Essentials of Organizational Behavior
Fourteenth Edition
Chapter 7
Motivation Concepts
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After studying this chapter you should be
able to:
1. Describe the three key elements of motivation.
2. Compare the early theories of motivation.
3. Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and
goal-setting theory.
4. Demonstrate the differences between self-efficacy theory,
reinforcement theory, equity theory, and expectancy
theory.
5. Identify the implications of employee job engagement for
managers.
6. Describe how the contemporary theories of motivation
complement one another.
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What Is Motivation?
• Motivation: The processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of
effort toward attaining an organizational goal
– Intensity: the amount of effort put forth to meet the goal
– Direction: efforts are channeled toward organizational
goals
– Persistence: how long the effort is maintained
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Early Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene)
Theory
• McClellan’s Theory of Needs (Three Needs
Theory)
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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1 of 2)
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Two-Factor Theory
Dissatisfied
Satisfied
• Quality of
supervision
• Pay
• Company policies
• Physical working
conditions
• Relationships
• Job security
• Promotional
opportunities
• Opportunities for
personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
Motivation Factors
Hygiene Factors
Not Dissatisfied
Not Satisfied
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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (2 of 2)
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McClelland's Theory of Needs
• Need for Achievement (nAch)
– The drive to excel
• Need for Power (nPow)
– The need to make others behave in a way they would
not have behaved otherwise
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
– The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
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McClelland's High Achievers
• High achievers prefer jobs with:
– Personal responsibility
– Feedback
– Intermediate degree of risk (50/50)
• High achievers are not necessarily good
managers
• High nPow and low nAff is
related to managerial success
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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Self-Determination Theory
• Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives
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Self-Determination Theory
• Self-determination theory: People prefer to have
control over their actions so when they feel they
are forced to do something they previously
enjoyed, motivation will decrease
– Cognitive evaluation theory: Proposes that the
introduction of extrinsic rewards for work (pay) that was
previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease
overall motivation
– Self-concordance: Considers how strongly people’s
reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their
interests and core values
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Goal-Setting Theory
• Goals increase performance when goals are:
– Specific
– Difficult, but accepted by employees
– Accompanied by feedback: self-generated feedback is
best
• Contingencies in goal-setting theory
– Goal commitment: public goals better
– Task characteristics: simple and familiar is better
– National culture: Western culture suits best
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Management by Objectives
• Management by objectives (MBO): Converts
overall organizational objectives into specific
objectives for work units and individuals
• Common ingredients:
–
–
–
–
Goal specificity
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
Participation in decision making
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Cascading of Objectives
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Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
• Self-Efficacy Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
• Equity Theory
– Organizational Justice
• Expectancy Theory
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Self-Efficacy Theory (1 of 2)
• Self-efficacy theory: An individual’s belief that he
or she is capable of performing a task
– Also known as social cognitive theory or social learning
theory
• Self-efficacy increased by:
1. Enactive mastery: gain experience
2. Vicarious modeling: see someone else do the task
3. Verbal persuasion: someone convinces you that you
have the skills
4. Arousal: get energized
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Self-Efficacy Theory (2 of 2)
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Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement theory: Behavior is a function of
consequences
– Operant conditioning theory
▪ Behaviorism
– Social- learning theory and reinforcement
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Equity Theory (1 of 2)
• Equity theory: Employees weigh what they put
into a job situation (input) against what they get
from it (outcome)
– They compare their input-outcome ratio with the inputoutcome ratio of relevant others
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Equity Theory (2 of 2)
• Equity theory suggests employees who perceive
inequity will make one of six choices:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Change inputs
Change outcomes
Distort perceptions of self
Distort perceptions of others
Choose a different referent
Leave the field
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Model of Organizational Justice
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Expectancy Theory (1 of 2)
• Three key relationships:
1. Effort-performance: perceived probability that
exerting effort leads to successful performance
2. Performance-reward: the belief that successful
performance leads to desired outcome
3. Rewards-personal goals: the attractiveness of
organizational outcome (reward) to the individual
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Expectancy Theory (2 of 2)
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Job Engagement
• Job Engagement: The investment of an
employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional
energies into job performance
• Organizations where employees are highly
engaged have:
– Higher levels of productivity
– Fewer safety incidents
– Lower turnover
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Integrating Theories
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Implications for Managers
• Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as
coercive, but instead provide information about competence and
relatedness.
• Consider goal-setting theory. Clear and difficult goals often lead
to higher levels of employee productivity.
• Consider reinforcement theory regarding quality and quantity of
work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, and accident rates.
• Consult equity theory to help understand productivity,
satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables.
• Expectancy theory offers a powerful explanation of performance
variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and
turnover.
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