is comatose or brain-dead be sustained
N
as long as mechanically possible?
, have failed can sometimes
Organ transplantation Human body parts that
be replaced by organs from another human being. Among the organs
that are commonly transplanted are hearts, kidneys, livers, and corneas.
J parts for transplantation?
Do we have an obligation to donate our body
Is it ethical for people to sell parts of their bodies
A before or after death?
Cloning Mice, sheep, and other animals have
Mbeen replicated by cloning.
Scientists are working to clone human body parts that can be used
as replacements for defective body parts. ISome scientists wish to
clone entire human beings. What moral considerations
should guide
E
decisions about human cloning?
Genetic manipulation and stem-cell research Scientists are hopeful that
5 in heightened intelliresearch on the human genetic code will result
gence, extended life spans, and new treatments
0 for disease. What
kinds of controls are needed in terms of the experiments that are
5 are performed? Should,
allowed and the places where the experiments
for example, human embryonic tissue, a product
of miscarriages and
1
terminated pregnancies, be used in genetic and stem-cell research?
B
Species rights Most laws derive from an assumption that human beings
have basic rights. But some thinkers assertU
that animals, trees, and
other elements of nature have rights of their own. Some argue, for
example, that all animals and sentient beings have the right to not suffer
from human infliction of unnecessary pain. This argument questions
the legitimacy of using animals for food, clothing, sport, or scientific
experimentation. Other thinkers (especially those in the movement
called Deep Ecology) assert that forests, jungles, wildernesses, and
oceans also have rights—to exist and to be protected from exploitation.
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The founders of the major religious traditions never had to address these
issues specifically. That does not mean, however, that their followers today
should not concern themselves with these issues. At the same time, some
would argue that these issues should be decided not in churches and temples by religious authorities but rather in secular courts by representatives
of civilian governments. Deciding who should determine what is ethical and
how ethics should be expressed in law are themselves important issues for
this century.
The scientific approach to reality generally has helped—at least potentially—
to make the earth a more interesting and pleasant place for human beings
to inhabit than it was in pastW
centuries. Granted, applied science has done
a great deal to alter the landscape
for the worse. Applied science has damI
aged nonindustrial cultures and polluted the environment. But science has
L reduced infant mortality, extended human
also done much to help. It has
life spans, and made human S
life generally more secure. This has been done
especially by advances in medicine and sanitation. Today, life spans in indusO
trialized countries are double what they were two hundred years ago. People now routinely expect to live
N to be 80 or more. Scientists are working on
life extension, and it may become common for people to live to 100, 110, or
,
even 120 years old. (We know that this is at least possible, because Jeanne
Calment, a Frenchwoman who died in 1997, lived to be 122.) And scientists
will attempt to extend human
J life even further. When this happens, death
and the afterlife will seem increasingly distant, and the earth will seem more
A resultant feeling of security that has grown
like our permanent home. The
up among people of industrialized
M countries may have helped them place a
new value on the earth and on earthly life. It has helped foster an approach
I religious but rather secular.
to living that is not traditionally
E
Secularism
The word secular is often used
5 as the opposite of sacred. As mentioned in
earlier chapters, secularism refers to the modern tendency to separate religion
0
(which deals with the sacred) from everyday life (the secular). In earlier
centuries, as we have seen throughout
much of this book, religion and every5
day life were quite commonly intertwined. Today, they remain intertwined
1
mostly in societies in which a single religion is the state religion or the preB
dominant religion.
The impetus to separate religion from public life found its greatest supU
port in Europe. Primarily because of the horrific religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, influential thinkers there began to envision
a type of nation in which there would be no state religion. They wanted
individuals to be free to practice their religions as they chose. This model
was drawn on in the creation of the new United States and was detailed in
the Bill of Rights, which was appended to the Constitution. Because the
model is based on a general separation of church and state, it has led to a
secular type of government.4
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Modern Influences on the Future of Religion
Furthermore, the model of no established religion has encouraged a
secular style of life. After all, if people are free to practice any religion, they
are equally free to practice no religion at all. Secularism thus has come to
refer to a way of looking at life in which human values and rules for living
are taken from experience in this world, not from divine revelation, from a
world beyond this one, or from religious authorities or religious traditions.
Secularism seems to be gaining ground, as science finds ways to extend
human life and make it more secure. Consequently, for many people traditional religious worldviews have lessened in influence. Religions of the
future will continue to be challenged by the secular vision, particularly when
W To survive on a large
they have to work within secular political entities.
scale, they will have to add to and give greater
I meaning to the modern
secular world. This may not be impossible, however. After all, science seeks
Land create meaning. As the
to describe reality, but religions seek to describe
philosopher K. N. Upadhyaya has explained, S
“Religion is not antagonistic
to science. . . . The antagonism comes only through a misunderstanding. It
O
has to be understood that science deals with the physical. Religion, on the
other hand, deals with something that is beyond
Nthe physical. But the methodology of the two is—or should be—exactly the same: observation, exper,
imentation, and verification.”5 We might note, too, the many contemporary
scientists, such as physicists Paul Davies (b. 1946) and Fritjof Capra (b. 1939),
who have shown considerable interest in religion.
J
Agnosticism is a concept often associated with a secular worldview. The
Acoined the term, was of the
English biologist T. H. Huxley (1825–1895), who
opinion that the existence of God could be neither
M proven nor disproven
from a scientific point of view. He argued that agnosticism—a middle ground
I
between theism and atheism—was the most reasonable
theoretical position
to hold. It is a view that is commonly held today
E by scientifically minded
people, because it accommodates the study and teaching of science without
reference to God or gods. Some people have found that everyday life can be
carried on, too, without reference to God or gods.
5 Agnosticism may begin
to replace traditional theistic religious belief and practice. This tendency may
0
also generate attempts to redefine the conceptions of God; it may inspire a
turn toward the nontheistic religions (such as5Jainism or Theravada Buddhism); and it may promote the development of nontheistic expressions of
1
values and beliefs.
Communism, even where it has now been B
abandoned as an official ideology, succeeded in creating a fairly secular milieu. In Russia and many parts
U
of eastern Europe, new generations of people have been raised without religion. Schools in the Communist era often spoke of religion as an outdated
method for providing solutions to life’s problems—as outdated as horsedrawn carriages and whale-oil lamps. The same antireligious stance has also
been true of China, particularly since the Communist Revolution of 1949.
The resultant secularism among many mainland Chinese may have a significant influence on the world, as China, with its population of more than
a billion, gains power in the international arena.
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CONFLICT IN RELIGION
Religions, Sacred Texts, and Violence
Religions almost universally preach peace. But they
also face questions about the use of violence. Are there
situations in which violence is justified? May violence be
used for self-defense—to protect one’s body, family, or
property? Should violence be used to destroy a tyrant?
May violence be used to bring justice to society? May
violence be used in the conversion of nonbelievers?
