Chapter 1
The European Breakthrough
The fifteenth century witnessed the end of the medieval and beginning of the Early Modern
World in Europe. For many historians the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, in 1453
to the Ottoman Turks provides a convenient date to mark the passing of one period and the
advent of the new. Yet, a clear break with the past did not really occur in Europe, as
philosophers, artists, theologians and politicians continued to maintain some elements of the
medieval worldview, while they also looked to the classical Greco-Roman politicians and
philosophers for inspiration. In Europe, societies developed philosophies, artistic styles, and
theological views inspired by the classical past. The Renaissance periods altered the artistic
landscapes of Europe. Trade and banking expanded, leading to the development of assertive
businessmen who challenged the old medieval order.
The sixteenth century saw a continuation of change and growth.
The Protestant Reformations fractured the unity of Christendom.
Enterprising royals used religious controversy to further centralize
power in their own hands. In some areas of Europe, this prompted
civil conflicts that led to the development of more representational
forms of government, while in other areas theories of divine right to
rule and absolutist styles of leadership held sway. In economics, the
old guild system, which had monitored standards of quality and
mandated prices, gave way to new business practices. The putting
out system provided an early step towards the capitalist, market
based economies that would come to dominate many parts of
Europe by the end of sixteenth century.
As individuals began to question old ways of thinking, developments in science and
technologies emerged. Beginning in the fifteenth century, but undergoing a rapid expansion in
the sixteenth and seventeenth, scientists made observations, conducted experiments, and
published theories that transformed the world. The Scientific Revolution, as this proliferation of
new data and techniques for observing the world is called, challenged old thought patterns,
sparked new inventions, and gave rise to new ways of thinking about the universe and
humanities place within it. The Enlightenment, a time of intense questioning of religion and
ethics, emerged as thinkers applied the new laws of science to human behavior. As never
before, old political, religious, and social systems came under scrutiny, attack, and revision that
forever altered the cultural landscape of Europe.
The Renaissance of Western Europe
The year 1453, the date of the fall of the last remnants of
the Roman Empire in the East, has traditionally marked the
end of the medieval period and the beginning of the Early
Modern World in Western Europe. With the advent of the
Early Modern World, historians traditionally have described
Western Europe as enjoying a Renaissance. The term
“Renaissance” was first used by Jules Michelet a 19th
century French historian writing about 15th century
Florence, Italy. Using Michelet’s work as a starting point,
the Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt, author of The
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Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, argued that European culture had been reborn in the
15th century after years of darkness. Europe had begun to decline with the fall of the Roman
Empire and had fallen into darkness, which lasted until the beginning of the 14th century.
Recovery, according to Burckhardt, began in Italy and laid the foundation for the modern world.
The hallmarks of recovery were a renewed emphasis on classical learning, the repudiation of
religion, new ideas about the nature of political order, the development of artists who sought
personal fame, and the pursuit of fame and glory at odds with the medieval world.
Burckhardt’s argument has many problems. Medieval Europe did not completely sink into the
depths of decline and despair, lacking high culture and repudiating classical learning, as he
claimed. Rather, it experienced several “renaissance” periods such as those of the 8th, 10th, and
12th centuries. Gothic architecture, courtly love literature, the birth of the Western University
System, and the consolidation of States occurred in the West during the medieval period. In
addition, Burckhardt’s thesis neglected the contributions, discoveries, and advances of major
civilizations outside of Western Europe. Furthermore, the Renaissance did not witness a clear
break with medieval religion, but rather a reformulation of some elements, while others
remained unchallenged. Despite these problems, we can say that interesting developments in
art, architecture, literature, and religion did occur in Italy and spread
outward to impact the developments of Western Europe and its
relations with Asia, the Americas, and Middle East.
The 14th century witnessed a growth in literacy rates. As
urbanization increased, cities required educated people to manage
and organize affairs; universities provided urban centers with
educated merchants, administrators, and artists. These individuals
shifted the emphasis of learning away from Latin and the concerns of
the Roman Catholic Church towards Greco-Roman traditions. Literate
people began to think they were experiencing the rebirth of the
classical world. Called humanists, these individuals believed that the
study of classical texts would lead to a rebirth (hence Renaissance:
rebirth) and perfection of society.
Humanism in Italy was closely tied to rhetoric and literature.
Poetry, history, letter writing, and oratory were all used to discuss
ways to reform Italian cities and train citizens to be interested in
cultivating the common good. In order to do this, literate individuals
turned to Republican Rome for inspiration. The “father” of humanism,
Petrarch (1304-1374), looked to Republican Rome for a model of
engaged citizenship and a concern with political rights. Highly critical
of the Catholic Church, but not Christianity, he argued that the study
of classical texts would enable individuals to internalize the ideals
and virtues of the ancients. For Petrarch and like-minded humanists,
it was a moral duty to take an active role in the political and public
spheres. Educated individuals, fulfilling their duty to serve the
community, would lead a reformation of government, education, and
culture.
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“Petrarch Canzoniere Latin Poem Animation”
The limits of humanism can be seen in the treatment of women. While some women were
educated, most were not. Old constructs about their weakness and vulnerability limited their
opportunities. Women were conceived of as domestic members of the community. Men did not
require or desire public, or political, service from women. In many ways constructs that served
to confine women to the domestic realm fit well with texts from Republican Rome. Certainly
some women challenged the system, but for the most part women found themselves shut out of
the humanist dialogues on civic duty and political action.
A hallmark of Renaissance humanism was its interest in ancient texts. Humanist scholars
read, retranslated, and interrogated texts. This led to the adoption and adaptation of classical
philosophies, especially those of the great Greek philosopher Plato. Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499)
translated Plato into Latin and reinterpreted his works to fit within the paradigm of Christianity.
Humanists justified using the works of pagan philosophers by arguing that God had illuminated
pre-Christian philosophers with the truth. Confined to an age of darkness ancient philosophers
had been limited, but truth could be found within their texts. Theological truth could also be
found hidden in Egyptian, Greek, and Jewish texts. Humanists poured over ancient texts
searching for wisdom and illumination. By reading these texts they hoped to more accurately
understand the world, and via this understanding, God and his ordered plan for humanity.
Humanism developed out of a strong conviction that
learning would ennoble and perfect the individual and
serve as a powerful instrument of religious and cultural
reform. They did not discard religion, but felt human
intellectual development should be the first concern of
anyone really seeking to advance the good. The
hierarchical and institutional nature of the Catholic Church,
rather than Christianity itself, received the bulk of humanist
criticism as scholars and artists sought to reform all
aspects of Renaissance society.
The writings of Pico della Mirandola, a brilliant scholar from Florence, Italy (1463-1494),
show the concern humanists had with acquiring knowledge. He believed, as did many
humanists, that all knowledge could be synthesized by allowing humans to discover basic and
elementary truths. He set out to master all the knowledge found
in Latin, Greek, Islamic, and Hebrew sources. From these
sources he wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, an important
document of Renaissance humanism. In his book, humanity is
understood to stand at the apex of creation whereby humans
created a link between the world of God and creation.
As humanism spread, new styles developed. One of the
most radical pieces of humanist literature to emerge in the
sixteenth century was the work of Niccolo Machiavelli (14691527), a trained humanist and diplomat in Florence. He was
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exiled in 1512 on suspicion of plotting against the leading family of Florence, the Medici's. While
in exile, he wrote The Prince, a treatise on politics that would be published posthumously.
The Prince is often considered first secular political study in the west. Machiavelli was
inspired by his understanding of Republican Rome. He saw Christianity’s role in government as
a disaster because it destroyed the power of the State to govern. According to Machiavelli, a
State needed to restrict the power of the Church, only allowing it to exercise authority in the
spiritual realm. A Prince, as a ruler of state, should understand that the key to his success lies in
the informed, yet ruthless when necessary, exercise of power. Morality should not interfere with
the decision making process of a Prince. Machiavelli considered cruelty and hypocrisy
permissible, as judicious cruelty consolidated power and discouraged revolution. Outrageous
cruelty, however, was to be avoided, as it would be counterproductive.
Machiavelli’s main concern in The Prince is pragmatic state management. Traditional
political theory had invoked transcendent authority of God to ensure stability and legitimacy of
the State. In The Prince it is power, and not the moral law of God, that provides the State with
its ultimate sanction. A successful ruler exhibits the willingness to exercise power judiciously
and freedom from the constraints of morality.
The Catholic Church put The Prince on the “Index of Prohibited Books.” Despite the
prohibition, many Western European leaders read The Prince. Later rulers such as Napoleon
and Catherine the Great apparently read him with great interest. Machiavelli has been
misunderstood and vilified for ages, yet it is important to remember that his was an attempt to
craft a pragmatic guidebook on how to be a strong ruler, one who guaranteed stability and
maintained a powerful State.
“Machiavelli and the Prince”
Renaissance in Arts in Italian City-States
The strongest and one of the wealthiest regions in Italy,
Florence led the way in artistic and banking innovations. It was
the center of the wool trade, had an advanced accounting and
banking system, issued letters of credit, and maintained a
standard monetary system. The great banking and trading
families of the 14th and 15th centuries, in particular the Medici,
lived in Florence. The Medici family rose to great heights in the
15th century, dominating politics, business, and art. The history of
Renaissance art in Italy was tied to that of the Medici family. From
1434-1464, Cosimo de’ Medici essentially ruled Florence. He was
an astute banker and literate man who befriended humanists,
collected a fine library of important books, and copied ancient
manuscripts. Cosimo also lavished money on art projects to beautify the city, and donated a
great deal to charity to increase the fame of the family name and atone for sins. Florence
became known for a great body of artists who revolutionized Western art.
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“Renaissance Europe: The Medici”
Renaissance art differed from its medieval predecessor in some clear ways. Unlike its
medieval precedents, it showed a concern for clarity of line, mathematically precise perspective,
the portrayal of “real” people, emotion, and the uncluttered arrangement of people and objects.
In sculpture and architecture, artists developed the technical ability to handle space and volume.
