HCCC Social Construction of Race and Gender Paper

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Hudson County Community College

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Visit the US Census site (www.census.gov (Links to an external site.)) and find national demographic data to include the following: Race/ethnicity, Gender, Median Income, and Poverty Rate

  1. Construct two tables to demonstrate the relationship between those variables. See templates below.
  2. Explain the data found and posted in each table using all four sociological theories
  3. Using the sociological imagination, explain how those gaps were constructed
  4. What role did some social institutions play in the construction of these gaps?
  5. What is the role of social structure and culture in this reality?
  6. Should the status quo change? Why? And what would the change look like? How would change be achieved?

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Lecture 6 UNIT 6: Social Construction of Gender and Race By Nabil Marshood In this lecture, the focus will center on the following important topics: 1. The social meaning of gender and its social construction 2. The social meaning of race and ethnicity and their social construction 3. Intersection of race, gender and class The discussion will highlight the sociological notion that race, gender and class are socially constructed and serve as principles of social organization. That is to say, although those conditions are grounded in biological reality, and although people don’t choose any of them, society creates ideas, ideologies and behavioral guidelines for people to follow. If you were born to white parents, for example, your social standing and opportunities differ significantly from those born to black parents. The same is true for sex and gender. Although these are biological realities, boys and men have different positions and opportunities from girls and women. Some may argue that these ideas are old fashion and don’t apply to their personal reality. Consider the reality of race and gender at a macro level and examine the role of culture and social structure including institutions like family, religion, education, government and economy, to name only a few, in the construction of structural divisions between racial and gender groups, and in the behavioral norms and guidelines relevant to the interactions between those groups. Let’s clarify the terminology relevant to this topic: Race: The term, race, refers to a group of people who share common biological features. The main obvious attributes include skin color and hair texture. The distinction between black and white people, for example, is grounded in racial differences. The term race is a biological, natural term. People did not choose their color but they are treated differently according to the social meaning of that color. It is important to note that race does not determine intelligence or behavior, and that there no such thing as a pure race. Given these facts, why then is race important and why does it influence human behavior. The answer lies in the social meaning of race. Ethnicity: The term, ethnicity, refers to a group of people who share a common heritage such as language, national origin, and religion. The term Hispanic, for example, refers to an ethnic group. Some Hispanics are racially black, others are racially white and others are brown, but ethnically, they all share a common language and a national region. Others examples include Jewish (religion), Muslims (religion), Asians (National region), African –Americans, Irish Americans, and the like. Here again, as it is the case with race, those conditions are not chosen by individuals, but society has placed each category in a specific ranking system in society. Different ethnic groups are treated differently according to the social meaning of each ethnic group. Copyright © 2019 by Nabil Marshood Racism refers to the belief that one racial group is superior and others are inferior. Note the significance of the term belief in the definition. Discrimination refers to the acts and differential treatments of individuals or groups on the basis of their race or ethnicity. Different forms of discrimination have occurred throughout history including unequal treatment in hiring, housing, criminal behavior, education, and more Prejudice refers to feelings, thoughts and attitudes one holds towards individuals or groups of a certain racial or ethnic group Sex refers to the biological differences between male and female. This term has been historically treated as a binary concept. With the new forms of open sexual experiences including the LGBTQ community, society is experiencing a paradigm shift in the conception of the term sex. Sexuality is now considered a fluid term with open variations. Gender refers to the social attributes attached to different sex categories. This is a social construct that determines positions, roles and opportunities for different sex groups. For example, traditional families are more likely to have a clear gender forms of socialization and gender roles. The feminist movement has made a significant contribution in this matter. They argue that roles should not be associated with sex. That is to say, cleaning the house, for example, should not be reserved for women alone. Both men and women can perform this task. Sexism: The belief that one sex is superior to the other. Patriarchy: Male dominated social system Minority Group and Majority Group: These terms take on different definitions and could be interpreted in a variety of ways. To clarify, note the following definitions: 1. Numerical definition: According to this definition, groups are distinguished based on the size of each group in society. Since the white population makes over 65% of the total US population, they constitute the majority. 2. Sociopolitical definition: According to this definition, size does not matter. It is power that makes the difference. Groups that hold most power in society are the majority. They are also referred to as the dominant groups. They hold high positions in government, the economy, education, health and more. They are the decision makers. The minority, is a group that has less power. It is also referred to as the subordinate group. In this context, the term minority is derived from the word Minor, implying that minority groups are not mature enough to make their own decisions, and are expected to be subordinate to the majority. 3. Legal definition: According to the US Affirmative Action Law, the following groups are designated and treated as minorities. The list includes African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian-Americans, Native-Americans, and Women. Throughout this discussion, it has become distinctively clear that power is the most important ingredient in the construction of group status in society and the treatment it receives. This power structure is also responsible for regulating the position of racial/ethnic groups and the interaction between them, thus creating a ranking racial and gender systems. It is those issues that invoke strong reactions from minority groups. They experience oppression and social injustice. Copyright © 2019 by Nabil Marshood The majority could work to integrate or segregate any given group at any time. History teaches us that genocide and expulsions were practiced by the majority against targeted groups. History also teaches us that some forms of integration have been introduced and that some societies are becoming more tolerant of diversity. Given these notes, and as you read and study the required and recommended readings, consider