Unfortunately, religions do not speak with one voice
on these matters, and even within the same religion we
find contradictory advice. Adding to the difficulty,
many sacred texts contain descriptions of justified
warfare and killing. Sometimes such texts are meant
as metaphors for the fight against evil, but they can
too often be used to justify violence. We will look at a
few examples.
Most religions accept that violence is justified if it
is needed for the protection of oneself or one’s family—
a position that many people hold as reasonable. There are
exceptions, though. Jainism and early Buddhist teachings
reject using violence for any purpose whatsoever. The
Dhammapada, an early Buddhist document, says this:
“All beings tremble before violence. All fear death. All
love life. See yourself in others. Then whom can you
hurt? What harm can you do? He who seeks happiness
by hurting those who seek happiness will never find
happiness. For your brother is like you. He wants to
be happy. Never harm him. . . .”6 Nonetheless, in later
Buddhism, particularly in China and Japan, Buddhist
teachings about detachment and transience were
sometimes employed to idealize the skillful soldier and
the warrior-monk. And Buddhist sculpture shows
many figures holding symbolic swords and other
weapons.
Hinduism values nonviolence highly, as we see in
Gandhi’s teachings about non-harm (ahimsa). But we
also know that the Bhagavad Gita, perhaps the most
influential book in Hinduism, endorses fighting to
overcome serious injustice. In the popular epic the
W
Ramayana, Rama and his brother Lakshman engage in
warfare
I in order to rescue Rama’s wife, Sita. And some
of the Hindu deities, such as Durga and Kali, are known
forL
their love of blood. Animal sacrifice is still used in their
worship,
S and human sacrifice has not been unknown.
The Daodejing says that the person of the Dao hates
O “Whenever you advise a ruler in the way of
weapons.
[Dao], counsel him not to use force to conquer the
N
universe,” for “thorn bushes spring up wherever the
army
, has passed.”7 It says that the person of the Dao
hates weapons. But then the text adds that “he uses
them only when he has no choice.”8 This opens a very
wide
J door for fighting, as anyone who has seen a Chinese
martial arts fi lm can attest.
A
We see a fairly militant approach in some religions,
possibly
M as a result of the tribal nature of their original
societies. Perhaps because biblical Judaism grew up in a
I without strong natural borders, it viewed Yahweh
land
as “Lord of hosts” (Isa. 6:3)—a commander of angelic
E
armies that could protect his people. Psalm 135 makes
clear this notion of Yahweh as a national protector: “He
struck down all the first-born in Egypt, both man and
5 . . . He struck down mighty nations and slew
beast.
9
great
0 kings” (Ps. 135:8, 10).
5
1
Some people welcome secularism—possibly with the same relief felt by
B of the United States—because they want life
many in the early confederation
to be carried on without religiously inspired hatreds. Machines, such as comU
puters, cars, and telephones, are secular in that they do not ask the religion
of the person who operates them. In secular cultures, some wish that human
beings could be similarly accommodating.
Science offers explanations of reality that once came only from religion.
Secular governments often promote values that were once primarily espoused
by religion. And secular governments run hospitals, schools, and welfare
programs, which at one time were under the exclusive control of religion.
What, then, does this leave for religion? Will current religions move in the
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Psalm 18 also sees him as a personal protector:
“Thou settest my foot on my enemies’ necks” (Ps. 18:40).
Psalm 137 is even more graphic about the treatment
of the enemy: “Happy is he who will seize your children
and dash them against the rock” (v. 9). Since God “sets
the time for war and the time for peace” (Eccles. 3:8),
warfare seems at times to be approved and even commanded by God. The Books of Joshua and Judges, for
example, offer much justified warfare (Josh. 8:1–29).
Yet we should also recognize that the Hebrew Bible W
balances this harshness with a vision of a God of
I
compassion, concerned for the good of the lowly and
poor (I Sam. 2:8).
L
Christianity began with strongly nonviolent principles,
evident in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7). WeS
know that Jesus refused to lead an armed revolt against
O
the Romans. Early Christianity continued this pacifism,
and Christians at first did not become soldiers. Yet N
change came quickly, both in society and in sacred
,
texts. The Book of Revelation—one of the last biblical
books written—portrays Jesus on a white horse, dressed
in a robe that is covered with the blood of battle. Out
J
of his mouth comes a sword; he rules with an iron rod;
and he tramples on sinners like a harvester crushing A
grapes under his feet (Rev. 19:13–15). (This passage
M
inspired the rhyming words of the “Battle Hymn of the
Republic”: “the Lord,” who holds “a terrible swift
I
sword,” tramples out “the vintage where the grapes of
wrath are stored.”) After Constantine became emperor,
E
there was no longer any prohibition on Christians becoming soldiers—perhaps because Constantine was a
soldier himself. A century later, Augustine elaborated 5
principles that justified warfare. He also approved of
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-12
using political force to compel “heretics” (nonmainstream Christians) to conform to orthodoxy. By the
time of the Crusades, the cult of the Christian soldier
was complete, and it had military patrons such as Saint
George, Saint Barbara, and Saint Michael, who are
often portrayed holding swords. (Saint George is the
patron saint of England, and his red cross is in its flag.)
We find a similar mixture of responses in Islam. The
name of the religion itself is related to the Arabic word
for peace, and Muhammad worked tirelessly for harmony
among the many tribes of Arabia. Yet Muhammad
thought that violence was sometimes justified, and he
led his followers into battle. As the Qur’an records,
God commanded him, “Prophet, rouse the faithful to
arms” (8:65).10 Muhammad spoke of a final day of divine
reward and punishment, just as Zoroastrianism, Judaism,
and Christianity also teach, and he described vivid
punishments prepared by God for sinners: “Garments
of fire have been prepared for the unbelievers. . . .
They shall be lashed with rods of iron” (22:19). Yet the
Qur’an equally counsels fairness and patience, such as
in this passage: “If you punish, let your punishment be
commensurate with the wrong that has been done you.
But it shall be best for you to endure your wrongs with
patience” (16:126).
What we see in the scriptures of many religions are
words of peace and compassion, side by side with
warnings of violence and punishment. Unfortunately,
most texts offer possibilities for individual believers to
choose passages that give authority to their cruelty and
anger. Only scriptures (like those of the Jains) that
allow no harm whatsoever can avoid being used to
justify the use of violence.
0
5
1
direction of secularism? Will religions survive as pockets of belief and pracB
tice in a basically secular environment?11 Could completely
secular “religions”
emerge? Or will religious instincts be expressed in increasingly nontradiU
tional forms?
Environmental Challenges
Four centuries ago, the total human population was about 500 million. Now,
the world’s population is more than 6 billion. This growing population has
migrated to cities to find jobs, and cities with a million people—once extremely
rare—are now sprouting like mushrooms. Megacities—such as Mexico City,
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The view from the
moon . . . gave new
meaning to the word
“religion.” The English
word for religion came
from the Latin word
religare. It means to
connect. Religion is
about how we are all
connected to each
other and to every
creature and to the
earth. Religions is
about including, about
every part belonging to
the whole. “Religion”
is the old word and
“ecology” is the new
word. The view from
the moon shows that
religion and ecology
share the same meaning
of connectedness.