They also show the same concern humanist scholars had with classical models. Many artists
looked to classical Rome and Greece for models of art and architecture, although they
emphasized emotion and realism.
The greatest innovator of the 13th century, the
Florentine painter Giotto (1266-1337), broke with the
medieval artistic traditions and launched the Early
Renaissance. He painted lifelike images of real people
and used techniques to create three-dimensional worlds
on the flat planes of his canvases. His understanding of
space changed the style of painting from flat, rigid
representations of religious themes to vibrant images of
everyday events and emotional scenes of piety and
devotion. His work inspired subsequent generations of
painters and sculptures who further developed his
techniques by adding imaginative elements.
Cosimo Medici acted as patron to one of greatest sculptors of the 15th century, Donatello.
Donatello’s David was the first freestanding nude to be sculpted since Roman antiquity, and
highlighted the pagan spirit that suffused Renaissance art despite its Christian themes.
Cosimo’s grandson, Lorenzo continued the family tradition of patronizing artists and sculptors.
He supported the artist Botticelli’s work. Botticelli, the last of the great painters of the Early
Renaissance, combined pagan philosophy, Christian
mysticism, and classical ideals of beauty in his art. His Birth of
Venus is an outstanding representation of the use of pagan
themes to represent Christian concerns. The period known as
the High Renaissance (1450-1520s) witnessed a surge in
papal patronage of artists and a shift of venue from Florence to
Rome. Popes acted as active and generous patrons of artists
as well. Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1484) acted as patron to
Botticelli.
His successor acted as patron to the great High
Renaissance artist Raphael. Raphael (1483-1520) painted
many warm and realistic images of the Madonna in a style that
has become associated with his name. In many of his
paintings, the figures are arranged in a pyramidal configuration
to create believable and balanced space. He spent most of his
adult life working at the Vatican. His most outstanding work
was the large fresco entitled The School of Athens. Located at
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the Vatican Palace where the Pope signed important documents, its images are drawn from
classical philosophy, poetry, law, and Christian theology. He honored Plato and Aristotle by
giving them a central location in the painting. The painting shows
his humanist conviction that beauty and wisdom, even if pagan,
were to be considered gifts from God.
Another artist who benefited from papal patronage was
Leonardo da Vinci. Considered the genius of the High
Renaissance, not only for his for art, but also for his numerous
sketches of flying machines, elevators, ideal cities, machines, and
human anatomy, his work exemplifies the Renaissance concerns
with mathematics, respect for the natural world, and love of beauty.
The Mona Lisa, one his most famous paintings, continues to
fascinate people. The mysterious smile of the model, as well as the
pose, and use of light and shadow have given the painting lasting
appeal. The Last Supper, another of his masterpieces, attracts
numerous tourists. While painting it he experimented with mixing
paint with plaster. Sadly, the new method has not lasted well and
the painting has had to be restored several times.
“Leonardo Da Vinci”
Michelangelo (1476-1564) produced some of greatest work
in Rome, but only a few pieces remain. One of his
masterpieces, the sculpture of David, was carved from a single
piece of marble and stands as a statement to idealized beauty.
Michelangelo envisioned his work as revealing the inner form of
the stone. For Michelangelo, a living figure lay concealed in the
marble and only the excess needed to be carved away to
reveal it. His work on the Sistine chapel required him to paint
rather than sculpt. He tried to decline the job, but was ordered
back by a papal edict. Finished in three years, it continues to
impress viewers. Michelangelo imbedded numerous layers of
Neo-Platonic and number symbolism in the work. It reveals a
Christian understanding of the Old Testament as having
prefigured the coming of Christ.
“Florence: Michelangelo's David”
“The Michelangelo Code: Lost Secrets of the Sistine Chapel”
“Monte Python – Pope and Michelangelo”
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Not everyone approved of the use of classical themes or the emphasis on beauty and
material objects. Fra Savonarola, Dominican preacher and reformer, viciously attacked
Renaissance learning and art. From 1490-1498, he preached against the degeneracy of the art
and culture of Florence. His preaching had a strong effect on people of all social classes.
Botticelli was so impressed he burned some of his more worldly paintings. Pico della Mirandola
turned from humanist studies to a life of devout study after hearing Savonarola preach. He was
de facto ruler of the city for a brief time, but in 1498 he defied papal excommunication and was
strangled and burned in the public square.
While Savonarola paid a high price for his active condemnation and criticism of Renaissance
society, other reformers were more successful. As will be discussed later, Erasmus attacked the
abuses of secular society and the Church. The Church increasingly came under attack by
reformers who saw its patronage of artists and beautification of the Church as signs of internal
decay. Pope Julius II had commissioned the rebuilding of Saint Peter’s, the Vatican. The
building was old and had suffered structural
damage from fire and age. Several
architects worked on the plans, including
Raphael and Michelangelo, but the plans
were frequently changed and large amounts
of money were required for the project.
Reformers would take advantage of the
development of print technology to
disseminate literature calling for reform, as
would Erasmus. When the Church attempted
to silence their voices, the printing press
became an important agent of change and
launched what have come to be called the
Protestant Reformations in Europe.
The Northern Renaissance
By the sixteenth century, the Italian Renaissance had spread
throughout Europe. The art of the Northern Renaissance contained
a greater emphasis on religious themes. Christian humanism,
which differed from the more secular humanism of intellectuals
such as Machiavelli, emerged. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)
exemplified Christian humanism. Erasmus was one of the most
important Christian humanists in Europe. A monk and priest, he
traveled widely and became deeply inspired by the potential for
humanism to reform society. Attempting to combine classical
learning with Christianity, he crafted what he called “the philosophy
of Christ.” Philosophy, he argued, could be used to change
individuals by guiding them in their daily lives.
Erasmus used several sources to edit the Greek New
Testament, wrote a practical guide to Christian living, and in his
most famous book, The Praise of Folly (1509), used satire to strongly denounce corruption, evil,
ignorance, and prejudice. Erasmus criticized war, venal lawyers, fraudulent doctors, but most of
all religious corruption. He attacked the sterility of religious scholarship and superstition of
religious practice. It has been said, “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.” Erasmus
stayed, however, a member of the Catholic Church despite the Reformation, while remaining a
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vocal proponent of reform. Despite his firm commitment to reforming the Catholic Church from
within, many members of the Catholic community denounced Erasmus. They saw his criticisms,
calls for reform, and reliance upon humanistic methods as dangerous. Some of his books were
banned by the Catholic Church as it defended itself from Protestant attacks by more rigidly
regulating internal dialogue and debate.
Although humanists might differ in their understanding of the role of religion, all were
indebted to new learning coming from Italy and classical Greco-Roman knowledge. Most
humanists were trained in Latin, and although they strove to break with the medieval world they
remained indebted to the medieval tradition of logic and argumentation borrowed from Aristotle.
Humanists differed, however, in how they viewed the role of Christianity. For Machiavelli and his
followers, Christianity was understood as an impediment to the proper workings of the State.
For Christian humanists such as Erasmus, the learning of the classical past could only be used
if merged with Christian tradition to create an instrument for social reform.
Artists of the Northern Renaissance adopted Italian
themes and techniques, adapting them to their own needs.
One of the great Northern artists, Albrecht Durer (14711528), used the techniques he learned while traveling
through Italy to create works of art that expressed his view
that an artist’s job was to humbly reproduce God’s creations.
He excelled at creating woodcuts, watercolors, paintings,
and engraving, many of which dealt with issues of religious
reform. Another notable Northern artist, Albrecht Altdorfer
(1480-1538) painted beautiful landscapes, helping to spread
the idea that the contemplation of nature was a worthy
subject for an artist. Jan van Eyck (ca. 1390-1441) worked to
create paintings of real people in settings that, though
natural, contained hidden symbols and images pertaining to
the lives of his patrons. In The Arnolfini Wedding, Van Eyck
created a multidimensional space that expressed the wealth,
and sophistication of his patrons, but also allowed his
individuality to show through by writing “Van Eyck was here”
above the mirror in the painting (he also painted his own reflection in the mirror). Van Eyck’s
inclusion of his own image, as well as his deliberate statement of presence issued by his
signature in the center of the painting, highlights the new attitude of artists in the Renaissance.
While art might still be for the glory of God or inspired by God, Renaissance artists, unlike their
medieval predecessors, wanted a share of that glory and a claim to fame.
“Northern Renaissance – The Supreme Art 1/6”
“Northern Renaissance – The Supreme Art 2/6”
“Northern Renaissance – The Supreme Art 3/6”
“Northern Renaissance – The Supreme Art 4/6”
“Northern Renaissance – The Supreme Art 5/6”
“Northern Renaissance – The Supreme Art 6/6”
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Print Technology, Humanism, and the Northern Renaissance
Moveable type printing developed in Europe over the
course of the mid15th century, although it had developed
earlier in China. Printing had been done using wooden blocks
since the twelfth century, but the process was slow. The
development of movable type transformed Europe. By 1500,
over six million books had been printed. The development of
the printing press supported the expansion of humanist
learning and ideas to large numbers of people in a short time;
it stimulated a veritable communications revolution in Europe
and would lead to the spread of the Protestant Reformation.
As printing became more commonplace, books became
more accessible to the educated classes. In Germany,
Johannes Gutenberg (1395-1468) developed a movable type
machine that survived with virtually no changes until the 19th
century. Gutenberg published a vernacular German version of the Bible in 1455 that was the
first book produced in the West using moveable type. Aldus Manutius (1449-1515) was a
famous humanist printer and publisher. A scholar in his own right, he employed professional
humanists to collate and correct classical works. Erasmus, the greatest of the Northern
humanists, worked for him. He was an innovator, a true “renaissance man” who drew
knowledge and ideas from a variety of sources. He applied his learning to design Greek
typefaces, create italic type fonts, and develop new inks. His books were pocket size, portable,
and inexpensive, thereby stimulating and expanding readership. Over a twenty-year period, his
press published classical works of Greece and Rome that had not previously been accessible,
helping to spread humanism through Europe.
