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Understanding Culture Through Animation: From the World to
Malaysia
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Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia
Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
Vol. 13, No. 2, 2011
Pages 1–9
Understanding Culture through Animation:
From the World to Malaysia
Mohd Amir Mat Omar & MD SIDIn ahmad ishak
ABSTRACT
Generally, culture is aimed to be preserved the way they are thus maintaining
the status quo of their origins. The growth and increased range of available
local and foreign media content have raised numerous questions as to the
impact and effects it brings towards culture. As a mature international
industry and a rapidly growing local one, animations films have taken
a role in introducing the cultural characteristics of various nations and
backgrounds. Similar with other products of different geographical sources,
animation carries a reflection of their respective cultural backgrounds. This
paper attempts to understand the links between culture and animation,
how animation has taken place, how animation have been studied and
how animation have been described.
Keywords: animated film, 3D technology, cartoon, anime, culture
INTRODUCTION
Animation as we see and understand today can be traced back since the very
early age (Stephenson, 1967) where cavemen were believed to be responsible in
its instigation. Overall, animation has progressed significantly from the initial
development of moving images, the technology of cel animation (traditional
hand-drawn animation) to fully digitally produced 3D animation. The nature of
animation, being similar to those of other television and film content, is that they
carry themes and styles which are mostly originated from fantasy and folklore as
well as the artistic trend of the respective time the animation was created (Halas &
Manvell, 1959:29).
The routes of animated film can be observed through four major stages (Halas
& Manvell, 1959:13):
• The initial period of trick-work and magic.
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Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia / Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
• The period of the establishment of the cartoon as a sideline to commercial
entertainment (1920s).
• The period of technical experiment and of the development of animation in
the form of full length feature entertainment (1930s and 1940s).
• The contemporary period during which people see considerable expansion
to the animated film into every kind of use from the television commercial
to the highly specialised instructional film.
The process of producing animation has significantly changed with the advancement
in computer technology. The reduction of needed physical effort as a result of
computer-related breakthroughs has affected the quality and speed of producing
animation. Fine details and complex visual effects have successfully been integrated
at economical and time-efficient speed.
Another jump which should be taken into consideration is the introduction
of 3D visual technology. Images which was previously limited to 2-dimensional
views of the x and y axis have seen an addition of a z axis representing the third and
newest dimension. The technology was used in various fields and finally introduced
in animation through the first ever CGI-animation series ReBoot in 1994 followed
by the first 3D in 1998, Toy Story.
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS IN ANIMATION
The evidence of cultural existence lies in everyday practices of people from every
corner of the world. The language people speak, faith put on to religions, gambling
in Las Vegas and eating different food are only minor examples of cultural reflection.
People are not born knowing what to do with their lives. They learn through
messages communicated to them which bear the stamp of culture (Samovar &
Porter, 2001).
The definition of culture is difficult to define because culture is ubiquitous,
multidimensional, complex and all-pervasive (Samovar & Porter, 2001). The reality
of culture is a very complex term. Different people have defined culture differently
but all share one detail in common which states that culture is ‘learned’. In terms
of substantiality, culture has been maintained throughout specific means i.e. food,
traditional clothing, religion. Elsewhere, it gets difficult to identify.
In order to identify the cultural origins in animation films and series, one has
to observe the source location of where or for whom an animation is produced
and cross-reference the characteristics of the animation with its local culture. This
approach is similar to the works found in Stephenson (1967), Wells (1998), Napier
(2001) and Poitras (1999) and many others.
DEFINITION OF ANIMATION
Animation comes in various forms. They exist in live-action films, advertisements,
corporate videos, video games and also fully animated films and television series.
Animation may also appear in the form of moving text, objects, drawings and
computer generated images. As suggested by Greenberg (2011), who constructed
a theoretical definition of animation, the definition of animation has become less
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Understanding Culture through Animation: From the World to Malaysia
clear over the years because of the changes that have occurred in terms of how
animation is used.
Stephenson (1967:13) suggested a loose definition of animation in one of
the earliest attempts to study the nature of animation. He explained the general
acceptance towards the definition of animation films as being created on a frame-byframe basis. This definition is similar to the suggestion of Wells (1998:10) in which
Wells suggested that animation was more of a hand rather than a photographic job
but maintained the frame-by-frame approach. This article undertakes the working
definition of animation as fully animated films and television series and excludes
those contained within other forms of media content such as corporate videos,
video games or advertisements.
DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMATION
At the 1962 Annecy Festival, French researcher Madam Prudhommeau revealed a
sequence of separate cave drawings through a film strip. The result showed a bison
falling off into a pit and captured by a cavemen. These illustrations originated from
cave drawings during the Palaeolithic age (Stephenson, 1967: 24).
The earliest transfer from still representations to visible moving images can
be observed through the invention of the thaumatrope by physician John Ayrton
Paris in 1825 (Jamalludin & Zaidatun, 2005: 6). The thaumatrope was developed as
an entertainment device which demonstrates how two still images, separated on
opposite sides of the same disc, form a persistence of vision by twirling the strings
in a synchronized and parallel movement.
In 1830 at the same time albeit in different places, Joseph Plateau and Simon
Stampfer invented another device using the idea of persistence of vision. The spindle
viewer known as the phenakistoscope, meaning ‘deceptive view’ in Greek, is a toy
which utilizes a disc which contains a series of continuous images with specific cuts
in-between each image. A metal rod is then placed in the middle to enable the disc
to be rotated in front of a mirror (Jamalludin & Zaidatun, 2005: 7-8).
Not long after the phenakistoscope, a new invention was introduced by William
Horner in England. Initially called the Daedalum (wheel of the devil), the device
works based on the same principles as the phenakistoscope. The difference mainly
lays on its mechanics where a series of images is placed within a metal drum with
cuts around the device. From the holes of the cuts produced, viewers are able to view
the images being animated when the drums are rotated. The animation becomes
more clear and smooth as the drums rotate faster. Although invented in 1834, it
was not until the 1960s that the device gained the more familiar name of zoetrope
(Jamalludin & Zaidatun, 2005: 9).
Unlike other previous devices, the technique developed and patented John
Barnes Linnett in 1968 did not utilise or created any specific devices. Kineograph,
or commonly known as flip book, operates with a series of continuous drawings
compiled in the form of a book. The concept and idea of the flip book is still highly
relevant to modern day animation. The main difference lays in the mechanism used
to ‘flip’ pages. With development of computer hardware and software, animators
spend less time on hand-drawings and can focus more on other details of producing
an animation.
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Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia / Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
The development of new animation techniques seemed to slow down after
the zoetrope. It took 43 years for the world to be introduced to the praxinoscope.
In 1877, Charles Emile Reynaud combined the principles of the zoetrope and
phenakistoscope by placing a series of images on the outside part of a cylinder
and a set of mirrors with the same quantity of the images placed within the inside
diameter of the device. When the cylinder is rotated, the reflection of the images
will be visibly animated. Vision can be enhanced by placing a candle to brighten
the inside area of the device (Jamalludin & Zaidatun, 2005:9-10). The praxinoscope
was noted as a dead end towards the development of early animation techniques
although it was considered to be the invention that originated the animation genre
(Stephenson, 1967; Wells, 1998).
Development of animation has spurred mainly in two countries, the United
States and Japan. Animations from these countries have grown into mature industries
leading to multi-million dollar corporations such as Walt Disney Animation Studio,
Pixar, Studio Ghibli and Toei Animation (animation studios in Japan are commonly
known as anime studios). Japan and the United States have led the way and inspired
the development of animation in other countries. With increased capabilities in
hardware and software technology, other countries have slowly grown to become
minor competitors. Although their capabilities might not be enough to overturn the
industries of Japan and the United States, animations from the rest of the world do
own their respective animation history with some highly visible in terms of their
geographical origins.
Development of animation in other countries did occur albeit at a slower rate
with several countries producing notable and marketable animation such as Timmy
Time (UK), Totally Spies (France) and Pororo the Little Penguin (South Korea). The next
segment further explores the characteristics of animation in the United States, Japan,
Malaysia and the rest of the world in order to obtain a general picture of what has
been studied and understood thus far.
AMERICAN CARTOONS
Early American Cartoons come into view between 1909 and 1920 originating from
comic strips during World War I (Halas & Manvell, 1959). With comic strips being a
sequential series of drawings, it also serves as an inspiration in putting ‘movement’
into the characters and objects within the strips. It was not long after the beginning
of comic strip-to-cartoon migration for the world renowned Mickey Mouse (initially
known as Mortimer) to be introduced by Walt Disney in 1927.
Wells (1998) studied the disposition of American cartoons especially Disney
animation particularly the styles, approaches and themes which existed in American
cartoons. He observed how logic was used i.e. the bending of time and space, air
levitation, defiance of gravity etc. Physically, American cartoons portrayed action
which was impossible to achieve in neither live-action films nor the real world.