—James Parks Morton,
Dean Emeritus of the
Cathedral of Saint John
the Divine in New York,
speaking of the photo
of the earth taken from
the moon12
▼
This NASA photo of earth
has sometime been called
a religious icon that makes
viewers realize the beauty
of the earth and the interrelatedness of all its
parts.
São Paulo, Shanghai, Tokyo, New York, and Cairo—are becoming more common, even though most of them find it difficult to cope with their unchecked
growth. Some cities have become bleak, inhospitable urban environments.
At the same time, the natural environment is being ravaged to provide
resources for the increasing world population. The rain forests of Malaysia,
Thailand, Indonesia, and Brazil are disappearing to provide wood and farmland, and the habitat of many animals, including all great apes in the wild,
is being threatened. Nuclear energy is used to make electricity, but no one
knows where to safely store the spent fuel. Pesticides are used for growing
and storing many foods, despite their related health dangers.
The great religions of theW
past grew up in a quite different world and
did not have to deal with the
I moral issues raised by population growth,
urban life, corporate business policies, nuclear waste, and environmental
L
pollution. Faced with these entirely
new problems, old religions must try to
discover within themselves the
Swisdom to handle these challenges. They will
have to fundamentally rethink morality. Doing so will not be easy or straightO
forward, as we will see in a moment.
THE RECURRING
N
,
CHALLENGE
OF CHANGE
If our textbook pilgrimage of world
J religions has revealed a common denominator among religions, it is this: all religions that survive must ultimately
A whether they acknowledge the adaptations
adapt to changing circumstances,
or not. If there is a second common
M denominator, it is probably the fact that
adaptation is seldom achieved without confusion and pain. Indeed, debate,
I new divisions are necessary ways in which
struggle, and the formation of
religions seek to remain relevant
E in a changing world.
A good case study of a religion’s processes of adaptation is found in the
recent history of Roman Catholicism. Catholicism, because it has adherents
in so many parts of the world,
5 is always being challenged somewhere by
changing circumstances. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Catholi0
cism was challenged by new “scientific” understanding, particularly Darwinism and modern biblical5criticism. Its response was initially a set of
proclamations against the evils of modernism and secularism. Despite its
1
apparent conservatism, it was also adapting to the changing world order.
Bdevelopment of new Catholic social doctrine,
This was particularly true in its
spelled out in papal encyclicals, concerning social justice and workers’ rights.
U
The two world wars increased the pace of social change and the need for
religious adjustment. The movement of social and religious “tectonic plates”
eventually produced a Catholic earthquake in the person of Pope John XXIII
(1881–1963). This elderly, mild-mannered pope stated his desire to open the
Church to the modern world, and he initiated meetings of the world’s Catholic
bishops that were intended to help Catholicism remain relevant. By the end
of the Second Vatican Council in 1965, Roman Catholicism had a different
face, a face marked by an emphasis on human equality, a new tolerance for
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I
L
S
O
N
,
J
A
M
I
E
5
0
5
1
B
U
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THE MODERN SEARCH
the secular world, an acceptance of separation between church and state,
and an openness to diversity. This was the face of an old religion taking
major steps to adapt itself to the modern world.
But the case study does not end with the liberalization initiated by
John XXIII. As history would have predicted, the pendulum swung back,
particularly at the urging of Pope John Paul II (1920–2005), the first pope
from a Communist country. Pope John Paul II insisted that only males
could be priests and bishops. He also appointed bishops who reflected his
own conservative beliefs; he reasserted the primacy of Rome; and he condemned the thought of some liberal Catholic theologians. Nonetheless, he
W of human social rights, condemned the
also furthered his church’s defense
excesses of capitalism, and fought
capital punishment. He is often credited
I
with being a major cause of the downfall of Communism in Russia and
eastern Europe. His death inL
2005 ended one of the most influential papacies in history. Although Benedict
S XVI, the first pope chosen during this
century, attempts to strike a balance between the conservative and liberal
O
factions of his church, his general approach has been conservative. At some
point in the future, however,N
the pendulum will undoubtedly swing in the
other direction.
,
This case study, with its tensions and vacillations, is typical of many
religions. As we saw in preceding chapters, religions must adapt and change.
Often they fight the forces ofJchange, but such conservatism can be a stage
of adaptive development that eventually evolves into flexible forms of belief
A
and practice.
The inevitability of conservative
reaction to the onslaught of change is
M
one way to understand a phenomenon that is sometimes called fundamenI
talism. Fundamentalist movements—occurring
in many parts of the world—
are often fueled by calls for aE“return to the values of our founders” and to
an earlier, more traditional vision.
Fundamentalist movements reflect an effort to simplify a religion. They
emphasize what followers see5as the basics, the essential elements, of a religion. The personal rewards of fundamentalism are multiple: a sense of bet0
tering society, of uniting with like-minded people, and of repairing a religion
to make it useful once again5as a clear guide to what is right and wrong.
Although fundamentalist movements are motivated by many reasons, they
1
represent primarily a response to the threat of change.
Bof fundamentalism is possibly the Islamic
The best-known example
Revolution in Iran, initiated by the late Ayatollah Khomeini (see Chapter 10);
U
but Islamic fundamentalist movements are also occurring in many other
countries, such as Egypt, Turkey, Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Algeria.
As mentioned in earlier chapters, we see fundamentalism active in other
religions as well—in Christianity, especially in the United States and Africa;
in Hinduism in India; and in Judaism, particularly in Israel. Some people
see religious fundamentalism, especially if it takes control of nations’ armies
and weapons, as one of the greatest dangers currently facing the human race.
Others believe that the attraction of fundamentalism will either be eroded
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W
I
L
S
O
N
,
by the secular values that they see spreading throughout the world or be
replaced with new religious ideals.
J
The image of a swinging pendulum is a recurrent metaphor in this chapA the pendulum swinging
ter. We return to it one last time, as we imagine
away from fundamentalism toward another phenomenon,
which may well
M
be at the other end of the arc: a kind of neopantheism expressed through a
I
semideification of nature. Just as Muslim and Christian
leaders have articulated the aspirations of traditional monotheistic
Emovements, other thinkers
have articulated the “doctrines” of the “nature movement.” Among the
many important writers have been Julian Huxley (1887–1975), Rachel Carson
(1907–1964), David Brower (1912–2000), and E.5O. Wilson (b. 1929).
Major religions are now taking note of the inescapable ethical attention
0
that the natural world demands. Buddhism in both Asia and the West is
slowly developing environmental awareness, and
5 so is Christianity. These
developments in traditional religions are an entirely new and important
1
extension of religious morality. The potential of the environmental movement
B that it is a possible new
to grow—and to influence existing religions—suggests
scaffolding for the cathedral of humanity’s future religious expressions.