“Demonstrating the Gutenberg Printing Press”
The Protestant Reformations: The End of Religious Unity
The Protestant Reformations, the term used to describe religious
reform movements that split Christianity into separate groups labeled
Catholic and Protestant, had several root causes. The Renaissance,
with its new ways of discussing politics, society, and the role of
Christianity in reforming both, challenged old ways of thinking about the
Church. The consolidation of strong centralized states also played a
part in the Reformations as kings and princes sought to exert power of
secular and sacred affairs. Finally, the genuine desire for reform
expressed from those within the Church, like Erasmus, sparked debates
about papal power, and the Church hierarchy and practices.
In many ways, the Reformation began when attempts by Roman
Catholics to reform the Church met with opposition. Numerous reforms
had punctuated the development of the Church. During the medieval
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period, reformers had managed to remain within the Church, and Christianity remained unified
in Western Europe within the Roman Catholic tradition. Complaints about corruption in the
Church had periodically erupted and spawned genuine attempts to abolish clerical marriage,
simony, and nepotism. The Renaissance period, however, witnessed attempts at reform that
tore the fabric of medieval Christianity and caused the fragmentation of Christianity into
numerous divisions.
Reformers leveled their charges of corruption on popes and other members of Catholic
hierarchy. As the spiritual head of the Catholic Church and the Vatican States, popes were
expected to act as examples of Christian virtues. In the fifteenth century, however, many had
become increasingly involved in secular affairs. While popes had involved themselves in secular
affairs in the medieval period, none had done so to the extent of Julius II (1503-1513), who
actually led an army against his enemies. Other Church officials generated scandal by behaving
immorally, living extravagantly, and ignoring their responsibilities as officers of the Church.
Inadequately trained and prepared, some priests neglected parishioners by failing to preach
sermons or correctly perform the sacraments.
Despite accusations of corruption against some Church officials, many ordinary Christians
remained devout members of the Church. Desperate for assurances of divine good will and
salvation, people went on pilgrimage to visit sacred sites and relics. People believed that relics,
the sacred bones or artifacts of holy people such as saints, or visiting sacred sites would earn
them forgiveness, heal them, or gain them assurances of heavenly rewards. Festivals dedicated
to patron saints of towns and states brought people from everywhere together, thereby
promoting religious and secular unity, generating piety, and stimulating trade.
The sacraments, especially the Eucharist,
were extremely important components of
Christian life. The Eucharist, the celebration of
the mass and the ritual via which, through
transubstantiation, the bread and wine became
the body and blood of Christ, generated
enthusiastic and passionate responses from
people. The feast of Corpus Christi (Body of
Christ) during which the Eucharist was
sometimes paraded through the streets
continued to be celebrated well into the 17th
century even in Protestant areas. People also
bought indulgences for themselves and departed family members. Indulgences reduced the
amount of time a person had to spend in purgatory being punished for sins before going to
heaven. While people might have called for reform, religious devotion was not in a state of
decline, as the popularity of these practices proves.
It is important to note that calls for reform often came from within the Church as well. Not all
clergy were undereducated, corrupt, or placed advancement in the Church over the needs of
the people. As was the case with Erasmus, theologians, priests, and monastic men and women
genuinely felt concern for the spiritual state of the Church and its members. The hierarchy of the
Church, however, varied in its responses to criticism. Some popes were open to reform, while
others, such as Julius II, resented and viewed calls for reform as attacks on papal privilege and
authority. As the calls for reform became louder, schisms eventually erupted and Christian unity
was forever ruptured. This had not, however, been the goal of reformers. None had wanted
numerous ways of belief; all stressed that there could be only one true Church. Post-
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reformation, however, determining which church offered the truth embroiled individuals and
states in conflict.
The beginning of the Protestant Reformations
is traditionally traced to the Augustinian friar,
Martin Luther (1483-1546). In 1517 Augustinian
Luther wrote 95 Theses objecting to the sale of
papal indulgences. Luther had long been
troubled about the state of his soul. He was
tormented by his sinfulness and unworthiness,
and was full of doubt that the practices and
rituals of the Church would bring him to
salvation. He came to the conclusion, after
prayer and study, that indulgences, confession,
and penance were unnecessary and expensive
demands that did not guarantee forgiveness or
salvation. For Luther, salvation was a gift God
freely gave to the faithful, not something that
could be earned or bought.
While it is a myth that he tacked the 95 Theses to the door of the collegiate Church of
Wittenberg, it is true that the document spread rapidly and generated widespread support and
criticism. The development of the printing press was key to spreading the 95 Theses throughout
Europe. Theologians argued and debated Luther’s work, while he received emissaries and
directives from the Vatican as well as official warnings from Pope Leo X. Luther refused to back
down even in the face of papal criticism. He reiterated that indulgences placed an unnecessary
burden on the poor, promised nothing, and served to enrich the Church by perpetuating a fraud.
In 1520 Pope Leo X condemned Luther’s teachings as heretical (incompatible with Christian
belief and practices). The Church left Luther open to prosecution by the Holy Roman Emperor,
whose job it was as a Christian ruler to defend the faith by prosecuting heretics. The traditional
penalty for unrepentant heretics was death by hanging or burning. The Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V (1519-1556) called on Luther to recant his position, but Luther refused. The princes of
Germany, eager to gain power for themselves by resisting the Emperor, seeing an opportunity
to avoid paying tithes to the Church, and for finding some common spiritual ground with Luther,
protected him from prosecution. As an added penalty, Luther was excommunicated in 1521.
Excommunication removed one from salvation; according to Catholic doctrine of the time one
could only achieve salvation from within the Church.
“The Reformation – Martin Luther”
After Luther was excommunicated he
continued, despite being forced to remain in
hiding, to write and publish. He moved
beyond the criticism of indulgences to other
issues. Luther called for the translation of
the Bible into the vernacular languages.
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The official Vulgate version of the Bible was in Latin, and some Greek versions also existed.
The Church had long resisted attempts to translate the Bible into the common language. The
English theologian John Wycliff (1320-1384) had come under scrutiny for agitating for an
English translation of the Bible. He did indeed end up sponsoring the first series of translations
of the Bible into English in the 1380s.
“Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms”
Like Luther after him, Wycliff criticized the moral state of the clergy and decried clerical
abuses. He denied that priests were the only means by which people could speak to God. He
also argued that the final authority on matters of faith should be scripture. His followers, called
Collards, were persecuted and by the late 14th century their influence had waned. Yet, Wycliffe
influenced other reformers such as the Czech reformer Jan Huss (1370-1415) who was
condemned and burned for heresy in 1415.
Luther went farther in his criticism by also attacking the Church’s insistence on clerical
celibacy. For Luther, like Wycliff, scripture provided the final and indisputable basis for belief.
Upon carefully reading, Luther failed to detect an insistence upon celibacy for clergy in the
Testaments. Furthermore, Luther came to espouse a limited notion of the doctrine of
transubstantiation. For Catholics, the mystery of the mass culminated when the priest
completed the ritual and the bread and wine changed into the body and blood of Christ. Luther
argued that while a true change occurred, one should
not debate or attempt to logically explain the change
using Aristotelian logic as medieval Scholastic
theologians had done.
Primary to Lutheran thought, and that of Protestant
reformers after him, was the insistence on grace, not
works. Luther argued that people were justified, saved,
through faith alone. Catholic doctrine had argued that
faith and works cooperated in the movement of the
soul to salvation. Luther insisted that human beings,
weak and sinful, could not work towards their own
salvation but rather must rely completely on faith in
God. Justification by faith alone became the core of
Protestant belief.
Luther and like-minded princes formed spiritual communities in Germany and the Protestant
Reformation was born. By the middle of the 16th century, half of Germany had become
Lutheran. Luther’s teachings spread through Germany, and a widespread outbreak of reforming
movements calling for a return to pure Christianity, free from any “popish” elements, emerged.
Horrified at the emergence of multiple Christianities, Luther denounced the schisms. He
believed there could only be one true Church. While he believed it was not the Catholic Church,
he did believe his way was the correct path to Christian salvation. He heartily denounced groups
such as the Anabaptists. Anabaptists insisted on adult baptism, even for people who had been
baptized as children, espoused pacifism, and refused to take oaths or participate in civil
12
government. They appealed to the lower classes that had long felt oppressed and exploited by
the elite classes who dominated politics, the Church, and economics. Many took Luther’s break
with the Catholic Church as an opportunity to question other aspects of society. No doubt
expecting Luther to endorse their efforts, peasants rebelled against elites. The Peasants War of
1525 in Germany, prompted by such sentiments, was violently put down. Luther called for stern
measures against those who had used his reformed theology as a rallying cry to break with the
old order.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), another active proponent of reform, became active in Zurich and
Switzerland beginning in 1523. Zwingli adopted Luther’s reform message, but developed a
policy of iconoclasm. He advocated the abolition of statues and images in churches because he
argued they distracted worshippers from contemplation of God and introduced the danger of idol
worship into Christianity. He also reduced the number of sacraments to baptism and
communion, although for Zwingli and his followers communion was not understood to include
transubstantiation.
One of the pivotal figures in the early reform movement
was John Calvin (1509-1564), a French lawyer and
theologian who preached an extreme form of Protestantism.
His program of reform was even more extreme than Zwingli’s
or Luther’s. He helped to codify and spread Protestant
teaching in his book Institutes of Christian Religion published
in 1536. Like Luther, Calvin taught that people were justified,
saved, by faith alone. Unlike Luther, Calvin denied
transubstantiation, decrying it as magic and belief in it as
uninformed superstition. Calvin went further than Luther,
however, in his desire to reserve all glory and power for God,
by insisting on predestination. Predestination for Calvin meant
that God had, before time, chosen some people, called the
elect, to salvation and others to damnation. Nothing anyone
did could change God’s mind. No one could know for certain
where he or she was going, and only a certain number would achieve salvation. Calvin warned
people not to be concerned with the final outcome. Despite Calvin’s warning, later Calvinists
devised methods by which they could assure themselves that they were of the elect. Many, after
becoming convinced of their election, worked hard to spread the faith far and wide. Missionaries
spread the faith quickly to France, Germany, the Low Countries, and the British Isles.
