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Discuss Beowulf's death. Why is important that he died in the dragon's clutch? What does it say about this epic that all but Wiglaf abandoned him?
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San Diego State University Psychology of Human Brain Paper
This is your comprehensive Final Exam. You must answer each question using your own words. If you are using evidence from ...
San Diego State University Psychology of Human Brain Paper
This is your comprehensive Final Exam. You must answer each question using your own words. If you are using evidence from the book or any other resource you must provide the correct citation. Please download the questions, answer on your own word documentRequired Text: Title Biological Psychology, 12th Edition with Mindtap- Cengage CodeAuthor James W. KalatISBN 978-1-305-10540-9final exam questions:Vision: Part 1. Name and describe each of the different structures in the visual pathways, including the ventral and dorsal streams. Start with the eye and end with specific brain structures. You must demonstrate your understanding of how visual object identification and the recognition of moving visual objects is possible. Part 2. What are the behavioral effects that you could observe in an adult who sustains extensive damage limited to the primary visual cortex (V1)? Would it be the same as blind sight? Why or why not? If I wanted to confirm that the reciprocal nature of V1 and V2 was necessary for visual processing, then how could I design an experiment to test such a relationship between V1 and V2?Dopamine and Drug addiction: Part 1. Describe the mechanism of action for Dopamine (DA) agonist drugs (e.g., cocaine) and describe the hypothesized role of DA release in the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants. Is this role of DA the same for schizophrenia? Why is it that DA makes us feel good, yet too much DA is associated with Schizophrenia? Part 2. The research on sensitization of the nucleus accumbens has dealt with addictive drugs, mainly cocaine. Would you expect a gambling addiction to have similar effects? How could someone test this possibility? Design a brief follow-up study with a Hypothesis, IV, DV, and graph some expected results.Emotion: Part 1. Describe how the brain processes the expression and recognition of emotion (i.e., describe the role of cortical structures, subcortical structures, and the main theories of emotion). People with amygdala damage approach other people indiscriminately instead of trying to choose people who look friendly and trustworthy. What might be a possible explanation? Part 2. Explain is the neurological and psychological relationship between sleep and depression?Learning: Part 1. Lashley sought to find the engram, the physiological representation of learning. In physiological psychology terms, how would you recognize an engram if you saw one? That is, what would someone have to demonstrate before you could conclude that a particular change in the nervous system was really an engram? Part 2. Describe the role of the hippocampus in memory formation. Explain how memories are organized (i.e., the different types of memory) and stored in our brains. If a synapse had already developed LTP once, should it be easier or more difficult to get it to develop LTP again, explain? How is confabulation different from lying? How many different memories are there and how are they different?Sex and Hormones: Part 1. Describe some of the evidence that genetic factors may influence sexual orientation. Part 2.Describe organizing and activating effects of sex hormones and give specific examples. Make sure to clearly demonstrate the difference between organizing and activating effects.Corpus Callosum Facts: Part 1.When a person born without a corpus callosum moves the fingers of one hand, he or she is likely also to move the fingers of the other hand, involuntarily. What possible explanation can you suggest? Explain lateralized functions and give examples of two of those functions. Part 2. Most people with Broca's aphasia suffer from partial paralysis on the right side of the body. Most people with Wernicke's aphasia do not. Why? What is the relationship between language and communication? How can information be transferred between the hemispheres?Methods:Part 1. Scans and tests used to study the living human brain can be either static (a snapshot at one point in time) or dynamic (showing changes over time). Give one example of each type, including its advantages and disadvantages. Part 2. Design a new cognitive neuroscience experiment using a dynamic neural measure. Make sure you describe in great detail the IV, DV, hypothesis, procedure, expected results/outcomes, any new conclusions that can be learned from your experiment. Neural Communication:In as much detail as possible and necessary describe the steps of an action potential and synaptic transmission. Part 1. Give a detailed, step-by-step description of the stages of an action potential, including a description of and explanation for the refractory periods, and an accurate graph representation. Part 2. Give a detailed, step-by-step description of synaptic transmission (i.e., communication). You must mention the ions at work!Movement: Part 1. Ordinarily, patients with advanced Parkinson’s disease (who have damage to dopamine-releasing axons) move very slowly if at all. However, during an emergency (e.g., a fire in the building), they may move rapidly and vigorously. Suggest a possible explanation. Part 2. Neurologists assert that if people lived long enough, sooner or later everyone would get Parkinson's disease. Why?Plasticity and Development: Part 1.Biologists can develop antibodies against nerve growth factor (i.e., molecules that inactivate nerve growth factor). What would happen if someone injected such antibodies into a developing nervous system? How does experience affect our brains? Part 2. Describe how stem cells function. Explain all the stages of neural development. What are some ways that neurons could be guided to the appropriate target? 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The Role of The Artist During the Renaissance & the Artist Evaluation Discussion
Discuss the role of the artist during the Renaissance and the elevation of the artist as "genius"—that the artist ...