The speed of glacier melt
reminds us that human
behavior can harm natural
resources far across the
globe. Promoting the right
relationship between
humans and the environment is a growing concern
of every religion.
U
E N V I R O N M E N TA L I S M : A R E L I G I O U S
PHENOMENON?
The Green Movement, as we have seen, is becoming a large development.
It now extends to a host of practical areas, including architecture, waste
disposal, car design, clothing materials, energy sources, agriculture, and much
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Family members in
Washington, DC, march to
protest the prevalence of
lead pollution in everyday
environments.
else. The threat of global warming and related
environmental damage have moved it to the
forefront of our consciousness. So significant is
the need to care for nature that the major religions have made environmentalism as an important ethical commandment.
Sensitivity to nature, however, did not begin
with the Green Movement. Since nature can be
viewed contemplatively, it has long been a
source of religious inspiration. In Asia, we can
Wgreat sensitivity to nature in the origins of
see
Daoism,
and the beauties of nature appear as a
I
major theme in the poetry of the China and
L as early as the seventh century. In the
Japan
West,
S we find awareness of the spiritual aspect of
nature in the medieval thought of Saint Francis
O
and the Cistercian monks. A profound feeling
for
Nnature reasserts itself in the Romantic movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
,
which taught that nature was the most important manifestation of the sublime.
J In the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, the movement toward nature was strikingly evident in the paintA whom Claude Monet (1840–1926) was a
ing of the Impressionists, among
significant example. Monet not
M only painted occasional scenes of nature in
the countryside, but he left Paris to create a country home with a garden
I
featuring a large water lily pond,
which he painted regularly for the last
forty-three years of his life. The
E garden he created at Giverny is virtually a
place of pilgrimage today; his paintings of nature hang in many major museums; and reproductions of his paintings of water lilies have made his work
well known and loved throughout
5 the world.
The great open spaces of North America also inspired a feeling for the
0
spirituality of nature—as depicted in the works of European and American
painters of the nineteenth century.
5 Travelers who visited the western part of
North America wrote of its extravagant beauty. One of these was Scottish1
born naturalist John Muir (1838–1914). In several books, Muir demanded
Bimportant to the whole nation be protected.
that beautiful regions that are
Because of his efforts, Yosemite was made a national park; in fact, his work
U
helped ignite the establishment of the national park system and local nature
preserves. Muir Woods, a fine grove of redwoods just north of San Francisco,
is named after him.
Today, signs of this new approach to the natural world—an approach
that is both practical and spiritual—are evident everywhere. Earth Day was
established a few decades ago as a celebration of nature. Television is crowded
with wonderfully photographed programs on animals and insects, forests
and lakes, coral reefs, fish, and oceans—films that have become an art form
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Environmentalism: A Religious Phenomenon?
in their own right. Specialty stores now sell items that express the theme of
nature—from semiprecious stones and interesting mineral formations to posters of dolphins and whales. A whole new type of environmentally sensitive
travel is becoming popular; ecotourism takes people to places like the Amazon
and the Galápagos Islands. Zoos, which used to be little more than prisons
for animals, are undergoing a revolution in design; they now try to provide
a familiar, comfortable, and spacious environment for their animals. Legal
protections are being created for endangered species. Art and music—
discussed in more detail later in this chapter—have actually pointed the way,
through over a century of works that have been strongly inspired by the
W
natural world.
This entire environmental movement is infl
I uencing our lives in important ways in the industrialized world. It is actually a network of related
L work for the protection of
interests. The movement has inspired groups that
forests and jungles and endangered species. It S
has worked to set up sanctuaries for whales and dolphins. It has produced ardent animal rights groups,
O
which oppose the use of fur, the killing of animals for sport, unnecessary
animal testing, and the inhumane breeding and
N slaughter of animals for
food. As examples of its organizational expression, there are numerous
,
groups dedicated to bettering the earth: Greenpeace, the Sierra Club, the
Audubon Society, the Nature Conservancy, and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals.
J
As environmental consciousness has spread, the issue of sustainability
A As we have seen in earlier
has moved from the fringes into the mainstream.
chapters, it has been embraced by leaders of several
M religions. It has become
part of political-party platforms across the world. What remains is the hard
I into a set of actions that
work of transforming sustainability from a goal
produce real results. If the goal is truly embraced
E both by politicians and by
religious leaders, it may generate greater momentum than it would in the
political sphere alone.
Chapter 2 suggested that the Green Movement
5 can be seen as a sort of
twenty-first-century indigenous religion. Indeed, the entire environmental
0
movement has interesting parallels with traditional religions. For example,
it has a strongly prophetic aspect because of5its moral rules. Like many
religions, it dictates what a person should or should not eat, wear, and do.
1
(Some bumper stickers illustrate this: “Fur looks good on animals,” and
B also has a mystical aspect
“Think globally, act locally.”) Environmentalism
in its emphasis on the fundamental unity of human beings and the universe.
U
In fact, it offers as its supreme experience the sense of oneness with animals
and the rest of nature.
So far, this movement is deficient in the sacramental, ritualistic element
that usually characterizes religions—although this aspect has great potential
for development in the next centuries. Events such as Earth Day and summer solstice festivals may be a beginning of such rituals, and the religion of
Wicca attempts to re-create pre-Christian nature rituals. We might see the
evolution of nature-based ritual for the major seasons: Earth Day already
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Ansel Adams’s photo of the
moon over Hernandez,
New Mexico, reminds us
that for those who pause
to look, the sacred is easy
to see.
5
0
marks spring; summer solstice
5 rites mark summer; and autumn is marked
by Thanksgiving or similar end-of-harvest ceremonial meals and rituals.
1
Like religion, environmentalism also has its “sacred places.” Destinations of ecopilgrimage includeBYosemite, the Rocky Mountains, wildlife preserves in eastern Africa and Costa Rica, Mount Everest, the whale sanctuary
U
at Maui, Glacier Bay and Denali National Park in Alaska, and many others.
(The word sanctuary, used in reference to animal preserves, is religiously
significant.) Environmentalism is also developing its role models, many of
whom, interestingly, are women: Dian Fossey (1932–1985), Jane Goodall
(b. 1934), Brigitte Bardot (b. 1934), Rue McClanahan (b. 1934), and Pamela
Anderson (b. 1967). (In 2006, Jane Goodall was awarded the French Legion
of Honor for her work—a great honor, whose past recipients included Elie
Wiesel and Helen Keller.) There is a growing body of environmentalist
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“scripture”—for example, Walden by Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) and
Animal Liberation by Peter Singer (b. 1946). And sacred iconography extends
from the nature photographs of Yosemite by Ansel Adams (1902–1984) to
popular paintings of whales and porpoises by Christian Lassen (b. 1956),
Robert Wyland (b. 1956), and others. Equally important are environmental
films, such as Al Gore’s An Inconvenient Truth, which helped win him the
Nobel Peace Prize in 2007.