In Geneva, Calvin experimented with creating a Protestant community where city officials
imposed strict morality and discipline. A special court monitored the morals of the citizens,
policing behavior and maintaining strict orthodoxy. Malefactors were publicly and harshly
punished. Singing, dancing, drinking to excess, playing cards, and other “ribald” behaviors were
considered crimes. Geneva became a thriving Protestant center that stood as an example to
other Protestant states.
“John Calvin: His Life & Legacy”
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English Reformation
The English Reformation differed in many ways from the
continental Reformations. While a desire for religious reform certainly
existed in England, the beginning of the Reformation there can be
more readily described as a series of political events. Henry VIII (r.
1509-1547) had married Catherine of Aragon, the widow of his elder
brother Arthur. Henry had obtained a special dispensation from the
Pope to marry his brother’s widow by providing proof that the
marriage had never been consummated. After years of marriage,
Catherine failed to provide Henry with male heir. Their only surviving
child was a girl, Mary Tudor. He became convinced that God was
denying him an heir because he had married his brother’s widow and
appealed to the Pope for an annulment. He had also fallen in love
with Anne Boleyn (ca. 1500-1536). The Pope refused despite
successive petitions and numerous arguments.
The Archbishop of the English Church ruled in 1533 that Henry’s marriage to Catherine had
never been legitimate, even though the Pope has said there would be no annulment. Henry
promptly married Anne, who was well along with child by that time. When Anne presented him
with a daughter, Elizabeth, who would later rule England as Elizabeth I, Henry was furious. His
marriage to Anne did not last long after the birth, nor did she. Anne was convicted of adultery
and treason. She was executed in 1536 along with her closest supporters, thereby freeing
Henry to remarry and continue his pursuit of a male heir. All in all Henry would marry six times
and have one male heir.
“Horrible Stories – The Wives of Henry VIII (Terrible Tudors)”
Henry’s final break with the Church came in 1534. He issued the Act of Supremacy whereby
he became the head of the Church and State of England. Henry was free to make doctrine, but
actually made very few changes. Henry was not a Lutheran or a Calvinist. He appears to have
preferred many of the rituals and sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church, despite his break
with it. Members of the Church of England called for greater reforms without success.
“Monarchy by David Starkey: The Imperial King, Henry VIII”
His successor was his son, Edward VI (1547-1553). Edward, the son of Henry’s third wife,
Jane Seymour, suffered from bouts of illness. He was also only nine years old when he
inherited the throne, but because he was underage a council and regent ruled for him. It is
during this time that England underwent a more genuinely Protestant reformation. Clergy were
allowed to marry, a new church service called the Book of Common Prayer was published to
mixed reviews, and the Anglican Church of England became more Protestant in its
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understandings of salvation and the sacraments. Edward VI,
however, died, and despite attempts to put forward a Protestant
successor, Henry’s first born Catholic daughter, Mary Tudor,
assumed control.
Mary I (1553-1558) attempted to revive Roman Catholicism
in England. Recent scholarship has shown that many people
supported her efforts and remained attached to their traditional
Catholic faith and rituals. Others, however, resisted the return to
Catholic doctrine and agitated against the rule of Mary I and her
husband Philip II of Spain, an ardent Catholic. Mary I has
become known as “bloody Mary” thanks to the burning of over
three hundred Protestants during her reign. Mary I died after
five years on the throne having named Henry’s second
daughter, Elizabeth as her successor. Elizabeth I returned the
nation to Protestantism. It is under Elizabeth I that most
scholars see England as a truly Protestant nation despite a large minority of English men and
women who continued to privately practice Catholicism despite the dangers.
“David Starkey on Mary I of England (1533-1558)”
“Elizabeth I – Coronation”
The Catholic Reformation: The Counter Reformation
The Catholic Reformation, also known as the
Counter-Reformation, was more than a reaction
against Protestantism. It was part of an ongoing
campaign within the Roman Catholic Church to
reform itself. It can be seen as an outgrowth of
medieval reform movements, Renaissance Christian
humanism, and an attempt to define Catholic doctrine
in order to clarify the differences between Protestant
and Catholic positions on salvation, the sacraments,
and papal power. Furthermore, it also was an attempt
to persuade Protestants to return to the Church and
deepen the spiritual and religious commitments of
Catholics. An important element of the Catholic
reformation was papal reform. During the Italian
Renaissance, popes had involved themselves in
patronage of artists, economic pursuits, and in some
cases military activities.
Council of Trent
Called to address reform and doctrinal issues, the Council of Trent (1545-1563), an
assembly of bishops and cardinals, met intermittently for nearly twenty years to discuss and
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debate the state of the Church and the expanding base of Protestantism. The council was
marred by disputes within the Church and competition for power among members of the
hierarchy, yet some headway was made. Relying heavily on the writings of the 13th century
Scholastic theologian, St. Thomas Aquinas, the Council upheld traditional Catholic doctrines on
the sacraments, penance, and clerical marriage. The Council attacked abuses and set an
agenda of reform in clergy morality. Schools and seminaries were established to train clergy
members and prepare them for their vocations.
Society of Jesus: Jesuits
St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), a Spanish nobleman, founded the Society of Jesus, also
known as the Jesuits, as part of an impulse to renew and deepen the spiritual commitment of
Catholics. Recognized by the Pope in 1540, the Jesuits became one of the primary forces of the
Catholic Reformation. Believing that reform could only be accomplished from the top down, they
supported the Pope and the Council of Trent in its efforts to clarify and reform the Catholic
Church. Their active support of the Pope enabled the Jesuits to become influential in Rome and
abroad. Many Jesuits became valued counselors to kings and highly influential policy makers
within the secular and sacred realms. They came to espouse a rigorous reform agenda and
stressed advanced education in classical languages, literature, history, philosophy, and science.
They went on the offensive against Protestantism of all types and through active missionary
work extended the boundaries of the reformed Roman Catholic Church.
The Jesuits were highly effective and
disciplined missionaries who traveled
through Europe, the Middle East, India,
Asia, and the Americas converting nonChristians and exhorting Protestants to
return to the faith. In Japan, early
successes turned to disaster as the
Japanese government turned on the
Jesuits, other Christian missionaries, and
their
converts.
Many
Christian
missionaries and converts were crucified
or otherwise executed in the late fifteenth
and sixteenth century. Christianity was
banned in Japan until the nineteenth
century. More successful, missions to China generated interest and support. The Jesuits
undertook missions to Britain in a failed attempt to return Britain to Catholicism. In the Americas,
Jesuits staffed the first British Catholic colony, Maryland, and served the French in New France.
“Seminary Follows Footsteps of Persecuted English Priests”
Despite attempts by Catholic missionaries and reformers, there was no hope of achieving
unity. By the mid 16th century, Europe was divided between Catholics and Protestants. Spain,
Portugal, Italy, most of France, Southern Germany, Austria, parts of Eastern Europe, and
Ireland remained Catholic. Switzerland, the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Northern and Eastern
16
Germany embraced Protestantism. As religious divisions developed and expanded, so too did
political divisions; states competed for converts, land, and political power.
Religious Wars
The fragmentation of Christianity provoked conflicts over religion in most areas of Europe.
Prior to the reformations, religious affiliation was determined for you, and choice did not exist,
unless one wanted to risk being labeled a heretic. After the reformation, numerous questions
arose. Secular leaders attempted to impose their own religious beliefs upon the people within
their domains, but this triggered resistance and people questioned the rights of a ruler to
mandate obedience in matters of conscience. Religious wars in France lasted for thirty-six years
(1562-1598), as the Catholic State attempted to suppress Protestantism within its borders.
In1588, King Philip II of Spain (r. 1556-1598),
former husband of Mary I of England, sent the
Spanish Armada to attack England to return it to
Roman Catholicism. The Armada, consisting of
130 ships and 30,000 men failed to force
England’s Queen Elizabeth to return to Roman
Catholicism. Philip II also had to contend with
the revolt of the Dutch provinces. He was forced
to send an army to suppress the Calvinistic
movement. By 1610 seven Northern provinces
gained their independence. Victorious, they
organized themselves as a Protestant Republic
known as the United Provinces. The South
(Belgium) first remained under Catholic Spain,
and then was later under Austrian rule until the
18th century.
The Holy Roman Emperor’s attempt to force Bohemia to return to the Roman Catholic
Church prompted the outbreak of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). The Thirty Years War
began as a conflict in Germany, but other European powers soon entered. Old conflicts about
sovereignty, competition for power, access to resources and markets, and religion all
intertwined. Religious differences complicated and exacerbated the conflict making it
exceedingly difficult to resolve. The conflict was the most destructive war until modern times. It
damaged the economies and waged a terrible price on society as combatants engaged in brutal
violence against civilians. The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, laid out a system of
independent competing states, all of whom took part in drafting the peace. Each state
recognized the rights of others to exist, rule, and establish its own religion.
The Consolidation of Sovereign States
The consolidation of strong centralized states had political implications for the religious
reformations. Political leaders used religious issues to strengthen states and authority. Kings
promoted either the Reformation’s or the Counter-Reformation’s agenda, and political factions
developed that courted support along religious lines.
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Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire had emerged in the 10th century out of the turmoil caused by
invasions and sibling rivalry over the territory of the medieval Carolingian Empire. Its authority
had extended into Germany and Northern Italy. The Emperor, elected to office by the princes of
Germany and invested with power by the Pope, rarely commanded as much power as one
would expect. The power of the Emperor had always been limited by the political aspiration of
the German princes who resented attempts to control their behavior and resisted centralization,
and the Pope who strove to limit his authority in Italy. By 1438, the powerful Habsburg family
had assumed control of the office of Emperor. Through crafty decisions and alliances, they
came to dominate Europe. Through marriage alliances and the control of rights and titles to land
throughout Europe, the Habsburg Emperors actually gained great power and influence.