The Role of The Artist During the Renaissance & the Artist Evaluation Discussion
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The goal of this paper is to understand how the brain and memory processes are intertwined and how certain techniques can improve these processes. In an essay of 1,000-1,250 words, discuss how memories are formed and maintained in the brain through the actions of neural circuitry. Use at least four scholarly resources to address the following questions:Theoretically, how is working memory similar to and different from long-term memory?How are memories formed in the brain (using neural circuitry), and how are they maintained?When is it adaptive to remember, and in what ways may it be adaptive to forget?Given what we know about brain mechanisms in memory, are our memories accurate? Explain your answer using information on how memories are stored in the brain.How can knowledge of the brain and memory systems be used to help individuals suffering from memory problems (e.g., poor memory, amnesia, PTSD)?Compare the role age and environment play in how memories are formed and maintained.
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Voting Rights Act Impact, history homework help
The questions below are designed to get you thinking about the causes, course, and consequences of the Voting Rights Act. ...
Voting Rights Act Impact, history homework help
The questions below are designed to get you thinking about the causes, course, and consequences of the Voting Rights Act. Be sure to respond to each question in 2-3 complete sentences, using proper grammar1. Name three specific historical events that can be considered contributory causes of the passage of the Voting Rights Act. Briefly explain why you believe each of these events contributed to the passage of the Act.2. Based on what you read about the passage of the Voting Rights Act on Page 1 of this learning block, name one event that was part of the course of this bill's passage by Congress.3. Name three specific consequences caused by the passage of the Voting Rights Act.PAGE ONE:The Voting Rights Act of 1965An 1879 cartoon criticized the use of literacy tests to deny African Americans the right to vote. (Click button for citation) From the beginning, supporters and opponents of African-American civil rights both understood the critical importance of voting rights. Supporters strove, after the Civil War, to ensure that freed slaves would have the political power that comes with voting; toward that end, they passed the Fifteenth Amendment, to guarantee voting rights, and the Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, to combat the Ku Klux Klan*'s efforts to suppress black voting through intimidation and violence.But federal enforcement of the Fifteenth Amendment effectively ceased with the end of Reconstruction* in 1877. Opponents knew that allowing African Americans to vote would threaten the structure of white supremacy on which the Jim Crow South was founded. In addition to physical intimidation, then, Southern whites erected an imposing set of legal obstacles to deter blacks from voting: poll taxes, whites-only primaries, literacy tests, property qualifications, and grandfather clauses.In 1957, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. talked about those legal obstacles in his "Give Us the Ballot" speech; in 1965, President Lyndon Johnson spoke about them in an address to Congress:Select a list item tab, press enter, then search down for text. When you hear End of tab content, go back to the next list item to access the next list item tab.King: "Give Us the Ballot"Johnson: "Our Duty Must Be Clear"King: "Give Us the Ballot"[A]ll types of conniving methods are still being used to prevent Negroes from becoming registered voters. The denial of this sacred right is a tragic betrayal of the highest mandates of our democratic tradition. And so our most urgent request to the president of the United States and every member of Congress is to give us the right to vote. [Audience:] (Yes)Give us the ballot, and we will no longer have to worry the federal government about our basic rights.Give us the ballot (Yes), and we will no longer plead to the federal government for passage of an anti-lynching law; we will by the power of our vote write the law on the statute books of the South (All right) and bring an end to the dastardly acts of the hooded perpetrators of violence.Give us the ballot (Give us the ballot), and we will transform the salient misdeeds of bloodthirsty mobs (Yeah) into the calculated good deeds of orderly citizens.Give us the ballot (Give us the ballot), and we will fill our legislative halls with men of goodwill (All right now) and send to the sacred halls of Congress men who will not sign a "Southern Manifesto" because of their devotion to the manifesto of justice. (Tell 'em about it)Give us the ballot (Yeah), and we will place judges on the benches of the South who will do justly and love mercy (Yeah), and we will place at the head of the southern states governors who will, who have felt not only the tang of the human, but the glow of the Divine.Give us the ballot (Yes), and we will quietly and nonviolently, without rancor or bitterness, implement the Supreme Court's decision of May seventeenth, 1954. (That's right)(For the full text of the speech and an audio recording, go here.)End of tab content.