some of the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What is your reaction to the data? And, what questions do you have about this topic? What are some of the structural conditions that contribute to this reality? What does it take to create conditions of social equality and justice? What can minority groups do to improve their condition in society? What can the majority do to improve the social reality for all? Use the various sociological theories to explain the gaps between minority and majority groups. What are the chances for minority groups to achieve the so-called “American Dream”? How do your race and gender impact your decisions and choices that you make in areas of education, occupation, marriage and relationships, raising children and all other spheres of life? Required Reading: Textbook – Chapters 1, 2, 8, 9 Conley, D. (2019). You May Ask Yourself (6th Ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Recommended Reading US Census Bureau, www.census.gov Cornel West, Race Matters Edward Said, Orientalism Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness Candace West and Don Zimmerman, Doing Gender https://www.gla.ac.uk/0t4/crcees/files/summerschool/readings/WestZimmerman_198 7_DoingGender.pdf Copyright © 2019 by Nabil Marshood Chapter 9 Race Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • Race as we know it has no deterministic biological basis: but nonetheless, race is so powerful that it can have lifeor-death consequences. • Click here to see the paradox animation: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 The Myth of Race Slide 1 of 2 Race can be defined as a group of people who share a set of characteristics—usually physical ones—and are said to share a common bloodline. Racism is the belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal human traits. The Myth of Race Slide 2 of 2 • Race is a social construction that changes over time and across different contexts. The Concept of Race Slide 1 of 6 Many historical efforts to explain race were biased due to ethnocentrism (the judgment of other groups by one’s own standards and values). The Concept of Race Slide 2 of 6 Social Darwinism, another nineteenth-century theory, was the notion that some groups or races had evolved more than others and thus were better fit to survive and even to rule other races. The Concept of Race Slide 3 of 6 Backers of eugenics (the science of genetic lines and the inheritable traits they pass on from generation to generation) claimed that traits could be traced through bloodlines and bred into populations (for positive traits) or out of them (for negative traits). The Concept of Race Slide 4 of 6 The one-drop rule, which evolved from US laws forbidding miscegenation, was the belief that “one drop” of black blood makes a person black. Application of this rule was intended to keep the white population “pure” and lumped anyone with black blood into one category. The Concept of Race Slide 5 of 6 Miscegenation is the technical term for a multiracial marriage. The Concept of Race Slide 6 of 6 • Today DNA testing is used to determine people’s racial makeup, and while this process may be more accurate on some level than nineteenth-century racial measures, it still supports the notion of fixed, biological, racial differences. Racial Realities • Racialization is the formation of a new racial identity, in which new ideological boundaries of difference are drawn around a formerly unnoticed group of people. Jen’nan Read Interview • Jen’nan Read discusses her research on the experience of Muslims in the United States. • Click here to watch her interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Discussion Question 1 As the saying goes, “You can’t judge a book by its cover.” How do eugenics and physiognomy contradict this saying (in regard to people)? Are the principles behind these pseudosciences still with us today? If so, in what capacity? Race versus Ethnicity Slide 1 of 2 Race is imposed (usually based on physical differences), hierarchical, exclusive, and unequal. Ethnicity is voluntary, self-defined, nonhierarchical, fluid, cultural, and not as closely linked with power differences. An ethnic identity becomes racialized when it is subsumed under a forced label, racial marker, or “otherness.” Race versus Ethnicity Slide 2 of 2 • Symbolic ethnicity is ethnicity that is individualistic in nature and without real social cost for the individual. Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 1 of 5 Native Americans • Today, people claiming at least some Native American ancestry number about 5.6 million. • Only about one-fifth of Native Americans live in a designated American Indian area. • Native Americans rank among the worst in terms of highschool dropout rates and unemployment, which go hand in hand with poor health outcomes such as alcoholism, suicide, and premature death. Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 2 of 5 African Americans • Today about 12.7 percent of the American population is black. • The median income of African Americans as a group is roughly 62.8 percent that of whites. • Among men ages 25 to 39, blacks are imprisoned 2.5 times and 6 times as often as Hispanics and whites, respectively. • Sociologists today are beginning to study how new black immigrants are fracturing the holistic conception of “African American.” Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 3 of 5 Latinos • Latino, like the term Hispanic (the two are often used interchangeably), refers to a diverse group of people of Latin or Hispanic origin. • In 2012 Latinos made up approximately 17 percent of the population. • In 2013, the majority of Latinos in the United States were from Mexico (about 63.2%), Puerto Rico (about 9.5%), Cuba (3.9%), and the Dominican Republic (3.3%). Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 4 of 5 Asian Americans • The term Asian American is very broad, encompassing diverse and sometimes clashing peoples from China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia. • Asian Americans are unique among ethnic minorities because of their high average socioeconomic status, surpassing that of most other ethnic minorities as well as most whites in terms of educational attainment. Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 5 of 5 Middle Eastern Americans • Middle Easterners come from places as diverse as the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, Iran, Iraq, and the Palestinian territories. • Today about 2 million Americans report Arab ancestry, and even more Americans have a Middle Eastern heritage, because not all Middle Easterners are Arab. • Widespread misunderstandings about Middle Easterners derive, in part, from their negative stereotyping in the mainstream media. The Importance of Being White “White” is a flexible label that has expanded over time to include many formerly nonwhite groups such as Jews, Irish, and Italians. Peggy McIntosh argues that whiteness is an “invisible knapsack of privileges” that puts white people at an advantage, just as racism places nonwhites at a disadvantage. Discussion Question 2 According to author Nell Irvin Painter, “The foundation of white identity is that there isn’t any. You’re just an individual.” How does this illustrate the uniqueness of “white” as a racial category? Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 1 of 5 Robert Park’s concept of straight-line assimilation offered a universal and linear model for how immigrants assimilate. Milton Gordon’s alternative model suggests that immigrant populations pass through (or stall in) seven stages of assimilation. Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 2 of 5 Pluralism, in the context of race and ethnicity, refers to the presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society, with no one group being in the majority. Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 3 of 5 Segregation is the legal or social practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnicity. • Segregation was the official policy in the United States, particularly in the South, until the 1960s. • Although it has been illegal for over 40 years, there is still ample evidence of segregation in American society today, particularly in schools, housing, and prisons. Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 4 of 5 Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 5 of 5 The final paradigm of race relations is conflict relations, when antagonistic groups within a society live integrated in the same neighborhoods, hold the same jobs, and go to the same schools. Genocide is the mass killing of a group of people based on racial, ethnic, or religious traits. Group Responses to Domination Four ways in which groups respond to oppression are withdrawal, passing, acceptance, and resistance. Prejudice and Discrimination Slide 1 of 2 Prejudice refers to negative thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group. Discrimination refers to harmful or negative acts against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category. Prejudice and Discrimination Slide 2 of 2 As overt racism declines, scholars are beginning to find traces of a new kind of racism gaining ground. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva calls this color-blind racism. • This new kind of racism replaces biology with culture and presumes that there is something fixed, innate, and inferior about nonwhite cultural values. How Race Matters: The Case of Wealth Slide 1 of 2 Equity inequality captures the historical disadvantage of minority groups and the way those disadvantages accrue over time. Average household net worth in 2016 • African Americans: $17,100 • Latinos: $20,600 • Whites: $171,000 How Race Matters: The Case of Wealth Slide 2 of 2 Institutional racism refers to institutions and social dynamics that may seem race neutral but actually disadvantage minority groups. The Future of Race Slide 1 of 2 • For the first time ever, the 2000 Census allowed respondents to check off more than one box for racial identity. • About 9 million self-identified as multiracial by checking more than one race box in 2010. The Future of Race Slide 2 of 2 Jennifer Lee Interview • Jennifer Lee explains how sociologists think about race and describes the differences between race and ethnicity. • Click here to watch her interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 Ethnocentrism is a) the notion that ethnic ties are fixed in a deeply felt connection to one’s homeland culture. b) the idea that we should recognize differences across cultures without passing judgment on, or assigning value to, those differences. c) the judgment of other groups by one’s own standards and values. d) the adoption of a symbolic ethnicity for certain holidays or cultural events. Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 How was the one-drop rule related to laws forbidding miscegenation in the United States? a) The one-drop rule reinforced antimiscegenation laws because any offspring of a mixed-race union would be categorized as black. b) The one-drop rule was a precursor to formal laws forbidding miscegenation. c) When antimiscegenation laws were struck down in the courts, the one-drop rule was an informal way of enforcing the same policy. d) all of the above Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 A pluralistic society is one in which a) numerous distinct cultures engage and coexist peacefully within one large sociocultural framework. b) numerous distinct cultures live within the same political boundaries but do not interact. c) numerous distinct cultures live within the same political boundaries but may experience great tension and inequality. d) numerous distinct cultures vie for power and domination within one large sociocultural framework. Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 __________ is the least explored, and perhaps the most striking, of the disparities in social outcomes between blacks and whites in the United States. a) Income disparity b) The high incarceration rate among blacks c) The wealth gap d) The difference in educational attainment Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 The “new racism” couches its rhetoric in terms of __________ between groups rather than __________. a) religious differences; intellectual differences b) learned differences; innate differences c) behavioral differences; physical differences d) cultural differences; physical differences Discussion Questions 1. Have the four forms of minority–majority group relations been prevalent in the United States? 2. How have minority groups in the United States responded to racial domination? 3. What do you think is the future of race and ethnicity in the United States? Sociology on the Street Decades after real estate segregation (or “redlining”) became illegal, many Americans still live in communities that are highly segregated by race and/or socioeconomic status. How does unofficial segregation occur? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 9 Race For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 43 Chapter 8 Gender Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • How do we investigate inequality between men and women without reinforcing binary thinking about gender? • Watch the animated short about the gender paradox at: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Sex, Sexuality, and Gender Sex refers to the perceived biological differences that society typically uses to distinguish males from females. Gender denotes a social position—namely, the set of social arrangements built around normative sex categories. Sexuality refers to desire, sexual preference, sexual identity, and behavior. Sex: A Process in the Making The study of gender boils down to seeing how nature and nurture overlap and shape each other. Essentialist arguments explain social phenomena in terms of natural, biological, or evolutionary inevitabilities. In contrast, sociologists think of the nature-behavior relationship as a two-way street. Gender: What Does It Take to Be Masculine or Feminine? Slide 1 of 3 • We acquire our gender identity through socialization. • Rigid boundaries are imposed to maintain a gender order. • But if we look at how gender systems vary, we can expose those boundaries as social constructions. Gender: What Does It Take to Be Masculine or Feminine? Slide 2 of 3 Not all cultures have a binary gender configuration. • In Navajo tribes, there are not two but three genders: masculine men, feminine women, and the nadle. The growing social awareness of transgender people in our own society helps us break out of binary thinking about gender, since we tend to assume everyone is cisgender. Gender: What Does It Take to Be Masculine or Feminine? Slide 3 of 3 Gender differences vary over time as well. Ideals about masculinity and femininity are historically contingent. Historical change in ideal feminine beauty is one example, but definitions of masculinity vary over time too. • Ideal masculinity in the 1700s went hand in hand with kindness and intellect, and even poetry. Discussion Question 1 What characteristics and traits are associated with ideal femininity and masculinity in contemporary society? Give examples. Amos Mac Interview • Amos Mac shares his experiences as a transgender man. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 1 of 9 • Feminism is a social movement to get people to understand that gender is an organizing principle in society and to address gender-based inequalities. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 2 of 9 At the start of the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1960s, theorists scrambled to find an answer to the “woman question”: • What explains the nearly universal dominance of men over women? • What is the root of patriarchy, a system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity? Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 3 of 9 Rubin’s sex/gender system challenged the assumption that because women’s subordination occurred everywhere it must be fulfilling some societal function. • Rubin argued that women are treated like valuable property whose trade patterns strengthen relations between families headed by men. • This sex/gender system is not natural, but a result of human interaction. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 4 of 9 According to Parson’s Sex Role Theory • men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives/mothers because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies, fulfilling the function of reproducing workers. This structural functionalist approach to gender • assumes gender differences exist to fulfill necessary societal functions. • doesn’t allow for the possibility that other structures could fulfill the same function or that structures change throughout history. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 5 of 9 Psychoanalytic theories of gender • focus on individualistic explanations for gender differences as opposed to societal ones. • support that there are natural differences between men and women that dictate how they behave. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 6 of 9 Conflict theories focus on power and argue that patriarchal capitalists benefit through systems that subordinate women. • Socialist feminists, also known as radical feminists, argue that the root of all social relations, including relations of production, stemmed from unequal gender relations. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 7 of 9 Interactionist theories focus on “doing gender.” • West and Zimmerman argue that gender is not a fixed identity or role that we take with us into our interactions. Rather, it is the product of those interactions. • To be a man or a woman is to perform masculinity or femininity constantly. • In this social constructionist theory, gender is a process, not a static category. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 8 of 9 Black feminism points out the importance of intersectionality. • This is the idea that the identities surrounding gender, sex, and sexuality intersect with other meaningful social categories like race or class. • Patricia Hill Collins identified the matrix of domination, which highlights how black women face unique oppressions that white women don’t. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 9 of 9 Postmodern theorists question the whole notion of “woman” as a separate, stable category and the value and appropriateness of Western scholars applying their cultural logic to the study of non-Western societies. Discussion Question 2 Which theory of gender inequality do you find most convincing and which least convincing? Why? Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 1 of 4 What accounts for the wide range of statistical differences between men and women? Essentialists refer to natural sex differences. But sociologists are apt to call these same differences “deceptive distinctions,” those that arise because of the particular roles individuals come to occupy. Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 2 of 4 Increase of Women in the Workforce, 1970-2016 Year Civiliarn labor force Civiliarn labor force (percent of population) (percent of population) male female 1970 80 20 1975 79 21 1980 78 22 1985 77 23 1990 76 24 1995 75 25 2000 74 26 2005 72 28 2010 70 30 2015 69 31 Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 3 of 4 Although legally entitled to enter all lines of work, women routinely face sexual harassment. Additionally, women have consistently been paid less than their male peers, earning about 81 cents to every $1 of a man’s wage. Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 4 of 4 The glass ceiling refers to an invisible limit on women’s climb up the occupational ladder. • Kanter argues this is due to a cultural conflation of authority with masculinity. The glass escalator refers to the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs. Ashley Mears Interview • Ashley Mears talks about gender inequality and the wage structure in the modeling industry. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Sociology in the Bedroom Slide 1 of 2 Much like gender differences, sexual practices vary across time and place, supporting the notion that sexuality is as much a social construct as gender. There is enormous variation in how humans have sex and what it means to them. Sociology in the Bedroom Slide 2 of 2 Homosexual, which refers to the social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and/or relations with people of the same sex, is a concept or identity that emerged in the midnineteenth century. Heteronormativity is the idea that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate. Paula England Interview • Paula England discusses her research on “hook-up” culture and romantic relationships among college students. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 _____ is what we as a society make of biological sex differences between males and females. a) Sexuality b) Gender c) Patriarchy d) Cisgender Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 _______ is a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity. a) Patriarchy b) Sexism c) Matriarchy d) Hegemonic masculinity Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 Michel Foucault argued that the development of homosexuality as a social identity was related to a) changes in the nineteenth century with regard to the notion of the ideal man. b) the development of scientific disciplines and a desire to monitor and categorize people and their behavior. c) the development of the field of psychoanalysis in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. d) society’s need to establish cohesion by identifying “others” who exhibit “deviant” behavior. Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 Sexual harassment is an illegal form of discrimination that can be manifested through ________, with the intent of making a person, usually a woman, feel uncomfortable or unsafe, particularly in a work setting. a) inappropriate jokes b) sexual assault c) requests for sexual favors d) all of the above Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 Women working in male-dominated professions often find that there are _____opportunities for advancement, and men working in female-dominated professions often advance _____ their female colleagues. a) limited; more slowly than b) limited; as quickly as c) ample; as quickly as d) limited; more quickly than Discussion Questions 1. What are some examples from your own life where you or those around you “perform” or “do” gender? 2. How would others react if you or someone you know suddenly stopped doing these things? Sociology on the Street Internet dating is a major resource for people looking for potential partners with a seemingly unlimited pool. What are the similarities and differences between dating online compared to dating in person? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 8 Gender For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 35 Chapter 1 The Sociological Imagination: An Introduction Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • A successful sociologist makes the familiar strange. • Click here to watch the paradox animation: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 What Is Sociology? • Sociology is the study of human society. The Sociological Imagination Slide 1 of 2 Sociological imagination, a term coined by C. Wright Mills, is a tool that helps us to • connect our personal experiences to society at large and to greater historical forces. • “make the familiar strange,” or question habits or customs that seem “natural” to us. The Sociological Imagination Slide 2 of 2 “Why go to college?” College graduates earn about $960,000 more over their lifetimes than those with only a high-school education. • If the benefits of college are due to the learning that takes place, why not do it on your own for free? • If it’s really about getting a “piece of paper” then why not print out a fake diploma? Asha Rangappa Interview • Asha Rangappa, the dean of admissions at Yale Law School, discusses the role that class plays in acceptance. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Discussion Question 1 • Why are you in college? • Did the people around you, including friends and family, expect you to go to college? Do you think this is the same for everyone? Why or why not? What Is a Social Institution? Slide 1 of 2 A social institution is a complex group of interdependent positions that, together, perform a social role and reproduce themselves over time. • The legal system • The labor market • The educational system • The military • The family What Is a Social Institution? Slide 2 of 2 A college is a social institution that • acts as gatekeeper to “legitimate” forms of education by deciding who can attend. • segregates great swaths of the population by age. • is a proprietary brand that is marketed on items like sweatshirts and through televised sporting events. • has an informal set of stories told within a social network of students, faculty, administrators, alumni, and so on. What Is Social Identity? Social identity is the way individuals define themselves in relation to groups of which they are a part (or in relation to groups of which they choose not to be a part). The History of Sociology Slide 1 of 3 Auguste Comte—the best way to understand society is by determining the logic or scientific laws governing human behavior, called social physics or positivism. Harriet Martineau—the first person to translate Comte’s written works into English, and one of the earliest feminist social scientists. The History of Sociology Slide 2 of 3 Karl Marx—proposed the theory of historical materialism, which identifies class conflict as the primary cause of social change. Max Weber—his emphasis on subjectivity became a foundation of interpretive sociology. The History of Sociology Slide 3 of 3 Émile Durkheim—the founder of positivist sociology; developed the theory that the division of labor helps to determine how social cohesion is maintained, or not maintained. Georg Simmel—proposed a formal sociology, or a sociology of pure numbers (for instance, how a group of two is different than a group of three). American Sociology Slide 1 of 2 Early American sociology became prominent at the University of Chicago. The “Chicago School” perspective focused on empirical research, with the belief that people’s behaviors and personalities are shaped by their social and physical environments. • Robert Park • Louis Wirth • George Herbert Mead • Charles Horton Cooley American Sociology Slide 2 of 2 W. E. B. Du Bois—the first African American to receive a PhD from Harvard and the first sociologist to undertake ethnography in the African American community. Jane Addams—founded Hull House, where the ideas of the Chicago School were put into practice and tested. Talcott Parsons—leading theorist of functionalism in the midtwentieth century. W. E. B. Du Bois Modern Sociological Theories Slide 1 of 3 Functionalism • the theory that various social institutions and processes in society exist to serve some important (or necessary) function to keep society running Conflict Theory • the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general Modern Sociological Theories Slide 2 of 3 Feminist theory • a catchall term for many theories with an emphasis on women’s experiences and a belief that sociology and society in general subordinate women Symbolic interactionism • a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people’s actions Modern Sociological Theories Slide 3 of 3 Postmodernism • a condition characterized by a questioning of the notion of progress and history, the replacement of narrative within pastiche, and multiple, perhaps even conflicting, identities resulting from disjointed affiliations Midrange theory • a theory that attempts to predict how certain social institutions tend to function Discussion Question 2 Compare functionalism and conflict theory. How would the two differ in their understanding of inequality? Sociology and Its Cousins Slide 1 of 2 Sociology focuses on making comparisons across cases to find patterns and create hypotheses about how societies work now or how they worked in the past. Sociology looks at how individuals interact with one another as well as at how groups, small and large, interact with one another. Sociology and Its Cousins Slide 2 of 2 Distinctions are important, but a lot of overlap exists between different academic disciplines. • History and anthropology—cultural anthropology in particular—tend to focus more on particular circumstances. • Psychology and biology examine things on a more micro level than sociology does, and economics is an entirely quantitative discipline. • Political science focuses on one aspect of social relations— power. Julia Adams Interview • Historical comparative sociologist Julia Adams discusses the difference between historians and sociologists. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Divisions within Sociology • Microsociology understands local interactional contexts, focusing on face-to-face encounters and gathering data through participant observations and in-depth interviews. • Macrosociology looks at social dynamics across whole societies or large parts of them and often relies on statistical analysis to do so. Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 Which of the following is an example of using one’s sociological imagination? a) being in unfamiliar surroundings and imagining being in a more comfortable place b) creating different hypotheses to explain an individual’s behavior c) creating a story to explain unfamiliar social customs d) being puzzled by how people in another country greet one another and then thinking about why they might do it that way Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 Social identity is a) a construct that no longer has meaning in the postmodern era. b) a collection of social roles that a person might fill. c) a way that individuals define themselves in relation to groups. d) determined by the social group into which a person is born. Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 The Chicago School of American Sociology emphasized the importance of a) the social and moral consequences of the division of labor. b) the environment in shaping people’s behavior and personalities. c) heavy statistical research. d) none of the above Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 Sociology is distinct from other academic disciplines in its attempt to a) embrace quantitative and qualitative research. b) ask probing questions about how societies function. c) detect patterns in how different societies handle or respond to similar phenomena. d) examine human interaction on the micro level. Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 Which of the following is an example of a study that might be undertaken by a macrosociologist? a) assessing how people choose where to sit on a public bus b) observing customers’ responses to being greeted upon entering a store c) conducting a statistical analysis of when professional men and women choose to start families d) examining how men and women react to riding in an elevator with an infant Discussion Question 3 Imagine a historian and a sociologist are both studying the civil rights movement. How might their approaches differ? Sociology on the Street The neighborhood where you grow up exerts a significant effect on the rest of your life. How did your house, neighbors, street, and town influence you? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 1 The Sociological Imagination: An Introduction For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 32 Chapter 2 Methods Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • If we successfully answer one question, it only spawns others. There is no moment when a social scientist’s work is done. • Click here to watch the paradox animation: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Research Methods Slide 1 of 2 The scientific method is a procedure involving the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses based on systematic observation, measurement, and/or experiments. Theory is an abstracted, systematic model of how some aspect of the world works. Research Methods Slide 2 of 2 Research methods are standard rules that social scientists follow when trying to establish a causal relationship between social elements. • Quantitative methods seek to obtain information about the social world that is in, or can be converted to, numeric form. • Qualitative methods attempt to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form. danah boyd Interview • danah boyd uses many research methods in her work. She explains how studying teen behavior both online and offline enhances her research. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Approaches to Research Slide 1 of 2 A deductive approach to research • starts with a theory. • develops a hypothesis. • makes empirical observations. • analyzes the data collected through observation to confirm, reject, or modify the original theory. Approaches to Research Slide 2 of 2 An inductive approach to research • starts with empirical observation. • works to form a theory. • determines if a correlation exists by noticing if a change is observed in two things simultaneously. The Research Cycle Causality versus Correlation Slide 1 of 2 Correlation (or association) is when two variables tend to track each other positively or negatively (i.e., they tend to vary together). Causality is the idea that a change in one factor results in a corresponding change in another factor. Causality versus Correlation Slide 2 of 2 Sociologists conduct research to try to prove causation. To prove causation, correlation and time order are established and alternative explanations are ruled out. Variables Slide 1 of 2 A dependent variable is the outcome that a researcher is trying to explain. An independent variable is a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable. Variables Slide 2 of 2 A hypothesis is a proposed relationship between two variables, usually with a stated direction. • The direction of the relationship refers to whether your variables move in the same direction (positive) or in opposite directions (negative). Hypothesis Testing Operationalization is the process of assigning a precise definition for measuring a concept being examined in a particular study. • For example, religiosity (how religious a person is) could be operationalized as frequency of religious service attendance. What Makes “Good” Research? Good research should be valid, reliable, and generalizable. • Validity: the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure • Reliability: the likelihood of obtaining consistent results using the same measure • Generalizability: the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied Discussion Question 1 In a previous slide, we saw one way to operationalize religiosity (as frequency of religious service attendance). Come up with an alternative way to operationalize the concept of religiosity and explain why you think it is a valid measure. Role of the Researcher Slide 1 of 2 “White coat” effects are those that researchers have on the very processes and relationships they are studying by virtue of being there. Reflexivity means analyzing and critically considering our own role in, and effect on, our research. Role of the Researcher Slide 2 of 2 Feminist methodology • treats women’s experiences as legitimate empirical and theoretical resources. • promotes social science that may bring about policy change to help women. • is as conscious of the role of the researcher as of that of the subjects being studied. Types of Data Collection Slide 1 of 5 Types of data collection used in social research: • Participant observation • Interviews • Survey research • Historical methods • Comparative research • Content analysis • Experimental methods Types of Data Collection Slide 2 of 5 Participant observation is a qualitative research method that seeks to uncover the meanings people give their social actions by observing their behavior in practice. Interviews are another common form of gathering qualitative data. We can learn how and why people do things by asking them about it. Mitchell Duneier Interview • Mitchell Duneier talks about the challenges of doing ethnography, the responsibilities of a researcher, and the ethics of ethnographic research. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Types of Data Collection Slide 3 of 5 • Surveys are an ordered series of questions intended to elicit information from respondents. Types of Data Collection Slide 4 of 5 Historical methods collect data from written reports, newspaper articles, journals, transcripts, television programs, diaries, artwork, and other artifacts that date back to the period under study. Comparative research is a methodology by which a researcher compares two or more entities with the intent of learning more about the factors that differ between them. Historical Analysis Types of Data Collection Slide 5 of 5 Content analysis is a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication, such as a written work, speech, or film. Experimental methods seek to alter the social landscape in a very specific way for a given sample of individuals and then track what results that change yields. Duncan Watts Interview • Duncan Watts describes his experimental research on the Matthew effect. He hypothesizes that it is not just the quality of something that determines its success, but also its luck of catching on via peerto-peer influence. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Discussion Question 2 Think of a potential research project. What is the best research methodology to do this study? • participant observation • interviews • survey research • comparative research • experimental methods • content analysis • historical methods Ethics of Social Research Slide 1 of 2 Researchers must meet codified standards set by professional associations, academic institutions, or research centers when conducting studies. Researchers must guard against causing physical, emotional, or psychological harm to their subjects. Ethics of Social Research Slide 2 of 2 Informed consent and voluntary participation are guidelines researchers use to ensure subjects know they are participating in a study and have voluntarily chosen to participate. The Political Battle over Statistical Sampling How we sample the population we are studying can have a significant effect on what we end up finding. The Census Bureau’s sampling methods are used as an example in the text. When federal funding and congressional seats are dependent on population size, it matters significantly how accurately the Census Bureau counts the U.S. population. Discussion Question 3 Much research is done on college campuses with undergraduates as research participants. Do you think this is a problem? Why or why not? Shamus Khan Interview • Shamus Khan explains that most sociologists working in elite departments like his come from a privileged background. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 Which of the following describes the deductive approach to research? a) A researcher makes empirical observations, and based on these observations, he or she develops a theory. b) A researcher develops several hypotheses to explain a correlation he or she has observed between two factors. c) A researcher establishes causation and then develops a theory to explain it. d) A researcher starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, makes observations, and then analyzes the data to confirm, reject, or refine the original theory. Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 What is a moderating variable? a) a factor that is positioned between the independent and dependent variables but does not affect the relationship between them b) a factor that affects only the independent variable in a hypothesis c) a factor that can replace the dependent variable in a hypothesis d) a factor that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 A thermometer that consistently gives readings that are five degrees cooler than the actual temperature is a) valid but not reliable. b) reliable but not valid. c) neither reliable nor valid. d) both reliable and valid. Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 Which of the following data collection methods are commonly used in social research? a) comparative study, survey, interview b) historical method, participant observation, case study c) natural experiment, double-blind study, comparative research d) content analysis, census, panel survey Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 Joan systematically observes where people sit on the bus every day for a month. Based on the patterns she observed she comes up with a theory of personal space in public situations. This would be an example of a) the deductive approach. b) the inductive approach. c) feminist sociology. d) experimental methods. Sociology on the Street There are many ways to research a sociological issue. How might your choice of research methods, subjects, and even your perspective alter your results? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 2 Methods For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 38 Lecture 6 UNIT 6: Social Construction of Gender and Race By Nabil Marshood In this lecture, the focus will center on the following important topics: 1. The social meaning of gender and its social construction 2. The social meaning of race and ethnicity and their social construction 3. Intersection of race, gender and class The discussion will highlight the sociological notion that race, gender and class are socially constructed and serve as principles of social organization. That is to say, although those conditions are grounded in biological reality, and although people don’t choose any of them, society creates ideas, ideologies and behavioral guidelines for people to follow. If you were born to white parents, for example, your social standing and opportunities differ significantly from those born to black parents. The same is true for sex and gender. Although these are biological realities, boys and men have different positions and opportunities from girls and women. Some may argue that these ideas are old fashion and don’t apply to their personal reality. Consider the reality of race and gender at a macro level and examine the role of culture and social structure including institutions like family, religion, education, government and economy, to name only a few, in the construction of structural divisions between racial and gender groups, and in the behavioral norms and guidelines relevant to the interactions between those groups. Let’s clarify the terminology relevant to this topic: Race: The term, race, refers to a group of people who share common biological features. The main obvious attributes include skin color and hair texture. The distinction between black and white people, for example, is grounded in racial differences. The term race is a biological, natural term. People did not choose their color but they are treated differently according to the social meaning of that color. It is important to note that race does not determine intelligence or behavior, and that there no such thing as a pure race. Given these facts, why then is race important and why does it influence human behavior. The answer lies in the social meaning of race. Ethnicity: The term, ethnicity, refers to a group of people who share a common heritage such as language, national origin, and religion. The term Hispanic, for example, refers to an ethnic group. Some Hispanics are racially black, others are racially white and others are brown, but ethnically, they all share a common language and a national region. Others examples include Jewish (religion), Muslims (religion), Asians (National region), African –Americans, Irish Americans, and the like. Here again, as it is the case with race, those conditions are not chosen by individuals, but society has placed each category in a specific ranking system in society. Different ethnic groups are treated differently according to the social meaning of each ethnic group. Copyright © 2019 by Nabil Marshood Racism refers to the belief that one racial group is superior and others are inferior. Note the significance of the term belief in the definition. Discrimination refers to the acts and differential treatments of individuals or groups on the basis of their race or ethnicity. Different forms of discrimination have occurred throughout history including unequal treatment in hiring, housing, criminal behavior, education, and more Prejudice refers to feelings, thoughts and attitudes one holds towards individuals or groups of a certain racial or ethnic group Sex refers to the biological differences between male and female. This term has been historically treated as a binary concept. With the new forms of open sexual experiences including the LGBTQ community, society is experiencing a paradigm shift in the conception of the term sex. Sexuality is now considered a fluid term with open variations. Gender refers to the social attributes attached to different sex categories. This is a social construct that determines positions, roles and opportunities for different sex groups. For example, traditional families are more likely to have a clear gender forms of socialization and gender roles. The feminist movement has made a significant contribution in this matter. They argue that roles should not be associated with sex. That is to say, cleaning the house, for example, should not be reserved for women alone. Both men and women can perform this task. Sexism: The belief that one sex is superior to the other. Patriarchy: Male dominated social system Minority Group and Majority Group: These terms take on different definitions and could be interpreted in a variety of ways. To clarify, note the following definitions: 1. Numerical definition: According to this definition, groups are distinguished based on the size of each group in society. Since the white population makes over 65% of the total US population, they constitute the majority. 