In the 16th century, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (r
1519-1556) tried to establish the Empire as the preeminent
political authority in Europe. Charles’ attempts to extend his
power, however, were limited by his failure to build a strong
administrative structure. He allowed each province to have its
own customs and laws, which weakened attempts to
centralize rule. Attempts at expansion were also limited.
Charles V had inherited the Kingdom of Spain and its
possessions in Italy and America, Burgundy (a province in
modern France), as well as Austria. When he was elected
Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, he also acquired Germany,
Bohemia, Switzerland, and Northern Italy. He could not
extend any further, however, because the effort of combating
the Lutheran movement and attempts by other imperial
princes to act independently using religious controversy
limited his expansion and diluted his resources.
Foreign affairs also weakened his attempts to expand. France was a threat to the power of
the Empire, as was the Ottoman Empire to the East. Although France was also a Catholic State,
they competed with the Holy Roman Empire over territory and influence. They used Lutherans
to undermine the Empire. The Ottomans conquered Hungary and advanced to Vienna with the
support of the French. They imposed their rule in Egypt and North Africa, thereby becoming a
threat to Spanish and Italian shipping.
At Charles V’s death, the empire was divided between his brother Ferdinand and his son
Philip. Ferdinand received the Habsburg land in Austria and the throne of the Holy Roman
Empire. His son became Philip II of Spain and received Spain, America, Italy, and the Low
Countries. The Holy Roman Empire ended divided and unable to sustain power in Europe. The
main European power to benefit most directly from the weakness and fragmentation of the
Empire was its rival France.
France
France’s emergence from the medieval period and recovery from the devastation wrought by
the Hundred Years War it had fought against England was based on the consolidation of the
monarchy’s power. The military successes of the Hundred Years War led to a paid professional
army, which replaced the unstable feudal system of vassalage. King Charles VII of France
established Europe’s first standing army.
18
The 15th century also witnessed the growth in power of the French Provincial Parlements, or
law courts. Local laws and customs were registered and approved by Parlements. The court
became the political and financial center of France. The king drew nobles to court through
annuities and honors, thereby depriving them of their customary local power bases and insuring
his own power and wealth.
England
In the fifteenth century, England had suffered through the War of the Roses. A devastating
conflict over the throne, it divided England into rival camps loyal to either the House of York or
the House of Lancaster. The eventual victor, Henry Tudor, leader of the Lancaster faction, came
to the throne. His claim to the throne was tenuous at best as it was based on his marriage to
Elizabeth the surviving daughter of an earlier king, Edward the IV.
Henry VII (r. 1485-1509), as he became known, founded the Tudor dynasty, members of
which would rule Britain until the early years of the seventeenth century. He established a court
based on elite patronage, which secured allies for the dynasty. Royal patronage was key to
influence and wealth among the elites, which guaranteed Henry VII and his descendents
important allies. In an attempt to stabilize the borders, he solidified England’s ties with Scotland
through the marriage of his daughter to James IV of Scotland. He also concentrated on
improving England’s standing in the European world by allying England with Spain. He married
his first son and heir, Arthur, to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella.
His domestic and foreign policies proved a success. He left behind him lower taxation, peace,
and a desire for order.
Spain
In Spain, the fifteenth century witnessed the successful
completion of the Reconquista. Begun in the 11th century, the
Reconquista was the attempt by Catholics to expel Muslims from
Spain. Islamic forces had conquered and occupied Spain in 711
after defeating the Hispano-Roman occupants. While Islamic
rulers tolerated Catholics and developed a thriving culture that
combined elements of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim traditions,
the Christian population long desired the expulsion of foreign,
non-Christian elements and a return to Catholic hegemony. The
road to reconquest was long and hard fought, but by 1492 thanks
in part to the marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella
of Castile, rulers of the leading states, Spain emerged as a
unified Catholic State.
Instrumental to Spain’s success was the Spanish Inquisition. It
gave religious justification to the State’s expansion and drive for
homogeneity in religion. Founded by King Fernando and Queen
Isabella in 1478 with approval from the Pope, it gave the crown
unprecedented powers to hunt down, interrogate, and execute
Muslims and Jews who remained in Spain. Inquisitions had
existed before in other parts of the Catholic world, but never
before had members of the Inquisition been place under the direct
command of the State. The Inquisition was composed of
churchmen and lawyers dedicated to investigating claims of
19
heresy; they were to observe rules of evidence, release the innocent, but ruthlessly sentence
unrepentant heretics to be turned over to the State for execution or continued imprisonment.
The lands, goods, and money of the convicted were confiscated by the State. By the fifteenth
century, the Inquisition had become a powerful political tool. It was used to hunt Protestants,
suspected witches, and other social “undesirables.” The Inquisition kept the Roman Catholic
Church and Spanish State strong through fear and intimidation. It is estimated that between
3000-5000 people died over the course of the Spanish Inquisition (ca. 1478-1834). The use of
the Inquisition spread to Rome and Portugal where it also served to impose conformity and
increase State power.
“History of the World Part One – The Spanish Inquisition”
The New Monarchs of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
In the sixteenth century, England, France, and Spain emerged as the most powerful states in
Europe. Each built strong centralized governments at the expense of the nobles who had
enjoyed great power in the medieval period. As the rulers of each State sought to centralize
power, they also sought new ways of getting money. The French levied direct taxes on the sale
of goods. The Spanish also levied a sales tax, helping to increase their royal revenue. The
English did not levy a direct tax, but did increase revenues by raising fines and fees for royal
service. They also severed their ties to the Roman Catholic Church, which generated new
wealth from the lands and goods confiscated from the Church. The growth of the power of the
State increased administration staffs. Standing armies in Spain and France increased, which
limited noble power.
As the Protestant Reformations launched debates and disputes, monarchs used the conflicts
to increase their own power. Protestant states England, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden
expropriated monastic and church wealth, whereas Roman Catholic states could justify taxing
the Church, greater separation between Church and State, and intervening in religious affairs in
order to fight Protestant threats.
By the 17th century, European states had evolved in two very different ways. In England and
the Netherlands, rulers shared power with representative institutions. The power of rulers was
limited and the governments recognized the rights of individuals and representative institutions.
England developed a constitutional monarchy wherein the king ruled with Parliament. In the
Netherlands, a Republic based on representative government emerged. Neither State realized
increased liberty, however, without a struggle.
English: Toward the English Civil Wars (1642-1649)
In England, the Tudor Dynasty had ruled effectively through the sixteenth and early
seventeenth century. Despite conflicts generated by religion, England maintained an emphasis
on order. The long rule of Elizabeth I (1558-1603) provided England with stability, population
growth, expanded literacy, and international respect. A crafty and intelligent ruler, Elizabeth
ascended to the throne at the death of her Catholic half-sister Mary I. She had the delicate task
of reversing Catholic policy and re-exerting Protestantism in England. Elizabeth became head of
the Church and State. As she moved to repeal Catholic laws, and reform the Anglican Church,
20
she moved carefully and initially only compelled outward
conformity to Protestantism. As her reign lengthened, Elizabeth I
prosecuted Catholics. Jesuits caught proselytizing in England
were executed, Catholic worship was suppressed, and over time
inward as well as outward conformity was stressed. In general
though, her reign witnessed the final stage of England’s
Protestant Reformation. Many scholars cite this period as the
period during which England experienced a true Protestant
Reformation despite the strong, hidden, though sometimes
influential, body of Catholics who remained in England.
Elizabethan Age: Theater, Literature, and Ceremony
During Elizabeth’s reign, England experienced a literary
renaissance. Considered a golden age, it was a time when
theater, poetry, and high ceremony flourished in England.
William Shakespeare, one of the literature’s great poets and
playwrights (1564-1616) produced works that are still studied, admired, and entertaining today.
In his plays he examined and questioned issues involving love, religion, and political power.
Shakespeare was not alone in transforming English literature. He was part of a great age of
intellectual and creative output that also witnessed the publication of works by Milton, whose
book Paradise Lost beautifully retold the story of humanities loss of innocence and fall from
grace in the Garden of Eden. Spenser’s The Faerie Queen, an allegory which was lavishly
praised and met with immediate acclaim.
Christopher Marlowe, like Shakespeare a talented
playwright, composed plays that examined
questions of life, death, knowledge, and virtue
such as The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus.
Shakespeare and Marlowe were fortunate to
live during the age of theater. Prior to the late
1500s, professional theaters did not really exist.
Actors existed of course, and plays were
produced, but most were traveling companies and
many performed religious plays. Beginning in the
1570s public theaters emerged in many European cities. London, a major and populous city,
had lively theaters that competed for audiences. Diverse crowds gathered in the theaters to be
dazzled by the theatrics and great story telling of the master playwrights of the day. Despite, or
because of its popularity and exploration of political and religious topics, the theaters met with
criticism from Puritan leaders. Despite this, many playwrights were able to survive due to elite
patronage. Elizabeth I was a great supporter of the theater and poets. After Spenser wrote The
Faerie Queen she provided him with an annual wage.
Elizabeth understood the value of the types of spectacle one might see at a play. She used
ceremony to prop up her rule. Her public appearances were as carefully orchestrated as any
theatrical production. As a woman ruler, Elizabeth made careful use of images to represent
herself in ways that made her rule, in an age when women were not expected to have power
over men, palatable to the English people. By presenting herself as the Virgin Queen, she
renounced her femininity to symbolically become the mother of all the English. For over fortyfive years, Elizabeth governed England with a firm hand. An intelligent and resourceful ruler,
she used ceremony and symbols exceptionally well to limit dissent and maintain peace.