The modern Civil Rights movement that arose in the wake of the Brown* decision placed a high premium on winning federal legislation to enforce voting rights. The movement focused its efforts on the states of the South, because the de jure denial of voting rights was a uniquely Southern issue; virtually no such legal structures had been erected in the North or West to deny blacks the franchise. Three efforts to pass voting-rights legislation were derailed by Southern opposition in Congress: voting-rights provisions of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, and 1963 were watered down to the point of ineffectiveness.The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which was passed in the wake of President Kennedy's assassination, included some voting-rights provisions but not the broad prohibition of literacy tests for which civil rights leaders had hoped. The Act's primary focus, rather, was on ending segregation in public accommodations and in public education.Following his landslide victory in the 1964 Presidential election, which also produced huge Democratic majorities in Congress, President Lyndon Johnson determined to push for a tough new voting-rights law. But his political advisers, concerned about the political impact of another civil rights battle so soon after passage of the Civil Rights Act, urged him to wait. (May, 2013)In early 1965, Martin Luther King and other civil rights leaders, including James Bevel of the SCLC*, began organizing voting-rights protests in Selma, Alabama, where the local sheriff had violently suppressed African-American voter registration efforts. In February, King and hundreds of other protesters were arrested for violating the city's anti-parade ordinance. King responded by writing "A Letter from a Selma Alabama Jail," which ran as an advertisement in The New York Times; the letter famously noted that, " This is Selma, Alabama. There are more negroes in jail with me than there are on the voting rolls." (King, 1965)Alabama police attack Selma-to-Montgomery Marchers on Bloody Sunday, 1965. (Click button for citation) Shortly after King's arrest, another voting-rights protest in Marion, Alabama, turned deadly when Alabama state troopers attacked the demonstrators; an African-American Army veteran named Jimmie Lee Jackson was fatally shot by police. At his funeral, James Bevel suggested that protesters march from Selma to the state capital in Montgomery to dramatize their cause. (May, 2013)Two weeks later, on March 7, 1965, about 600 protesters, led by John Lewis and Hosea Williams of the SCLC, began marching out of Selma. As they crossed the Edmund Pettus Bridge, the demonstrators met a small army of state troopers and county deputies; the law officers began beating the unarmed protesters with nightsticks, fired tear gas into the crowd, and charged the protesters on horseback. A total of 17 protesters were hospitalized, and another 50 were treated for injuries in what became known as "Bloody Sunday." (Reed, 1966)(To read excerpts from first-person accounts of the Bloody Sunday protest, go here.)The violence on the Edmund Pettus Bridge was captured by newspaper photographers and television news crews; the image of peaceful protesters being savagely beaten by the police outraged public opinion outside the South, and abroad. Eight days after Bloody Sunday, amid continuing violence against voting-rights demonstrators in Alabama, President Johnson addressed Congress and called for swift passage of his voting-rights proposal. Echoing the old spiritual that had become the anthem of the civil rights movement, Johnson declared that "We shall overcome" in the struggle for voting rights.Despite fervent Southern opposition and a 24-day filibuster* in the Senate, the Voting Rights Act received final Congressional approval on August 4, 1965. Two days later, with Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks in attendance at the White House, Johnson signed the bill into law. (May, 2013)PAGE TWO:The Impact of the Voting Rights ActThe immediate effects of the Voting Rights Act were quickly felt. Voter registration surged among African Americans in the states of the Old South, the region directly targeted by the law's "special provisions." By 1970, a majority of eligible African Americans had registered to vote in nine of the 11 former Confederate states. In Mississippi, black voter registration increased from just 6.7 percent in 1964, to 59.8 percent in 1967. (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2016; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001)President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 