ANIME
The Japanese are commonly known for their hard work, creativity, and richness
of culture. Although advanced in terms of science and technology, they have not
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Understanding Culture through Animation: From the World to Malaysia
disregarded their cultural roots which are still visible to the world through the
electronic media specifically anime, television series and film. Ultraman, Naruto,
Doraemon, Kamen Rider, and Ju-On are among the titles which would be familiar
to a number of audiences around the world. Anime, in particular, have become a
new and popular culture which has contributed in introducing Japan to the world
and has also become a sub-culture in the United States (Napier, 2004:4). Anime has
also been globally accepted as part of a worldwide media content consumption.
Ruh (2004) further explained how prominent anime filmmaker Mamoru Oshii
(known for his anime film Ghost in the Shell) prioritizes the Japanese audience over
foreign audiences in the process of producing anime. Oshii stressed that his films
must cater to the local audience before seeking recognition of others. This partially
signals a possibility that one does not need to create anime exclusively based
on global needs and neglecting the needs of local audiences in order to succeed
internationally.
To a certain extent, the Japanese have developed their animation as part of a
popular culture and a powerful business potential. Physically, one can normally
identify the origins of an animation just by looking at it. This comes as a result of
established stereotypes towards the physical appearance of an animation. Poitras
(1999) made an attempt to understand the Japanese community and belongings
within anime. He classified categories relevant to his findings with each category
listing items in alphabetical order. His effort was made by observing English-subbed
anime broadcasted in the United States. Poitras also suggested the difference
between American cartoons and anime by suggesting the complex storylines and
various genres available through anime. A mention of the word ‘Naruto’ and
most kids would immediately identify a young blond-haired ninja boy who has
the powers of the nine-tailed fox within himself, dressed in his orange jump-suit,
a metal headband with a leaf symbol and has special moves such as the Rasengan
and Shadow Clone Jutsu. The attraction of Japanese animation or better known
as anime towards children and even adults have led to the popularity of past and
present titles and formed a popular culture that defines the Japanese in the eyes
of the world.
Napier (2001) identified anime as a product of Japanese popular culture which is
exported to a large part of the world. It was not easy to get to where anime is standing
now, but it has to start somewhere. Previously, anime was overshadowed by Japanese
live-action cinema. With initially a limited scope of children’s entertainment, anime
grew to be consumed by adults as well making its way through corners of the world
by offering a wide variety of genre which caters to various interests i.e. Slam Dunk
(sports), Yakitate Japan (bread-making), La Corda D’oro Prima Passo (romance) and
Dragonball (fighting).
Anime’s presence in Asia is not a recent phenomenon and it is also slowly
finding an appreciative audience in the West. Beginning with the release of Ootomo
Katsushiro’s hugely popular animation film Akira (1988), the quality and attraction
of “Japanimation” is gradually being acknowledged by the American market
(Iwabuchi 2002; Gin & Umi Khattab 2008).
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Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia / Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
ANIMATION IN REST OF THE WORLD
Studies on animation of countries around the world have been made by Stephenson
(1967). Stephenson described the nature of animation in the United States, Canada,
Britain, France, Italy, Germany, and Japan (note that the Japanese animation
industry was not yet matured during the time). He discussed the technology,
techniques involved, and the history of how animation films took place in their
respective countries. Stephenson highly descriptive and historical study can be
seen as a documented history on major animation industries of the world at the
instance the book was issued. Although Stephenson did not specifically observe
the characteristics of animation of these nations, he did briefly elaborate their traits.
Giammarco (2005) suggested the influence of American and Japanese animation
on the history of South Korean animation. It began with an animation titled Gaeggum
which ignited the beginning of Korean animation and also the dawn of an iconic
Korean character similar to the effects Mickey Mouse had on Americans. Gaeggum
demonstrated an inspiration of using an anthropomorphic form of a dog which was
similar to Mickey Mouse.
Other aspects of animation have been studied as well. Davenport & Gunn
(2009) explored the interest of animation art through workshops they organized
in Estipac, Mexico. The effort was aimed at fostering creativity among pastoral
adolescence in Mexico by encouraging animation production as a visual art rather
than concentrating on its historical content, plots or story.
ANIMATION IN MALAYSIA
In Malaysia, locally produced animation series are still in the process of growth.
The development of technology in computing and multimedia has allowed creative
content developers the space to be creative and assist in developing the industry
towards maturity and global acceptance. However, most of the animation titles
which have been aired in Malaysia up to date have either been from the United
States or Japan.