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The Stuart Dynasty
When Elizabeth died in 1603, James VI of Scotland became
James I (1603-1625) of England. His reign marked the beginning
of the Stuart Dynasty. Elizabeth had never married. Lacking a
direct heir she had named the son of her cousin, Queen Mary I of
Scotland, as her successor. His English subjects viewed James I,
raised in Scotland, as a foreigner. He alienated Parliament by
stressing his divine right to rule. Parliament had grown used to
the Tudor policy of shared governance. While the Tudors had
ruled firmly, they allowed the semblance of shared governance
whereby the King or Queen ruled with Parliament. James I did
not initially understand the delicate diplomatic dance English
politics required of him and alienated some important elites.
He also had to contend with a growing
strain of conservatism within the Anglican
Church. Some members of the Anglican
Church had embraced the Calvinist form
of Protestantism. Called Puritans, a term
that has become contested in recent
years, they had emerged during the reign
of Elizabeth, but she had skillfully
managed to use the law and alliances at
court to suppress nonconformists of all
types. The religious problems lingered
though and James would be forced to
confront them. Puritans wanted to further
reform the moderate Anglican Church to emphasize Bible reading, predestination, and
preaching while removing any remaining rituals and the clerical hierarchy. James I defended the
Anglican Church against these reformers, thereby alienating men of standing in Parliament.
Religious problems subsided after the Gunpowder Plot was exposed. Supposedly a Catholic
plot to blow up the palace and Parliament, the conspiracy united Protestants against Catholics.
Financial difficulties were another problem facing James. Near the end of Elizabeth’s reign
taxation had reached a new high thanks to conflicts with Catholic neighbors. Spain and England
engaged in competition over the wool trade in the Netherlands.
A Spanish possession until the 1609 when the Northern
provinces split into a Protestant Republic, the Netherlands
provided important ports through which the English hoped to
sell wool. Elizabeth helped fund the rebellion of the Northern
provinces against their Spanish overlord. The Spanish
countered by supporting the claims of the Catholic Mary Queen
of Scots to be the legitimate heir to the English throne. The
conflict between the two powers culminated with the Spanish
launch of the invasive force known as the Spanish Armada.
Elizabeth’s victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588, thanks in
no small part to storms that dashed a number of the Spanish
war ships to pieces, effectively ended the threat, although the
Spanish did support Ireland’s rebellion against England.
22
Conflicts in Ireland, over which Elizabeth had attempted to exert greater control, had drained
the budget. Originally an attempt to compel obedience from old English-Irish families who had
settled in the region in the medieval period and to break up old Irish tribal relationships, the
conflict had quickly grown to include religious issues as Ireland was predominantly Catholic. The
Irish were brutally suppressed with much of the land being given to Englishmen. Despite the
suppression, however, Ireland remained a predominately Catholic area. Inflation,
unemployment, and bad harvests exacerbated the problem as few could afford the burden of
heavy taxation, soldiers returned to find no work, and that food was overpriced and in short
supply.
In order to gain alliances, James spent money lavishly. His court was extravagant and he
acted as patron to numerous courtiers from Scotland and England. Members of the English elite
accused James of favoring his Scottish countrymen, which added to his problems. Strong,
intelligent, and charismatic enough to keep the problems from exploding during his reign, James
I passed on to his heir a kingdom ripe for conflict.
Charles I and the English Civil Wars (1642-1649)
Charles I inherited a financially strained government beset by religious controversy and the
problem of managing Ireland, Scotland, and England. Charles I did not have his father’s talents
for leadership. His financial policies generated conflict, especially when he attempted to call for
new taxes without Parliament’s support. Religious conflicts between
moderates and Puritans exploded as well, as Charles I seemed to
support the growth of rituals and ceremonial garb in the Anglican
Church.
In 1641, Charles and Parliament went to war against each other
after attempts at cooperation and compromise failed. The wars are
known as the English Civil Wars (1642-1649). The nation was
divided into rival camps. On the one side were Royalists who
supported Charles I, on the other Parliamentarians. After
successive bouts of war punctured by failed attempts at
negotiation, Charles I and his supporters were defeated. The
Parliamentarians were successful in large part because of the New
Model Army of Oliver Cromwell. Composed in large part by
Puritans who believed they were doing God’s will by ridding the land of an evil tyrant who had
turned against true religion, they fought fiercely under Cromwell’s superb leadership.
Charles I was convicted of treason and beheaded on January 30, 1649. Charles’ heirs were
exiled, the monarchy was abolished and the Parliament took power over the new republic.
Parliamentary rule (1649-1653) was not long lasting as conflicts arose with Cromwell and his
army over the pace and content of reforms. He and his army dissolved Parliament. Cromwell
took control of the government, ruling as Lord Protector (1653-1659). Although essentially a
dictator, Cromwell called for legal reform and levels of religious toleration unprecedented at the
time. When Cromwell died, his son briefly assumed the position of Lord Protector, but he was
removed and Parliament took control from 1659-1660.
23
“The Trial of King Charles I”
Parliament restored the monarchy in 1660.
Charles’ son, Charles II (r. 1660-1685), was recalled
from exile. Despite the execution of his father and his
own exile, Charles II did not immediately begin
exacting revenge. He pardoned many of the rebels.
Unlike his father, Charles II was politically astute and
open to compromise. Despite this, the King and
Parliament soon became embroiled in conflict again.
Members of Parliament who had earlier supported
the Royalist cause attempted to impose orthodox
Anglicanism and suppress all religious dissent.
Charles II exacerbated the religious tensions when
he began to openly favor Catholics. His brother and heir, James, openly converted to
Catholicism. Charles attempted to pass legislation granting religious tolerance, but anti-Catholic
sentiment was strong in England. As a result of the open favoritism towards Catholicism shown
by Charles and his family, Parliament passed legislation banning all non-Anglicans from holding
office and moved to bar James from the succession. In response, Charles dissolved Parliament.
The next Parliament that was called failed to act further, probably because the spectacle of the
past civil war mandated a cautious policy of limited toleration.
James II (r. 1685-1689) succeeded Charles to the throne
despite his open Catholicism. Parliament at first acted in a
conciliatory manner, but James’ attempts to force the toleration
of Catholicism generated tension and criticism. In 1688,
Parliament invited William of Orange, the husband Mary, James’
Protestant daughter, to England. William launched a military
force to remove James from power, but his army was not
needed. James II abandoned the throne and left for France.
Parliament declared that by leaving James had abdicated.
William II (r. 1689-1702) and Mary II (r. 1689-1694) became the
joint rulers of England in a change of power known as the
Glorious Revolution. With the ascension of William and Mary to
the throne, Parliament emerged as powerful force. Parliament
presented the new sovereigns with the Declaration of Rights and
later a Bill of Rights guaranteeing freedom of speech, the calling of Parliament at regular
intervals, and mandating that all future British monarchs must be Protestant. They thereby
guaranteed that the monarchy would rule in cooperation with Parliament and guaranteed
England would enjoy a representative government.
The Netherlands: Emergence of the Dutch Republic
As previously noted, in the mid 16th century control over the Netherlands rested with Philip II
of Spain (r. 1556-1598). By the sixteenth century Spain was a leading power. It had conquered
regions in the “New World,” and controlled not only the Netherlands, but also parts of Italy.
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Spain had grown enormously rich thanks to its
expansion, and it traded throughout Eurasia. The
ports in the Netherlands that Phillip had inherited from
his father, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, provided
him with wealthy centers of trade and manufacturing.
Each province in the Netherlands had a local
assembly composed of the leading nobles. The
assemblies reported to Philip’s representative in the
Netherlands. Philip attempted to impose his will on the
Assembly by favoring Spanish officials and mandating
higher taxes even though the region had experienced
an economic downturn caused by trade issues and
bad harvests.
Philip only compounded problems by persecuting Protestants. Numerous Calvinists had
settled in the Netherlands. Desiring to prevent disruptions in trade, local governments had
allowed Protestants to meet and preach. Philip called for the execution of Protestant heretics
and the confiscation of their lands and wealth. Local officials refused to comply with Philip’s
decrees and some Calvinists attacked Catholic churches.
When Calvinists revolted, the Spanish sent troops to pacify
the region. Numerous Calvinists fled for safety as the Spanish
executed rebels and levied high taxes. By 1579 the Northern
Dutch provinces formed an anti-Spanish league to defend
themselves against the Spanish. The southern provinces, while
also threatened by the Spanish, were predominately Catholic.
Philip was able to win their allegiance by granting them
privileges. Despite the might of the Spanish, the Northern
provinces prevailed. The Spanish had become involved in
conflicts with other European powers. They could not spare the
resources or the men to conquer the region. In 1609 they
signed a truce with the Northern provinces, now commonly
called the Netherlands. Spain did not recognize the
independence of the Northern provinces until 1648, but this was a technicality that did not
interfere with the development of the new republic.
In both England and the Netherlands, merchants became very powerful thanks to a policy
that favored maritime trade, and then, the building of commercial empires. The governments of
England and the Netherlands were experiments in representative government that not been
seen since the emergence of the Roman Republic, save for a few examples of medieval citystates in Italy. Products of religious dissent, debates about the power and rule of government,
and economic realities, they emerged as vibrant centers of trade, banking, and manufacturing.
As such, these states represented the mutually beneficial alliances made between merchants
and the government. Successful rulers learned to follow policies in the interests of merchants,
who then supported the government with wealth generated by trade.
Absolute Monarchies and the Divine Right of Kings
While England and the Netherlands developed more representational, constitutional, forms
of government, France, Spain, Austria, Prussia and Russia developed absolute monarchies.
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Rulers of these absolutist states relied upon the theory of divine right to justify their rule. In this
theory, the monarch is understood to be God’s lieutenant upon Earth. As such, he has the God
given right to make laws and determine policy. Any rebellion is not only treason against the
state, but blasphemy. In absolutist states, non-compliance with state policy was met with swift
and harsh punishment.