while Martin Luther King, Jr. and others look on. (Click button for citation) This surge in voter registration has led some legal experts to characterize the Voting Rights Act as " the single most effective piece of civil rights legislation ever passed by Congress." (U.S. Department of Justice, 2009) For a summary of the Act's key provisions, click on this link.Two key factors contributed to the effectiveness of the Voting Rights Act. The first was its limited scope: the "special provisions" of the Act applied to only those states and localities with a demonstrated history of discrimination against African-American voting rights. This limited scope allowed the Justice Department to use its enforcement resources most effectively, in areas where the potential for discrimination was greatest. The second was the Act's preclearance provision*, which prevented any changes in voting laws from taking effect unless they were approved by the Justice Department or a federal court. [The Supreme Court suspended the preclearance provision in 2013.]Increased voter registration did not, however, translate immediately into increased political powerfor African Americans in the South. White-dominated state legislators responded to the Voting Rights Act by enacting new measures to limit the effectiveness of African-American voting: turning some formerly elective offices into appointive ones and changing many other elective offices to "at-large" seats, which diluted the impact of new black voters. Those same legislators also engaged in racial gerrymandering*, redrawing legislative and Congressional districts to maximize white voting power and limit the effectiveness of African-American votes. (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001)Over time, Justice Department lawsuits reversed many of these political ploys. Key Supreme Court rulings, including Wesberry v. Sanders (1964)*, sought to reduce the impact of racial gerrymandering by applying the concept of "one person, one vote" to the issue of legislative redistricting. And later amendments to the Act required states, under certain circumstances, to create majority-minority districts* to increase the odds that African Americans and other minority-group candidates would be elected to Congress.At the same time, the overall increase in African-American voter registration was not matched by a similarly sharp rise in African-American voter turnout. Nationally, the proportion of African Americans who actually cast a ballot in a Presidential election peaked at 58.5 percent in 1964—the year before the Voting Rights Act was passed—and did not return to this level until Barack Obama's first presidential campaign in 2008. (Flippen, 2014) Obviously, African-American turnout increased in Southern states, where registration had increased so sharply, but it declined in non-Southern states.Relatively low turnout among African-American voters is attributable to many different factors, including differences in income and education, as well as a perception that the political process is less relevant to their lives. (Fulwood, 2014) And relevance is, in some ways, related to race: like many other racial and ethnic groups, African Americans are significantly more likely to vote when a member of their own group is on the ballot. (Laney, 2011)Without question, the Voting Rights Act has led to sharply increased representation of African Americans in Congress, state legislatures, and local offices. In 1964, for instance, only five African Americans served in Congress; by 2015, that number had increased to 48. (U.S House of Representatives, 2016) And between 1965 and 1985, the number of African-American state legislators in the former states of the Confederacy had increased from three to 176. (Grofman and Handley, 1991)What remains open to question is whether increased African-American political representation has led to an improvement in the lives of most African Americans. On this point, there is conflicting evidence. Mississippi, for instance, in the mid-1990s had more African-American elected officials than any other state—yet per capita income for blacks in Mississippi was less than half that for whites, and levels of educational attainment were also significantly lower among blacks than among whites. At that same time, however, state spending on public housing and education had increased sharply in the years previous, and incidents of racial violence had decreased greatly. (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001) This mixed record is in fact typical of many states.