ECLECTIC SPIRITUALITY
W
It is quite common now to hear people say that
I they are not particularly
interested in any one religion, but that they are interested in spirituality. It
L but the fact that people
is not always clear what they mean by spirituality,
use this word to describe their religious stance
S does reveal an important
contemporary phenomenon. Individuals now assemble elements of different
O
belief systems to create their own spiritual system. Highly valued are practices that promote inner peace and a feeling N
of harmony between oneself
and the outer world. The key belief of those who embrace eclectic spiritual,
ity is the interrelatedness of all elements in the universe. That belief is often
expressed in an attitude of respect and reverence for all people and creatures.
The respect and reverence are often cultivatedJthrough contemplative acts
that dissolve separateness and promote ways of seeing beyond the superficial to the essential relatedness, even oneness, A
of all beings.
Traditional religions often engender spirituality,
M and eclectic spirituality
is marked by borrowings from traditional religions. These borrowings range
I to dancing inspired by
from meditative practices inspired by Buddhism
Sufism. But there are other means to attain spirituality,
and many find it
E
outside traditional religion. We have all had the experience, for example, of
going to a movie theater, sitting down in the darkness, and gradually being
drawn into a film that does far more than merely
5 entertain. At a certain
point, we recognize that the film is evoking in us a response that is somehow
0
fundamental to the human experience and at the same time transcendent—an
experience of the “spiritual.” Often we sense that
5 others in the audience are
sharing in that experience. At the end of such films, there is silence, a silence
1
that may prevail even in the lobby as people leave the theater. Musical conB
certs can also induce a similar experience.
Psychologists such as Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) and Abraham
U
Maslow (1908–1970) have written extensively of the necessary spiritual development of the human being. Maslow became preoccupied with it, first
describing what he called “peak experiences,” which are rare and transient,
and then describing what he called “plateau experiences,” which are contemplative experiences in everyday life that may be frequent and long-lasting.
A heightened interest in spirituality may also have influenced the changing attitude toward the home. People increasingly think of their home as
their “sanctuary.” They want to include elements in their apartment or house
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S
O
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,
Physical exercise can also
be a form of exercise for
the spirit.
J
A
M
that will promote tranquility in everyday life. (This may in part explain the
popularity of home makeoverI programs on television!) Some homes feature
intriguing elements of religious
E design: a small home altar, a meditation area,
or a garden room for reflection. Plants and gardens are taking on a new
importance, reminding us of their significance in several Asian religious traditions. Fountains are popular5for both interior and exterior, and come in all
sizes and shapes. They recall the uses of water in so many religions, such as
0
Shinto, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. Sometimes larger houses even
have “cathedral” ceilings. The5home—as well as the church and temple—is
now being conceived of as a sacred space.
1
Because eclectic spirituality is difficult to define, we will try now to
B We will look particularly at three aspects
understand it through examples.
frequently thought of as characterizing modern spirituality: the sense of
U
interrelatedness, an attitude of respect and reverence, and a contemplative
approach to experiencing reality.
Interrelatedness
As we saw in earlier chapters, many religions have pointed to a relatedness among all beings, expressed perhaps most strongly in Buddhist and
Hindu thought but also in the mystical teachings of many other religions.
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Religion and Movies
From their earliest days, movies have explored religious
themes and the questions of spirituality—from the silent
fi lm Intolerance and fi lms based on the Bible to more recent movies such as the Matrix series. Less overtly religious films also have explored moral and spiritual topics.
Frank Capra (1897–1991), in his fi lm Lost Horizon,
contrasted the utopian world of Shangri-la, hidden in
W
the Himalayas, with the superficiality of the modern industrial world. The message of the movie is given by the
I
“high lama,” the founder of Shangri-la, whose very last
L
words are “Be kind.” In another film by the same director,
It’s a Wonderful Life (which regularly appears on television
S
at Christmastime), a man discovers the value of his life
O
only when he is on the brink of suicide. At that moment
he sees all the good he has done, and he receives the
N
affectionate care of his neighbors.
Some fi lms bring a kind of enlightenment through ,
their revelation of the value of everyday life. In the film
version of the play Our Town, by Thornton Wilder
(1897–1975), a girl goes back in time to her sixteenthJ
birthday and sees her family in a new light. Peggy Sue Got
Married, directed by Francis Ford Coppola (b. 1939), A
does the same thing, when a woman is transported back
M
to her high school days. Late Spring and other fi lms
by the Japanese director Yasujiro Ozu (1903–1963) reveal the beauty of the everyday through careful attention
to the details of human life. They typically show a family
at a turning point in its life, such as when a daughter gets
married and must move away. The Japanese director
Hayao Miyazaki (b. 1941), in films of extraordinary
hand-drawn animation, has turned our attention to the
needs of animals and the environment. Many of his films,
such as Princess Mononoke and Spirited Away, use images
from Shinto and Buddhism to illustrate his concerns. His
film My Neighbor Totoro has sparked a movement to protect forests in Japan; it has also inspired the name for a
Japanese forest preserve, called Totoro’s Forest.
Science-fiction fi lms about space travel also show
interesting parallels with mythic religious stories of
visitations by angels and deities or human ascensions
to heavenly realms. Sometimes these fi lms touch on the
semireligious struggle between the forces of good and
evil—take, for example, the Star Trek and Star Wars
series. Many times (as in the film E.T.), they suggest that
human beings need to learn lessons that can only be
taught by representatives from other worlds.
I
E
Science has also shown great interest in interrelatedness, sometimes linking the worlds of religion and science. The scientific exploration of the
subatomic world has helped us understand that
5 the connections that we
observe in the visible world mirror the structures in the very building
0
blocks of the universe. This same interest in interrelatedness helps account
for the popularity of such abstruse topics as chaos
5 theory, cosmology, and
the meteorological relations between ocean temperature and distant
1
weather patterns; it also explains the popularity of such books as The
B A Short History of Nearly
Whole Shebang by Timothy Ferris (b. 1944) and
Everything by Bill Bryson (b. 1951).
U
Popular interest in interrelatedness is also evident in the reinterpretation of some artworks, particularly the paintings of Georgia O’Keeffe
(1887–1986). O’Keeffe’s paintings of flowers and animal bones and closeto-the-earth architectural forms have always been regarded as technically
excellent. Her paintings have become so popular that one was reproduced
on a commemorative U.S. postage stamp. Their recent popularity, however, may hinge more on their expression of interrelatedness and interchangeableness: because many of her paintings depict objects at very close
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Religion and Pop Culture
Popular culture often presents religious themes. Comic
strips and animated cartoon films, for example, look uncomplicated but sometimes have a depth that belies their
appearance. (Pablo Picasso and other artists have highly
valued comics for their economy of line—a great deal can
be said with minimal drawing.) Some comic strips indict
society in a prophetic way (such as Doonesbury or Dilbert);
other comic strips often are explicitly religious (such as
Peanuts, Family Circus, and B.C.). In many of Disney’s
animated films (Dumbo, Bambi, Cinderella, Little Mermaid,
Lion King, Tarzan, Dinosaur, Finding Nemo), a host of loving
animals have been created with such personality and
charm that their portrayal as conscious, feeling beings on
a par with human beings may have contributed to the
growing animal liberation movement.