France
France experienced several years of war. Wars of religion, which oftentimes had political
roots, devastated the state from 1562-1598. Elites in France competed against one another for
power and influence. A rise of Protestantism in France generated tension. Protestants in France
were known as Huguenots. Some Huguenots had made converts among some of the leading
families of France. While Catherine de’ Medici (1519-1589), regent for the underage King
Charles IX, attempted to impose religious
toleration, Hugeunots and Catholics of all social
stations openly and violently attacked each
other setting off wars. Catherine and the King
eventually ordered the murder of Huguenot
nobles and their supporters that touched off an
expanding rampage of violence against
Huguenots, known as the Saint Bartholomew’s
Day Massacre (1572). The massacre raised
questions about royal authority and religious
toleration that eventually led, after more wars,
to the 1598 Edict of Nantes, whereby King
Henry IV (r. 1589-1610) granted religious
toleration to Protestants.
Recovery began under Henry IV, as peace allowed trade, manufacturing, and farming to
redevelop. The crown took greater control over taxation and local government as centralization
increased. Nobles still commanded great power, but religious tensions simmered below the
surface. Violence between Huguenots and Catholics erupted in 1610 with the assassination of
the King. His heir had to contend with Huguenot uprisings for nearly a decade. The Peace of
Alais was reached in 1629, which reiterated freedom of worship for Protestants, but stripped
them of military and political rights. Deprived of power and the means for military resistance,
many converted to Catholicism.
Cardinal Richelieu had crafted the Peace of Alais and also acted as chief minister to King
Louis XIII (r. 1610-1643). He helped develop the policy of divine right to rule in France to
enhance the King’s power and wealth by
undermining the power of the nobility. With
Richelieu’s advice, Louis destroyed the last
vestiges of the medieval system of vassalage
whereby Lords entered into agreements with
retainers for military support. As had his
predecessors, he drew the nobles to court by
promising them titles and positions. He then tied
them to court, ruthlessly crushing conspiracies. He
built a large bureaucracy staffed by commoners
who were loyal directly to the king. Richelieu’s
policies were expensive and almost cost the
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monarchy its hold on power. A revolt against high taxes, in which all segments of society took
part, was only put down when the government bought off the aristocrats.
Louis XIII’s successor, Louis XIV (1643-1715), the Sun King, exemplifies the height of
absolutism. He built the palace of Versailles, the largest building in Europe, to house his
glorious court. The home of the King, Versailles was also the center of the government. Anyone
desiring to petition the King, or hold office, had to come to Versailles. The king was advised by a
royal council, the members of which were chosen carefully from families which had newly risen
to wealth and standing. They owed their allegiance and obedience to the King. The old elite
families, made up of members of the extended royal family and old nobles were kept away from
politics. Louis encouraged them to live at court to keep an eye on them. They were provided
with endless rounds of entertainment and luxurious surroundings in exchange for their absolute
obedience to the rule of the King.
“The Palace of Versailles (Part 1)”
“Louis XIV – Patron of the Arts”
Louis had complete control over all
aspects of the government. He managed
the economic, military, religious, and
diplomatic functions of the government.
Louis had to maintain a careful eye on
the economy, as his court was extremely
expensive. Louis’ involvement in foreign
conflicts also required the government to
maintain a healthy treasury. Louis
conducted wars between 1667 and 1713
to increase his glory and power in
European politics. Louis’ financial
administrators did their best to make sure
he had the money for his wars and lavish
court lifestyle by promoting an export
based economy, reducing France’s
consumption of imported goods by levying high tariffs on imported goods and rewarding
developers. Despite their efforts, Louis’ wars and pursuit of power and glory left France in dire
economic straits.
“Louis XIV – Warrior King”
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Absolutism in Russia: The Tsars of the Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
Russia emerged from the medieval period a strong and expanding power. By the
seventeenth century, the Romanov family controlled the government. Under the Romanovs,
who ruled Russia until 1917, Russia would come to control a vast empire. Peter I (1682-1725),
also known as Peter the Great, attempted to transform Russia into a military power. He worked
to modernize Russia by adopting Western European technologies. From 1697-1698, he toured
Germany, the Netherlands, and England to learn about Western administrative and military
technologies.
Peter I reformed the Russian army by offering soldiers
better pay. He gave drafted peasants to serve as professional
soldiers for life, providing them with extensive training and
modern equipment. He also gave Russia its first navy by
ordering the construction of a navy that would eventually
dominate the Baltic and North Seas. He also overhauled the
government. He streamlined administration by dividing Russia
into provinces, which ensured better tax collection and greater
efficiency.
His most able successor, Catherine II (r. 1762-1796),
Catherine the Great, went even farther in reforming and
modernizing Russia. She promoted economic development
and improved government efficiency. She initially worked to improve the lives of peasants, but
when challenges to her leadership emerged she turned her attention to crushing dissent. After a
rebellion in 1773-1774, which Catherine’s forces violently crushed, she concentrated on
strengthening imperial rule rather than Western style improvements.
“Catherine the Great”
Little Ice Age and the 17th Century Crisis
Europe in the early modern period emerged from a period of economic and social crisis. In
the 14th century, Northern Europe experienced considerable price inflation. The costs of grain,
livestock, and dairy products rose beyond the reach of many people. Europe was experiencing
what is called the Little Ice Age. During this period, which began circa the 14th century, and may
have ended as late as the 1800s, Europe experienced terribly cold winters. As glaciers
advanced, farms and fertile lands were consumed. In some years, the cold weather lingered
through spring and into summer, greatly affecting crops. Populations were high, but due to
climate changes numerous crop failures occurred. There were periodic bouts of scarcity and
starvation. People living on small farms were forced to sell or mortgage their land for money to
buy food. Homelessness and crime increased, as did violence against women, Jews, and land
speculators.
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Adding to these difficulties was the fourteenth
outbreak of plague, also known as the Black
Death, which devastated populations and
economies. England quickly bounced back from
the plague and economic disruptions. By the
15th century, it was back at its medieval peak of
economic performance. Other European powers
soon recovered as well. Population rates steadily
increased throughout Europe. Beginning in the
sixteenth century, European States witnessed a
steady growth in populations, which culminated
at the dawn of the seventeenth century in an
estimated Europe-wide population of 85 million
people. By mid-century, though, this had
somewhat declined. Wars of religion in France, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire
contributed to a downturn in populations and an increase in economic problems.
Prices rose throughout the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, but wages did not
witness a corresponding hike. The poor suffered, but so did aristocratic families. Monarchies
worked to solidify power in their own hands at the expense of older noble families. A new class
of elite emerges, the gentry. These new families made money through trade, buying up land that
was abandoned or sold cheap by farmers who could not keep up. The gentry loaned money to
these same peasants and charged high rents on
land. The new elite allied themselves with the
government, who used them to break the hold of
old noble families, in return for legal privileges.
Many peasants lost their land outright. Some
sold out to investors in return for money for food.
Many then rented the land they had previously
owned while others became day laborers
traveling from town to town in search of work.
These itinerant workers were often the victims of
violence, as people suspected them of
committing all sorts of vices. Other poor families
went to the cities where they swelled the ranks
of urban centers already straining to cope with increased populations. Older urban centers had
not been designed to comfortably see to the needs of greatly expanding populations and people
often experienced disease, crime, and violence.
The old guild system, which had regulated and established standards of labor and prices for
centuries, could not meet the challenges of expanding trade and new goods. The guild system
had been in place for centuries. In Europe, guilds regulated the quality, production, and price of
goods as well as monitored the morals of their members. The system began to break down,
although it would not be until the eighteenth century that the system would be circumvented by
traders and merchants.
Capitalism, an economic system based on the principal of a free market unregulated by
governments or privileged elites, began to emerge as the dominant economic system of the
West. In this system, individuals or groups of individuals made goods and services available
and sought to take advantage of market conditions to earn profits. Individuals or groups own the
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means of production, hire workers, and decide for
themselves what to produce. Businessmen competed
with each other to gain economic advantages and the
forces of supply and demand determined prices.
Capitalist businessmen learned to take advantage of
the market conditions by building efficient networks of
transportation and communication. Some people
criticized the capitalist system. Some religious
leaders and rural laborers looked at the rising profits
enjoyed by profitable enterprises and accused
capitalists of taking advantage of those in difficulty.
However, in many areas their activities also supplied
needy communities with necessities, even if the
prices were high.
As markets became more competitive, women were pushed out of economic activities.
Governments attempted to prohibit or restrict their activities as merchants, guilds, and midwives.
Widowed women found it increasingly hard to support their families, particularly after being
banned from taking over their husbands businesses. As women attempted to claim rights and
work in the markets, they frequently found themselves threatened with violence. Economic
conditions may have been one of the contributing factors to the rise in witchcraft accusations
against women during this period.
European powers began to colonize
Africa, Asia, and the “New World” as
early as the fourteenth century. The
motives, means, and character of early
voyages will be discussed in the next
chapter. By the seventeenth century,
most of the leading powers of Europe
could boast a colony. Opportunities for
trade, upward mobility, and religious
conversion drove a dramatic expansion
of colonization. Europeans gained
valuable new food sources from their
colonies. The Columbian exchange, the
term used to describe the exchange of goods, foods, and livestock between Europe and the
Americas, enriched the diets of Europeans, which supported an increase in population.
Potatoes provided carbohydrates for peasants and laborers who could not afford bread. Maize
was used to feed livestock; tomatoes and peppers provided nutritious and flavorful additions to
old foods. As people experienced the benefits of better diets, life expectancy rose. With the rise
in population, urbanization increased. Cities expanded, as did opportunities. New specialized
laborers emerged, merchants grew richer, and markets expanded.
Witch Hunts
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Europe and its colonies experienced an increase
in witchcraft accusations. The belief in witches had been on the rise since the twelfth century.
As states moved to consolidate power, inquisitions arose to police the borders of Christendom,
and old traditions came under attack. People at the margins of society, the poor, non-Christians,
and women, often found themselves the victims of accusations, trials, and executions. This
30
trend only increased in the early modern period as economic
tensions created by wars, famine, and disease heightened.
Adding to theses tensions were religious controversies
caused by the Protestant and Catholic Reformations.