According to Hassan (2003) animation in Malaysia began in 1946 through
the establishment of the Malayan Film Unit (currently known as Filem Negara).
Animation was limited to moving text and objects back then rather than referring to
television series and film. The first animated film to appear was Hikayat Sang Kancil,
a short film produced by Anandam Xavier in 1978. A few titles followed shortly
after with the appearance of Sang Kancil & Monyet, Sang Kancil & Buaya, Gagak Yang
Bijak, Arnab Yang Sombong and Singa Yang Haloba which ranged from 1984 to 1987.
The growth and development of animation appears to have slowed down
from 1987 to 1994 (if the Anandam Xavier’s work is considered as series rather
than individual titles) and from 1996 to 2007 in terms of quantity of animation
produced and its popularity although this statement may need further research
and verification. Take note that the catalyst behind the resurgences is the Malaysian
government.
The first gap seemed to begin from 1987 during the end of Anandam Xavier’s
work to 1995 when Kharisma Production produced the first animated television
series in Malaysia under the direction of Kamn Ismail entitled Usop Sontorian. The
sudden surge was a by-product of the government’s push for the use of digital
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Understanding Culture through Animation: From the World to Malaysia
technology (Hassan, 2003). In-between the gap, animation have appeared in
other forms especially text and advertisements. Animation produced at the time
were brief and only used as a minor element to enhance the attraction of films or
advertisements.
The second gap occurs as a result of the lack of printed information on
Malaysian animation. After the broadcast of Usop Sontorian, a number of animation
series have appeared i.e. Keluang Man, Yokies, Anak-anak Sidek etc. However, with the
Malaysian economic crisis appearing in 1998, it seemed to be a factor to consider
on why animation production has slowed down.
Upin & Ipin took place in the tubes in 2007 with the support from the Ministry
of Technology, Water and Communication (now replaced by the Ministry of
Energy, Green Technology and Water), Ministry of Science and Technology and
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia. Seeing the potential of creative digital content
(as demonstrated by Upin & Ipin, video games and animated advertisements), the
government has set up a support program called the MSC Malaysia Animation and
Creative Content Centre to provide funding and technological resources (www.
mscmalaysia.my/topic/MAC3). A total of RM750 million has been allocated for
this purpose and is made available to developers of video games, visual effects
and animation.
With animation from Japan and the United States flooding television channels in
Malaysia, one can actually observe that these animations come as cultural products
which are different to the values upheld by Malaysians. Watching the routines and
behaviour of Upin and Ipin on television may leave one with a proud impression of
the advancement of Malaysian animation. Malaysians who have grown up watching
Mickey Mouse and Dragonball may find the emergence of local animation content
as refreshing to the eyes. As Upin & Ipin portrayed a more local environment, it
provides an idea to various characteristics that defines the country that we live in. It
all started with the initiative of Usop Sontorian, the first locally produced animation
for the Malaysian market. The effort by cartoonist Ujang and director Kamn Ismail
under Kharisma Production was the starting point to the local animation titles we
see today with Upin & Ipin and Boboi Boy leading the way.
Similar to other animation industries in the world, Malaysian animation is
largely influenced by American and Japanese animation. The initial influence of
anime on Malaysian animation can be seen through the farming out of ink and
paint work in 1985 to Lensafilm, a Malaysian commercial film studio (Hassan, 2003).
This eventually led to the training of Malaysian personnel in Toei Animation, Japan
which in turn influenced some physical aspects of Malaysian animation.
Hassan (2004: 7–8) described how a number of student animation projects
reflected the identity of Malaysia’s various races and heritage. According to him,
there is no distinctive animation trend in Malaysia that can be considered unique
or having a local identity (Hassan, 2008). Hassan also did not specifically mention
the cultural characteristics contained within Malaysian animation. Hence, it would
be a strong justification towards studying how culture is portrayed in Malaysian
animation.
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Jurnal Pengajian Media Malaysia / Malaysian Journal of Media Studies
CONCLUSION
In most (if not all) animation, culture is reflected through different means. Some
are reflected by the physical appearance of characters, some are reflected with the
objects within the animation and even the language they speak. Since the beginning
of animation, people have used what they understand and comprehend around them
to develop plots and storylines. A number of researchers have studied animation
as an exclusive academic field. However, the study of animation content can do
better with increased quantity. Animation is on the rise and may well continue to
do so in the near future. It is a global trend in which if better understood, the more
benefits we can reap out of animation. Animation can become a powerful business
tool but importantly as well is the fact than the culture and identity of a nation can
be shared through its lenses.
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