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San Diego State University Psychology of Human Brain Paper
This is your comprehensive Final Exam. You must answer each question using your own words. If you are using evidence from ...
San Diego State University Psychology of Human Brain Paper
This is your comprehensive Final Exam. You must answer each question using your own words. If you are using evidence from the book or any other resource you must provide the correct citation. Please download the questions, answer on your own word documentRequired Text: Title Biological Psychology, 12th Edition with Mindtap- Cengage CodeAuthor James W. KalatISBN 978-1-305-10540-9final exam questions:Vision: Part 1. Name and describe each of the different structures in the visual pathways, including the ventral and dorsal streams. Start with the eye and end with specific brain structures. You must demonstrate your understanding of how visual object identification and the recognition of moving visual objects is possible. Part 2. What are the behavioral effects that you could observe in an adult who sustains extensive damage limited to the primary visual cortex (V1)? Would it be the same as blind sight? Why or why not? If I wanted to confirm that the reciprocal nature of V1 and V2 was necessary for visual processing, then how could I design an experiment to test such a relationship between V1 and V2?Dopamine and Drug addiction: Part 1. Describe the mechanism of action for Dopamine (DA) agonist drugs (e.g., cocaine) and describe the hypothesized role of DA release in the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants. Is this role of DA the same for schizophrenia? Why is it that DA makes us feel good, yet too much DA is associated with Schizophrenia? Part 2. The research on sensitization of the nucleus accumbens has dealt with addictive drugs, mainly cocaine. Would you expect a gambling addiction to have similar effects? How could someone test this possibility? Design a brief follow-up study with a Hypothesis, IV, DV, and graph some expected results.Emotion: Part 1. Describe how the brain processes the expression and recognition of emotion (i.e., describe the role of cortical structures, subcortical structures, and the main theories of emotion). People with amygdala damage approach other people indiscriminately instead of trying to choose people who look friendly and trustworthy. What might be a possible explanation? Part 2. Explain is the neurological and psychological relationship between sleep and depression?Learning: Part 1. Lashley sought to find the engram, the physiological representation of learning. In physiological psychology terms, how would you recognize an engram if you saw one? That is, what would someone have to demonstrate before you could conclude that a particular change in the nervous system was really an engram? Part 2. Describe the role of the hippocampus in memory formation. Explain how memories are organized (i.e., the different types of memory) and stored in our brains. If a synapse had already developed LTP once, should it be easier or more difficult to get it to develop LTP again, explain? How is confabulation different from lying? How many different memories are there and how are they different?Sex and Hormones: Part 1. Describe some of the evidence that genetic factors may influence sexual orientation. Part 2.Describe organizing and activating effects of sex hormones and give specific examples. Make sure to clearly demonstrate the difference between organizing and activating effects.Corpus Callosum Facts: Part 1.When a person born without a corpus callosum moves the fingers of one hand, he or she is likely also to move the fingers of the other hand, involuntarily. What possible explanation can you suggest? Explain lateralized functions and give examples of two of those functions. Part 2. Most people with Broca's aphasia suffer from partial paralysis on the right side of the body. Most people with Wernicke's aphasia do not. Why? What is the relationship between language and communication? How can information be transferred between the hemispheres?Methods:Part 1. Scans and tests used to study the living human brain can be either static (a snapshot at one point in time) or dynamic (showing changes over time). Give one example of each type, including its advantages and disadvantages. Part 2. Design a new cognitive neuroscience experiment using a dynamic neural measure. Make sure you describe in great detail the IV, DV, hypothesis, procedure, expected results/outcomes, any new conclusions that can be learned from your experiment. Neural Communication:In as much detail as possible and necessary describe the steps of an action potential and synaptic transmission. Part 1. Give a detailed, step-by-step description of the stages of an action potential, including a description of and explanation for the refractory periods, and an accurate graph representation. Part 2. Give a detailed, step-by-step description of synaptic transmission (i.e., communication). You must mention the ions at work!Movement: Part 1. Ordinarily, patients with advanced Parkinson’s disease (who have damage to dopamine-releasing axons) move very slowly if at all. However, during an emergency (e.g., a fire in the building), they may move rapidly and vigorously. Suggest a possible explanation. Part 2. Neurologists assert that if people lived long enough, sooner or later everyone would get Parkinson's disease. Why?Plasticity and Development: Part 1.Biologists can develop antibodies against nerve growth factor (i.e., molecules that inactivate nerve growth factor). What would happen if someone injected such antibodies into a developing nervous system? How does experience affect our brains? Part 2. Describe how stem cells function. Explain all the stages of neural development. What are some ways that neurons could be guided to the appropriate target? 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The Role of The Artist During the Renaissance & the Artist Evaluation Discussion
Discuss the role of the artist during the Renaissance and the elevation of the artist as "genius"—that the artist ...