The creation of Superman and other heroic comicbook figures may be a popular form of biblical messianism. Like the messianic agent given authority by the
Ancient of Days in the seventh chapter of the Book of
Daniel, Superman comes to earth from another world
to bring justice and truth. Biblical influence may have
inspired the semibiblical “Krypton names” of Superman
and of his father: Kal-El and Jor-El. (We might recall
that El means “God” in Hebrew and occurs in names
such as Israel, Samuel, and Michael.) Superman and
other similar heroes help reinforce the human desire for
justice and compassion.
W
The cult of Elvis Presley (“Presleyanity”), while perhaps
I not what one would call “spiritual,” has multiple
religious parallels: the death of Elvis at an early age, his
L“apparitions” to the faithful, the supposed healing
later
power
S of his photos, the common image of him dressed
in white, the commemoration of his birth and death,
theO
pilgrimage to Graceland and other sites where Elvis
lived and worked, and the marketing of his gospel music.
N
Followings centered on other musicians—Jim Morrison,
John
, Lennon, Bob Marley, Kurt Cobain, and the Grateful
Dead—show similar religious parallels. These followings
suggest that the religious urge remains, though its
forms
J of expression change.
A
M
range, the viewer may be unable at first glance to tell if the painting repI
resents a flower, a part of human
or animal anatomy, an adobe church, a
hillside, or even a seashell. This
E ambiguity is surprising because, in fact,
O’Keeffe’s work is often closer to realism than abstraction. However, even
that distinction is broken down by O’Keeffe’s highlighting of the abstract
within the specific. Overall, her
5 paintings express interrelatedness on several levels; they invite the viewer to contemplate patterns and underlying
0
similarities. Some reproductions of O’Keeffe’s paintings have become
almost icons of spirituality. 5
Abstraction has been used repeatedly to suggest both the state of inter1
relatedness and the human experience of oneness. Georgia O’Keeffe’s nonB use curves of color with this intent, as in
representational works frequently
her paintings Music: Pink and Blue, Blue, and the Series 1.13 Mark Rothko
U
(1903–1970), one of the greatest painters of pure spiritual experience, achieved
a similar effect by superimposing squares of subtle color, which seem to float
luminously above their backgrounds. Jackson Pollock (1912–1956) created
spontaneous but very complicated worlds of relationship in color by spattering paint on canvases that he had placed on the ground. These artists’
works can give the viewer a feeling of being either out in space, surrounded
by stars and blackness, or within an atom, amid the active particles and
surrounding emptiness.
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Georgia O’Keeffe’s
paintings can help us
experience everyday
realities in new ways.
This painting portrays
music.
W
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S
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5
0
5
Reverence and Respect
1
As we’ve already discussed, nature is comingB
to be seen not as something
only to use, but rather as a part of ourselves that must be nurtured for
U
the well-being of all. Beyond this reconceptualization of nature, best
expressed in environmental movements, is a turn to nature as revelation—
nature as an expression of the spirit that permeates all reality, nature as a
phenomenon to be revered. This attitude is perhaps best expressed in the
art of photography.
In an article that compares the qualities of some creative photographers
with the virtues of the Daoist sage as espoused in the Zhuangzi, writers
Philippe Gross and S. I. Shapiro describe Daoistic ideals, often using both
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The large paintings of Mark
Rothko have been called
windows into eternity.
They have the luminosity
of stained glass but the
mystery of the Zen circle.
W
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I’m not responsible for
my photographs.
Photography is not
documentary, but
intuition, a poetic
experience. It’s
drowning yourself,
dissolving yourself. . . .
First your must lose
your self. Then it
happens.
—Henri Cartier-Bresson,
photographer15
5
0
5
1
the words of the Zhuangzi and of modern photographers themselves, placed
B that the vision of the Daoist sage and of
side by side. The authors conclude
many great photographers is the same: “Both . . . have the capacity for seeing
U
with unconstricted awareness and are therefore capable of seeing the miraculous in the ordinary.”14 According to Gross and Shapiro, the virtues shared
by the Daoist sage and the contemplative photographer include freedom from
the sense of self, receptivity, spontaneity, acceptance, and nonattachment—
attributes that promote a general attitude of respect and reverence.
Contemplative photography reached a peak of sorts in the nature
photography of Ansel Adams (mentioned earlier). His black-and-white
photographs of Yosemite National Park, whose mountains and waterfalls
recall the subject matter of traditional Chinese landscape painting, evoke a
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Eclectic Spirituality
feeling of respect for the power and the beauty of nature. Another devotee
of nature, Eliot Porter (1901–1990), photographed in brilliant color to let
nature speak fully of its beauty. He became well known for his photographs
of trees turning yellow in autumn, of reflections in ponds, and of river
canyons. These photographs often elicit the same reverence in the viewer
as a Daoist sage might have experienced in contemplating a waterfall or a
distant mountain.
Photography has been particularly effective in recording the most minute
details of the human face and of human life, once again inviting insight,
respect, and reverence. Photography of the American Civil War by Matthew
W in terrible circumstances.
Brady (c. 1823–1896) includes portraits of people
Not long after, Edward Curtis (1868–1952) sensitively
documented the vanI
ishing indigenous life of Native Americans. Dorothea Lange (1895–1965) and
L
Walker Evans (1903–1975) produced moving studies
of people during the
Great Depression. More recent masters have beenSEdward Steichen (1879–1973)
and Diane Arbus (1923–1971). Steichen’s influential anthology of photoO
graphs, called The Family of Man, includes studies of the spiritual expressed
in human faces and actions from around the world.
N Arbus drew our respectful attention to marginalized people in our urban societies.
,
The ability to evoke an attitude of respect and reverence is by no means
limited to the art of photography. The details of ordinary human life can be
treated with reverence in painting as well. Vincent
J van Gogh (1853–1890)
did this repeatedly in his works—from his earlier portrayal of peasants, in
The Potato Eaters, to his later paintings of theAneighborhood postman, of
sunflowers arranged in a vase, and of a neighborhood
cafe at night. The
M
same attitude of respectful attention can even be found in cartoons (consider
I
the role of Lisa in The Simpsons). In fact, this attitude
can be expressed by
any art form or technique that promotes contemplation—the
method for
E
revealing spirituality—to which we now turn.
5
0
Although eclectic spirituality emphasizes the interrelatedness of all creation,
it does not maintain that each person is automatically
able to see interrelat5
edness. However, one can develop this ability, as well as acquire an attitude
1
of respect and reverence, through a variety of contemplative practices.