In many ways witch hunts functioned as a means to relieve
tensions within a community and explain disasters, accidents,
illnesses, or untimely deaths. The Little Ice Age initiated
periodic bouts of inclement weather and corresponding crop
failures. Many people blamed witches for having summoned
the bad weather. Images of witches summoning storms are
numerous in the records, and for the most part the witches
are portrayed as women.
Women comprised the majority of people accused of, and
prosecuted for, witchcraft. A conflict between gender
expectations that called for women to confine themselves to the domestic sphere came head to
head with the reality that many women, widowed or from poor families, had to work. As workers
in the changing marketplace they competed with men for jobs. Furthermore, economic
conditions in the early modern period required new ways of doing business. Men frequently had
to travel to find work, which left women
unsupervised. The economic changes may have led
to an increased focus on guarding traditional male
social privileges and maintaining patriarchal control
over the family. The desire to push women from the
emerging marketplace, jealousy, and resentment
may have increased the number of accusations
being made against women. The conflict between
social ranks may have led to the persecution of the
poor at the hands of the elite and wealthier segments
of society. Women, frequently widowed thanks to
wars, made up a disproportionate number of the
poor. The poor were believed to be jealous of their
betters, willing to use, and using, magic to bring ill
fortune upon them.
Religion also served to identify women as the most likely witches. Christianity arose from the
dominant cultural systems of the ancient Greco-Roman world. Negative beliefs about women,
sexuality, and gender, inherited from the Greeks and Romans, became the subject of many
Christian theological texts. Women were believed to be more open to temptation, weaker of will,
and subject to seduction by the Devil. It was believed that women frequently became witches,
signing contracts with the Devil in return for material rewards.
Religious tensions caused by the Protestant and Catholic Reformations should not be
overlooked as causal agents. The Inquisition in Catholic lands sought out anyone believed to be
practicing rites not in accord with orthodox belief. Many women, as the healers, cooks, and
keeper’s of herbal gardens in the family, came under suspicion. The herbs and medicines they
used looked like the ingredients of magic potions to Inquisitors. Stillbirths, unexpected deaths
and illnesses, or spoiled foods and goods were blamed on women whose domestic labors could
be misconstrued by jealous or mourning community members, or overzealous priests. In
Protestant lands, witch hunts were numerous in Catholic areas, as community members had
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vilified Catholics and looked with suspicion on women who were believed to maintain ties to the
old faith.
Witch hunts gradually died out by the
end of the seventeenth century. The
expanding fields in science emphasized
rational thought, required observation,
careful standards of reporting, and
placed an emphasis on a logical universe
ordered by natural laws. The belief in
witchcraft did not fit with the new thought
patterns. The economy also began to
improve, wars of religion died down, and
the development of more European colonies provided more and more opportunities for
advancement, freedom, and mobility which relieved some of the tensions that had plagued
Europe in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Yet before the witch hunts ended,
close to two hundred thousand people, many of them women, may have been accused and
tried of witchcraft. Of these, up to half were executed by burning or hanging.
“Witchcraft in England in the Seventeenth Century (Part 1 of 2)”
“Witchcraft in England in the Seventeenth Century (Part 2 of 2)”
Scientific Revolution
It is important to note that the West did not have a
monopoly on scientific thought. Differences existed,
however, and led to the development in the West of what is
termed modern scientific thought. Modern science relies
upon rational thought, empirical evidence, and freedom
from religious control. It requires an acknowledgement that
what is investigated, and the theories that are
subsequently developed, are derived free from the control
of religious leaders. Some scholars argue that a secular
society must exist for modern science to thrive. In the
West, secular society began to develop in the medieval
period and continued to emerge throughout the early
modern period.
In the Islamic world, science and medicine had thrived up until the fourteenth century. The
Islamic world had far outpaced the West in science, medicine, and technology. According to the
work of Toby Huff, many Muslim scholars, however, were suspicious of science, probably
because many of the sciences were based on texts from the pagan world of classical and
Hellenistic Greece. As such, the texts and developments from them were viewed as foreign to
the traditions of orthodox Islam. i Muslim scholars feared that theories emerging from these texts
would lead students away from the religious truths found in the Quran. Western scientists, as
we will see, also had to contend with similar issues, but the Protestant Reformation had divided
32
Christianity, which served to prevent the repression of discoveries. In addition, Protestants
tended to arrive at the conclusion that science revealed God’s ordered plan for humanity,
whereas Muslim scholars wanted to preserve a notion of God’s continuing, direct, and ever
present intervention in daily events. Additionally, the Muslim
universities focused on Islamic law, not the cultivation of
scientific thought. Universities in the west broadened the range
of subjects available for study and also supported a larger body
of students than did the Islamic schools. A conservative trend in
Islam limited the range of inquiry open to scholars and stifled the
development of modern scientific thought despite the wonderful
tradition of science and medicine contained within Islam.
In China, technology had flourished until the fourteenth
century. Great technological innovations such as the magnetic
compass, gunpowder, and cross bows had emerged in China.
Unlike the Islamic world, China’s failure to develop a scientific
revolution cannot be traced to religious, but cultural, conservatism. The notion that science was
a threat to tradition was, however, common to both regions. Chinese scholars also lacked
access to Greek philosophy, which may have enabled them to employ the Socratic method of
questioning and Aristotelian logic to break with the past. The stress Chinese scholars and the
government placed on tradition constrained the ability of scholars to develop a body of modern
scientific though. Independent scientific inquiry was limited in Asia, as it also was in Islam, by
their reliance on received knowledge and traditions rather than on free inquiry.
In Europe, science would develop at an amazing pace in the
early modern period. Scientists would have to overcome the
resistance of religious leaders to new ways of thinking, but would
be successful thanks to a broader secular realm and the
development of capitalism and industry. Until the seventeenth
century, the understanding of the universe in Europe was based on
the work of Ptolemy, a 2nd century natural scientist, and Aristotle,
the great Classical Greek philosopher. Intellectuals understood the
earth to be motionless and surrounded by nine hollow concentric
spheres that revolved around it. Heaven and God were beyond the
spheres. The heavens were believed to be composed of pure
substances and not subject to the physical laws that governed
earthly matter. The planets and sun followed, and revolved in,
perfect paths around the earth. The theory did not fit well with observations that showed that the
planets moved erratically, but most scientists sought to make their theories fit with Ptolemy.
In 1543 the Polish astronomer Copernicus (1473-1543) published a
book on the revolution of the heavenly spheres that broke with Ptolemy.
He argued that the sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the solar
system and that all the planets, including the Earth, revolve around the
sun. Initially his book did not generate controversy, but in 1616 the
Catholic Church banned the book citing it was not in accord with
Scripture. The Copernican heliocentric (sun-centered) theory implied that
humans were not the center of God’s attention and this threatened
religious beliefs. Eventually, his work was condemned and placed on an
index of books banned by the Catholic Church.
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Despite being banned, Copernicus’ book was widely read and inspired new ways of looking
at the universe and understanding motion. His work gave rise to the Scientific Revolution. New
analytical methods of observation and data collection transformed the natural sciences. Building
on and verifying Copernicus’ work, the astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler (15711630) developed laws of planetary motion. Breaking with Copernicus, who had insisted that
planetary orbits were circular, Kepler’s theory proved that the planets moved along elliptical
orbits.
Also inspired by the work of Copernicus, the mathematician and astronomer Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642) made observations of the heavens, which transformed the science of astronomy,
via a telescope. His observations supported the heliocentric view of the universe. He also
observed that the heavens were not unchanging and static, but rather were chaotic and
changing. Using the telescope, he was able to observe mountains on the moon, moons around
Jupiter, new stars, and sunspots. His findings, published in Sidereus Nuncius (Starry
Messenger) (1610), drew the attention of the Catholic Church. It was not until the publication of
Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems (1632), that he was accused and tried for
heresy for his active support of the heliocentric theory. He was forced to deny the heliocentric
theory and spent his final days under house arrest. However, as had been the case with the
works of Copernicus, Galileo’s books were widely read and highly influential.
“Galileo and the Inquisition”
The work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo transformed astronomy. As the readership of
the books expanded, new work was required to unite their theories into a unified body of
knowledge. A professor at Cambridge University, Isaac Newton (1642-1727) constructed a
theory of the universe that used mathematical principles to unite the heavens and Earth in a
mechanical system governed by natural laws. In Mathematical Principals of Natural Philosophy,
Newton explained that a universal law of gravitation regulates the movement of bodies
throughout the universe; he also developed a mathematical explanation of the laws that
governed motion on earth. Newton’s theory of a mechanical universe governed by natural laws
became the framework of the physical sciences, but also influenced philosophers of the
Enlightenment.
“Isaac Newton: Answer to Everything”
Demographic Transitions: Urbanization and Markets
Economic developments begun in the seventeenth century as a result of population
increases, expanded trade, and new resources continued into the eighteenth century. The
population of Europe grew from nearly 120 million to close to two million by the last decade of
the eighteenth century. Outbreaks of plague no longer ravaged the population. As noted
previously, increased food supplies and the diversity of crops brought in from the Americas
greatly enhanced longevity allowing people to survive bouts of illnesses. Fertility rates may also
34
have increased as a result of better, more
nutrient rich diets. The climate also improved as
Europe fully transitioned out of the Little Ice Age.
Added to the benefits of the better climate, were
new tools and technologies that enabled more
land to be cultivated more effectively and
efficiently.
As farms produced more crops, more food
was available in markets for purchase. This
enabled some people to leave farming behind
for other pursuits or specialize in a single crop or
animal product. Urban centers could be profitable markets for farmers. Those who specialized in
commodities greatly desired by city dwellers such as milk, cheese, beef, and wool, could realize
high profits. The balance of power in some areas shifted as wealthier landowners raised rents,
which pushed some people off the land. They also shifted production patterns in ways that
necessitated huge investments in seeds and fertilizers that some small farmers could not afford.
Poor farmers, peasants, and serfs in Eastern Europe often saw the middling sort gain upward
mobility, riches, and ...
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