The Role of The Artist During the Renaissance & the Artist Evaluation Discussion
Discuss the role of the artist during the Renaissance and the elevation of the artist as "genius"—that the artist was no longer considered a skilled crafts-person but a respected and admired professional. The Renaissance focus on the individual was central to the philosophy of Humanism, which decreed a dramatic shift from God and the hereafter to humankind and the here, and now. As a result, subject matter expanded to include both religious and secular art works.In this discussion, focus on artists such as Donatello, who reintroduced the nude (David), and Botticelli, who reintroduced mythology (Birth of Venus) as a major subject for art. Include a minimum of 500 words and three references. There is no need for a cover page nor a reference page. Just add the complete references at the end of the assignment.
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The goal of this paper is to understand how the brain and memory processes are intertwined and how certain techniques can ...
PSY402 Grand Canyon University Memory and Brain Mechanisms Essay
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Voting Rights Act Impact, history homework help
The questions below are designed to get you thinking about the causes, course, and consequences of the Voting Rights Act. ...
Voting Rights Act Impact, history homework help
The questions below are designed to get you thinking about the causes, course, and consequences of the Voting Rights Act. Be sure to respond to each question in 2-3 complete sentences, using proper grammar1. Name three specific historical events that can be considered contributory causes of the passage of the Voting Rights Act. Briefly explain why you believe each of these events contributed to the passage of the Act.2. Based on what you read about the passage of the Voting Rights Act on Page 1 of this learning block, name one event that was part of the course of this bill's passage by Congress.3. Name three specific consequences caused by the passage of the Voting Rights Act.PAGE ONE:The Voting Rights Act of 1965An 1879 cartoon criticized the use of literacy tests to deny African Americans the right to vote. (Click button for citation) From the beginning, supporters and opponents of African-American civil rights both understood the critical importance of voting rights. Supporters strove, after the Civil War, to ensure that freed slaves would have the political power that comes with voting; toward that end, they passed the Fifteenth Amendment, to guarantee voting rights, and the Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, to combat the Ku Klux Klan*'s efforts to suppress black voting through intimidation and violence.But federal enforcement of the Fifteenth Amendment effectively ceased with the end of Reconstruction* in 1877. Opponents knew that allowing African Americans to vote would threaten the structure of white supremacy on which the Jim Crow South was founded. In addition to physical intimidation, then, Southern whites erected an imposing set of legal obstacles to deter blacks from voting: poll taxes, whites-only primaries, literacy tests, property qualifications, and grandfather clauses.In 1957, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. talked about those legal obstacles in his "Give Us the Ballot" speech; in 1965, President Lyndon Johnson spoke about them in an address to Congress:Select a list item tab, press enter, then search down for text. When you hear End of tab content, go back to the next list item to access the next list item tab.King: "Give Us the Ballot"Johnson: "Our Duty Must Be Clear"King: "Give Us the Ballot"[A]ll types of conniving methods are still being used to prevent Negroes from becoming registered voters. The denial of this sacred right is a tragic betrayal of the highest mandates of our democratic tradition. And so our most urgent request to the president of the United States and every member of Congress is to give us the right to vote. [Audience:] (Yes)Give us the ballot, and we will no longer have to worry the federal government about our basic rights.Give us the ballot (Yes), and we will no longer plead to the federal government for passage of an anti-lynching law; we will by the power of our vote write the law on the statute books of the South (All right) and bring an end to the dastardly acts of the hooded perpetrators of violence.Give us the ballot (Give us the ballot), and we will transform the salient misdeeds of bloodthirsty mobs (Yeah) into the calculated good deeds of orderly citizens.Give us the ballot (Give us the ballot), and we will fill our legislative halls with men of goodwill (All right now) and send to the sacred halls of Congress men who will not sign a "Southern Manifesto" because of their devotion to the manifesto of justice. (Tell 'em about it)Give us the ballot (Yeah), and we will place judges on the benches of the South who will do justly and love mercy (Yeah), and we will place at the head of the southern states governors who will, who have felt not only the tang of the human, but the glow of the Divine.Give us the ballot (Yes), and we will quietly and nonviolently, without rancor or bitterness, implement the Supreme Court's decision of May seventeenth, 1954. (That's right)(For the full text of the speech and an audio recording, go here.)End of tab content.