B native forms of religious
As we saw in the earliest chapters of this book,
practice have often made use of techniques that result in trance states, in
U
which ordinary reality is viewed in a transformed way. In later chapters we
Contemplative Practices
reviewed the forms of mysticism that exist in many of the world’s religions,
and we touched upon the different contemplative activities—such as meditation, Sufi dancing, tea ceremony, and hatha yoga—that have to some extent
supplanted the cultivation of trance states. The fact is that anyone—even the
person who does not practice a traditional religion—is free to try any of the
following contemplative practices.
Traditional religions provide a number of the practices that attract people
who are charting their own eclectic spiritual path. Most religions make use of
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songs, chants, and other forms of music—some of them elaborate. Mahayana
and Vajrayana Buddhism use complex chant, often accompanied by bells,
drums, gongs, trumpets, conch shells, and cymbals. Christianity has produced
a great amount of chant and other choral music. Shinto uses chants and gagaku
(the solemn instrumental music derived from ancient Chinese court music).
Much religious music is intended to help listeners experience a connectedness
with the sacred. Until recently, there were few opportunities to experience religious music without attending a religious service. Today, however, through
recordings, people can listen to this music and use it as part of their own contemplative practice at home or even in a car, while commuting or traveling.
W music, some forms of secular music are
Along with traditional religious
also used for contemplative purposes.
Today, a common form of contemplaI
tive practice is to listen to these types of music in a meditative way. During
L early twentieth century, the Impressionist
the late nineteenth century and
schools (particularly in France)
S developed not only a style of painting but
also of music. What is notable about Impressionist music is that it aims not
O
so much to satisfy classical requirements of form but to convey a sensual
impression, through music, of
Na primarily nonmusical experience, such as
the coming of dawn or the feeling of standing in a forest.
,
Much Western contemplative music today is a direct descendant of that
earlier evocative music. One example of Impressionist music is Prelude to the
Afternoon of a Faun by ClaudeJ
Debussy (1862–1918). In his tone poem La Mer,
Debussy uses music to describe a sunrise and a storm on the ocean. His
Aa meditation on clouds (Nuages), and his Clair
Nocturnes for orchestra include
de Lune (from the Suite Bergamasque
M ) creates the feeling of a quiet, moonlit
night. Another French composer, Maurice Ravel (1875–1937), even used a
I in the full version of his Daphnis and Chloe.
wind machine to evoke nature
And both Ravel and Debussy E
created music for piano that suggests the relaxing play of fountains. A third composer in this contemplative line was the
Englishman Frederick Delius (1862–1934), whose works are generally short
impressions of seasonal moods.
5 Among the finest are On Hearing the First
Cuckoo in Spring, Summer Night on the River, and The Walk to the Paradise
0
Garden. The English composer Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958), who
studied with Ravel, suggests5with a solo violin the flight of a bird in The
Lark Ascending—a delicate work that, when experienced in a quiet environ1
ment, has helped many a listener experience a connectedness with the sacred
B used as a subject for modern ballet). His
(the composition is also often
Fantasia on Greensleeves and Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis are equally
U
contemplative. The moods created by these composers are today frequently
echoed in what has come to be called New Age music, some of which is
performed on synthesizers. Trance-inducing techno music may also be seen
as a new form of spiritual music.
In addition, the spread of modern orchestral instruments in Asia and
the use of the synthesizer have made it possible for Asian composers to
create complicated cross-cultural works that offer new windows through
which listeners can experience that which is within and beyond. The
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Personal Experience: Lunch
Japanese composers Toshiro Mayuzumi (1929–1997) and Toru Takemitsu
(1930–1996), for example, are often cited for their efforts to transport listeners through transcultural music.
Whether eclectic spirituality will expand into a fully developed religion
is impossible to say. It is easier to predict that world growth will result in
more crowded spaces, more noise, greater competition, and increased stress.
Under such circumstances, the need for contemplation can only grow.
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE: LUNCH
W
Recently I got together with close friends for lunch.
We met at a local resI
taurant that overlooks the ocean. After we all ordered sandwiches, I remarked
L
on the beautiful view.
“Too much infinity,” Kathy said cryptically,
Slooking out at the miles of
water.
O
“How can you ever have too much of that?” I asked, with a laugh. “I
like infinity.”
N
“To me it’s like being in a huge room that echoes when you walk across
,
it. The echoes are like my questions. I don’t want them echoed back. I want
answers!”
“Don’t be so difficult,” said John. “Anyway,
J Mike thinks that religions
provide all the answers you’ll ever need.” John, a civil engineer with a scientist’s mind, was making fun of me—as usual.A
He turned toward me. “Let’s
face it: religions are not rational. They don’t want
M you to think. They just
offer you doctrines to accept blindly.”
I “Every religion’s views
“And what kind of help is that?” Kathy asked.
are different. If you ask the big questions—about
E God or gods, the origin of
the universe, what’s right or wrong, what happens after we die—you get
different answers. No, you can’t look to religions for answers.”
“You’re sort of right,” said Robert.
5
“Only sort of?” asked Kathy.
0
“Well, there are different ways of looking at the issue,” Robert answered.
“Something that I think is great about religions
5 is that, even if they don’t
always get the answers right, at least they’re looking at the important ques1
tions. They’re reminding us that there’s more to life than this year’s fashions
and the price of gas. They remind us to focus B
on the big issues.”
“You’re letting religions off too easily,” said John. “Their so-called
U
answers can mislead people and cause lots of harm. Think of religions that
condone beating children or oppressing women or killing minorities. Think
of the support that religions gave to the Nazis during World War II. And
what about religions that have supported slavery? It’s taken centuries to get
people to think that keeping slaves might be wrong, and religions haven’t
helped speed up that process.”
Peggy, an emergency-room nurse, countered. “Haven’t religions also made
people more generous? Look at all the hospitals that were started by religions.”
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Albert Einstein, a prophet
in the history of science,
may also offer prophetic
insights about human
beings and the cosmos that
we briefly inhabit.
“Maybe” Kathy replied. “But people don’t need religions to make them gentle and generous. Lots of people
are that way without any religious influence. You don’t
have to believe in an afterlife in order to be kind. In fact,
if you think there’s no afterlife, then how you treat people
in this life may be all the more important to you.”
“And what about the existence of God?’ Do we really
need that? Does it really help people or not?” John was
on a roll. “I just read a couple of books—by Christopher
Hitchens and Richard Dawkins—that say that theism is
W harmful. Believing in a Grand Designer,
irrational and
they say, isI big mistake. What doesn’t fit eventually just
dies away. If there’s any design, they say, it’s only a byproduct of L
evolution.” John took a sip from his glass.
Kathy S
nodded. “Think about malaria and cancer and
droughts and tsunamis. Where’s the good in things like
O
that? If those are parts of some design, we should sue the
designer, don’t you think?” N
“Here comes lunch!” Peggy exclaimed. She was either hungry or trying
,
to change the topic. Two servers brought the plates. The first few bites helped
everyone to mellow.