The modern Civil Rights movement that arose in the wake of the Brown* decision placed a high premium on winning federal legislation to enforce voting rights. The movement focused its efforts on the states of the South, because the de jure denial of voting rights was a uniquely Southern issue; virtually no such legal structures had been erected in the North or West to deny blacks the franchise. Three efforts to pass voting-rights legislation were derailed by Southern opposition in Congress: voting-rights provisions of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, and 1963 were watered down to the point of ineffectiveness.The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which was passed in the wake of President Kennedy's assassination, included some voting-rights provisions but not the broad prohibition of literacy tests for which civil rights leaders had hoped. The Act's primary focus, rather, was on ending segregation in public accommodations and in public education.Following his landslide victory in the 1964 Presidential election, which also produced huge Democratic majorities in Congress, President Lyndon Johnson determined to push for a tough new voting-rights law. But his political advisers, concerned about the political impact of another civil rights battle so soon after passage of the Civil Rights Act, urged him to wait. (May, 2013)In early 1965, Martin Luther King and other civil rights leaders, including James Bevel of the SCLC*, began organizing voting-rights protests in Selma, Alabama, where the local sheriff had violently suppressed African-American voter registration efforts. In February, King and hundreds of other protesters were arrested for violating the city's anti-parade ordinance. King responded by writing "A Letter from a Selma Alabama Jail," which ran as an advertisement in The New York Times; the letter famously noted that, " This is Selma, Alabama. There are more negroes in jail with me than there are on the voting rolls." (King, 1965)Alabama police attack Selma-to-Montgomery Marchers on Bloody Sunday, 1965. (Click button for citation) Shortly after King's arrest, another voting-rights protest in Marion, Alabama, turned deadly when Alabama state troopers attacked the demonstrators; an African-American Army veteran named Jimmie Lee Jackson was fatally shot by police. At his funeral, James Bevel suggested that protesters march from Selma to the state capital in Montgomery to dramatize their cause. (May, 2013)Two weeks later, on March 7, 1965, about 600 protesters, led by John Lewis and Hosea Williams of the SCLC, began marching out of Selma. As they crossed the Edmund Pettus Bridge, the demonstrators met a small army of state troopers and county deputies; the law officers began beating the unarmed protesters with nightsticks, fired tear gas into the crowd, and charged the protesters on horseback. A total of 17 protesters were hospitalized, and another 50 were treated for injuries in what became known as "Bloody Sunday." (Reed, 1966)(To read excerpts from first-person accounts of the Bloody Sunday protest, go here.)The violence on the Edmund Pettus Bridge was captured by newspaper photographers and television news crews; the image of peaceful protesters being savagely beaten by the police outraged public opinion outside the South, and abroad. Eight days after Bloody Sunday, amid continuing violence against voting-rights demonstrators in Alabama, President Johnson addressed Congress and called for swift passage of his voting-rights proposal. Echoing the old spiritual that had become the anthem of the civil rights movement, Johnson declared that "We shall overcome" in the struggle for voting rights.Despite fervent Southern opposition and a 24-day filibuster* in the Senate, the Voting Rights Act received final Congressional approval on August 4, 1965. Two days later, with Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks in attendance at the White House, Johnson signed the bill into law. (May, 2013)PAGE TWO:The Impact of the Voting Rights ActThe immediate effects of the Voting Rights Act were quickly felt. Voter registration surged among African Americans in the states of the Old South, the region directly targeted by the law's "special provisions." By 1970, a majority of eligible African Americans had registered to vote in nine of the 11 former Confederate states. In Mississippi, black voter registration increased from just 6.7 percent in 1964, to 59.8 percent in 1967. (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2016; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001)President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 while Martin Luther King, Jr. and others look on. (Click button for citation) This surge in voter registration has led some legal experts to characterize the Voting Rights Act as " the single most effective piece of civil rights legislation ever passed by Congress." (U.S. Department of Justice, 2009) For a summary of the Act's key provisions, click on this link.Two key factors contributed to the effectiveness of the Voting Rights Act. The first was its limited scope: the "special provisions" of the Act applied to only those states and localities with a demonstrated history of discrimination against African-American voting rights. This limited scope allowed the Justice Department to use its enforcement resources most effectively, in areas where the potential for discrimination was greatest. The second was the Act's preclearance provision*, which prevented any changes in voting laws from taking effect unless they were approved by the Justice Department or a federal court. [The Supreme Court suspended the preclearance provision in 2013.]Increased voter registration did not, however, translate immediately into increased political powerfor African Americans in the South. White-dominated state legislators responded to the Voting Rights Act by enacting new measures to limit the effectiveness of African-American voting: turning some formerly elective offices into appointive ones and changing many other elective offices to "at-large" seats, which diluted the impact of new black voters. Those same legislators also engaged in racial gerrymandering*, redrawing legislative and Congressional districts to maximize white voting power and limit the effectiveness of African-American votes. (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001)Over time, Justice Department lawsuits reversed many of these political ploys. Key Supreme Court rulings, including Wesberry v. Sanders (1964)*, sought to reduce the impact of racial gerrymandering by applying the concept of "one person, one vote" to the issue of legislative redistricting. And later amendments to the Act required states, under certain circumstances, to create majority-minority districts* to increase the odds that African Americans and other minority-group candidates would be elected to Congress.At the same time, the overall increase in African-American voter registration was not matched by a similarly sharp rise in African-American voter turnout. Nationally, the proportion of African Americans who actually cast a ballot in a Presidential election peaked at 58.5 percent in 1964—the year before the Voting Rights Act was passed—and did not return to this level until Barack Obama's first presidential campaign in 2008. (Flippen, 2014) Obviously, African-American turnout increased in Southern states, where registration had increased so sharply, but it declined in non-Southern states.Relatively low turnout among African-American voters is attributable to many different factors, including differences in income and education, as well as a perception that the political process is less relevant to their lives. (Fulwood, 2014) And relevance is, in some ways, related to race: like many other racial and ethnic groups, African Americans are significantly more likely to vote when a member of their own group is on the ballot. (Laney, 2011)Without question, the Voting Rights Act has led to sharply increased representation of African Americans in Congress, state legislatures, and local offices. In 1964, for instance, only five African Americans served in Congress; by 2015, that number had increased to 48. (U.S House of Representatives, 2016) And between 1965 and 1985, the number of African-American state legislators in the former states of the Confederacy had increased from three to 176. (Grofman and Handley, 1991)What remains open to question is whether increased African-American political representation has led to an improvement in the lives of most African Americans. On this point, there is conflicting evidence. Mississippi, for instance, in the mid-1990s had more African-American elected officials than any other state—yet per capita income for blacks in Mississippi was less than half that for whites, and levels of educational attainment were also significantly lower among blacks than among whites. At that same time, however, state spending on public housing and education had increased sharply in the years previous, and incidents of racial violence had decreased greatly. (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001) This mixed record is in fact typical of many states.
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