But not for long. I turned
J to my right. “Robert, you’re a professor,” I
said. “But you’re more open to religion than John is. What do you think
about religion and about the A
divine?”
All eyes turned to Robert.M
“I think that religions are like human beings,”
he finally answered. “When they’re at their best, they can be pretty wonderful.
But at their worst, they can beI cruel and terrible. And about belief in a God,
for me it’s very hard to be either
Ean atheist or a traditional believer.” He paused.
“Maybe the truth is somewhere in between.” He looked across the table at John.
“I agree that it’s hard to believe in a loving, personal God. To me, that seems
to be nothing more than human
5 wish fulfillment. But it’s also hard to be an
atheist. Take Einstein, for example. He refused to be called either a traditional
0
theist or an atheist.” Robert stirred his iced tea. “Einstein said that he didn’t
believe in a personal God and5he didn’t believe in miracles. But Einstein used
the word ‘God,’ and he did it deliberately. He said that the beauty, the harmony,
1
and the mystery of the universe were what had led him into science. He said
Bwas something spiritual about the universe—
that they led him to think there
something way beyond our comprehension, perhaps, but obvious when you
U
look around.” Robert took a sip of tea. “I tend to agree with Einstein.”
John looked up from his plate. “So, what did Einstein know about the
universe?” John began to smile. We all laughed.
Thinking it was time again to change the subject, I turned to John.
“How’s your sandwich?”
“It’s delicious,” he replied.” “It has to be, doesn’t it? After all, I think
we’d all agree that all our sandwiches were very well designed!”
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Test Yourself
561
READING
EINSTEIN AND RELIGION
The physicist Albert Einstein was often asked about his religious views. In answer,
he wrote of his sense of the mystery that manifests itself in the workings of the universe. Here is a typical response:
The most beautiful and deepest experience a man
can have is the sense of the mysterious. It is the unW
derlying principle of religion as well as all serious
I
endeavour in art and science. He who never had
this experience seems to me, if not dead, then L
at
least blind. To sense that behind anything that can
S
be experienced there is a something that our mind
cannot grasp and whose beauty and sublimity
reaches us only indirectly and as a feeble reflection,
this is religiousness. In this sense I am religious. To me
it suffices to wonder at these secrets and to attempt
humbly to grasp with my mind a mere image of the
lofty structure of all that there is.16
O
N
T E S T ,Y O U R S E L F
better1. The modern culture of
ment will increasingly challenge religions J
to
produce what material cultures value.
A
a. nature-based
b. money-based
M
c. spirit-based
I
d. peace-based
2. Entirely new religions may frequently blend
E
elements from several religions. For example,
the
Church, which began in
Korea, blends Christianity and Confucianism.
5
a. Unitarian
0
b. Unification
c. Trinity
5
d. Trimurti
1
3. One of the earliest examples of modern religious
dialogue was the first
, held in
B
Chicago in 1893.
a. Council of World Religions
U
b. World Religion Convention
c. Religious Ecumenical Council
d. World Parliament of Religions
4. In Christianity, there is growing interest in medieval female mystics such as
.
a. Mary Baker Eddy
b. Catherine the Great
c. Elizabeth I
d. Hildegard of Bingen
5. In 2003, the
Church in the United
States consecrated as bishop a man who is in a gay
relationship; this has caused conflict with other
branches of the Church of England.
a. Episcopal
b. Baptist
c. Catholic
d. Presbyterian
6. The term
has come to refer to a
way of looking at life in which human values
and rules for living are taken from experience in
this world, not from divine revelation.
a. agnosticism
b. secularism
c. tritheism
d. monism
7.
, even where it has been abandoned as an official ideology, succeeded in creating a fairly secular milieu.
a. Communism
b. Theocracy
c. Nazism
d. Democracy
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THE MODERN SEARCH
8.
, the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, has been called “the Green Patriarch”
because of his environmentalism.
a. Saint Augustine
b. John Chrysostom
c. Tertullian
d. Bartholomew I
9. In Europe, a contemplative interest in nature
can be traced back many centuries to the nature
mysticism of some medieval monks and friars,
beginning with Saint
.
a. Augustine
b. Anne Jahouvey
c. Francis of Assisi
d. Anselm of Lucca
10. The key belief of those who embrace
is the interrelatedness of all
elements in the universe—a belief that is expressed in an attitude of respect and reverence
for all people and creatures.
a. the new world order
b. structuralism
c. eclectic spirituality
d. secularism
11. Based on what you have read in this chapter,
what do you think twenty-first century religious
leaders view as the greatest threat to religion?
WUsing information from the media and this chapter, explain your answer.
12.I Why do you think eclectic spirituality has become
Lvery popular in the contemporary world? Do you
think the majority of twenty-first century AmeriScans find eclectic spirituality more appealing than
traditional religions? Explain your answer.
Books
the links between feminism, ecology, and reliJgious thought.
Seay, Chris, and Greg Garrett. The Gospel Reloaded:
AExploring Spirituality and Faith in The Matrix.
Springs, CO: Pinon Press, 2003. A
MColorado
knowledgeable discussion of religious symbolI ism and meaning in the film The Matrix.
Sutherland, Audrey. Paddling My Own Canoe.
EHonolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1978. On
the surface, a lyrical description of paddling
along the shore of Moloka`i; underneath, a
5charming classic by a legendary canoer and
0kayaker that presents a spirituality akin to Zen.
Wirzba, Norman. The Paradise of God: Renewing Reli5gion in an Ecological Age. New York: Oxford UniPress, 2003. An argument for a new
1versity
religiously based environmentalism.
O
N
RESOURCES
,
Allison, Jay, and Dan Gediman, eds. This I Believe: The
Personal Philosophies of Remarkable Men and Women.
New York: Holt, 2007. A collection of essays, from
the weekly NPR segment begun in 2005, that
portray the personal credos of Americans.
Azara, Nancy. Spirit Taking Form: Making a Spiritual
Practice of Making Art. York Beach, ME: Red
Wheel/Weiser, 2002. An encouragement to inner
growth through the creation of art.
Byock, Ira. Dying Well: Peace and Possibilities at the End
of Life. New York: Riverhead/Penguin Putnam,
1997. A book for both patients and caregivers
about the spiritual possibilities of dying, written
by a compassionate specialist in hospice care.
Gamwell, Lynn. Exploring the Invisible: Art, Science,
and the Spiritual. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002. A well-illustrated discussion of
how the images and worldview of science have
contributed to the development of modern art.
Gottleib, Roger S. A Greener Faith: Religious Environmentalism and Our Planet’s Future. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2006. A hopeful, ecumenically
oriented book that argues that religion can be a
powerful force for environmental activism.
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Integrating Ecofeminism,
Globalization, and World Religions. Lanham, MD:
Rowman and Littlefield, 2005. A discussion of
B
U
Film/TV
Gifts from God: Women in Ministry. (Films Media
Group.) A CB...
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