2. Sociopolitical definition: According to this definition, size does not matter. It is power that makes the difference. Groups that hold most power in society are the majority. They are also referred to as the dominant groups. They hold high positions in government, the economy, education, health and more. They are the decision makers. The minority, is a group that has less power. It is also referred to as the subordinate group. In this context, the term minority is derived from the word Minor, implying that minority groups are not mature enough to make their own decisions, and are expected to be subordinate to the majority. 3. Legal definition: According to the US Affirmative Action Law, the following groups are designated and treated as minorities. The list includes African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian-Americans, Native-Americans, and Women. Throughout this discussion, it has become distinctively clear that power is the most important ingredient in the construction of group status in society and the treatment it receives. This power structure is also responsible for regulating the position of racial/ethnic groups and the interaction between them, thus creating a ranking racial and gender systems. It is those issues that invoke strong reactions from minority groups. They experience oppression and social injustice. Copyright © 2019 by Nabil Marshood The majority could work to integrate or segregate any given group at any time. History teaches us that genocide and expulsions were practiced by the majority against targeted groups. History also teaches us that some forms of integration have been introduced and that some societies are becoming more tolerant of diversity. Given these notes, and as you read and study the required and recommended readings, consider some of the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What is your reaction to the data? And, what questions do you have about this topic? What are some of the structural conditions that contribute to this reality? What does it take to create conditions of social equality and justice? What can minority groups do to improve their condition in society? What can the majority do to improve the social reality for all? Use the various sociological theories to explain the gaps between minority and majority groups. What are the chances for minority groups to achieve the so-called “American Dream”? How do your race and gender impact your decisions and choices that you make in areas of education, occupation, marriage and relationships, raising children and all other spheres of life? Required Reading: Textbook – Chapters 1, 2, 8, 9 Conley, D. (2019). You May Ask Yourself (6th Ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Recommended Reading US Census Bureau, www.census.gov Cornel West, Race Matters Edward Said, Orientalism Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness Candace West and Don Zimmerman, Doing Gender https://www.gla.ac.uk/0t4/crcees/files/summerschool/readings/WestZimmerman_198 7_DoingGender.pdf Copyright © 2019 by Nabil Marshood Chapter 9 Race Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • Race as we know it has no deterministic biological basis: but nonetheless, race is so powerful that it can have lifeor-death consequences. • Click here to see the paradox animation: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 The Myth of Race Slide 1 of 2 Race can be defined as a group of people who share a set of characteristics—usually physical ones—and are said to share a common bloodline. Racism is the belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal human traits. The Myth of Race Slide 2 of 2 • Race is a social construction that changes over time and across different contexts. The Concept of Race Slide 1 of 6 Many historical efforts to explain race were biased due to ethnocentrism (the judgment of other groups by one’s own standards and values). The Concept of Race Slide 2 of 6 Social Darwinism, another nineteenth-century theory, was the notion that some groups or races had evolved more than others and thus were better fit to survive and even to rule other races. The Concept of Race Slide 3 of 6 Backers of eugenics (the science of genetic lines and the inheritable traits they pass on from generation to generation) claimed that traits could be traced through bloodlines and bred into populations (for positive traits) or out of them (for negative traits). The Concept of Race Slide 4 of 6 The one-drop rule, which evolved from US laws forbidding miscegenation, was the belief that “one drop” of black blood makes a person black. Application of this rule was intended to keep the white population “pure” and lumped anyone with black blood into one category. The Concept of Race Slide 5 of 6 Miscegenation is the technical term for a multiracial marriage. The Concept of Race Slide 6 of 6 • Today DNA testing is used to determine people’s racial makeup, and while this process may be more accurate on some level than nineteenth-century racial measures, it still supports the notion of fixed, biological, racial differences. Racial Realities • Racialization is the formation of a new racial identity, in which new ideological boundaries of difference are drawn around a formerly unnoticed group of people. Jen’nan Read Interview • Jen’nan Read discusses her research on the experience of Muslims in the United States. • Click here to watch her interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Discussion Question 1 As the saying goes, “You can’t judge a book by its cover.” How do eugenics and physiognomy contradict this saying (in regard to people)? Are the principles behind these pseudosciences still with us today? If so, in what capacity? Race versus Ethnicity Slide 1 of 2 Race is imposed (usually based on physical differences), hierarchical, exclusive, and unequal. Ethnicity is voluntary, self-defined, nonhierarchical, fluid, cultural, and not as closely linked with power differences. An ethnic identity becomes racialized when it is subsumed under a forced label, racial marker, or “otherness.” Race versus Ethnicity Slide 2 of 2 • Symbolic ethnicity is ethnicity that is individualistic in nature and without real social cost for the individual. Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 1 of 5 Native Americans • Today, people claiming at least some Native American ancestry number about 5.6 million. • Only about one-fifth of Native Americans live in a designated American Indian area. • Native Americans rank among the worst in terms of highschool dropout rates and unemployment, which go hand in hand with poor health outcomes such as alcoholism, suicide, and premature death. Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 2 of 5 African Americans • Today about 12.7 percent of the American population is black. • The median income of African Americans as a group is roughly 62.8 percent that of whites. • Among men ages 25 to 39, blacks are imprisoned 2.5 times and 6 times as often as Hispanics and whites, respectively. • Sociologists today are beginning to study how new black immigrants are fracturing the holistic conception of “African American.” Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 3 of 5 Latinos • Latino, like the term Hispanic (the two are often used interchangeably), refers to a diverse group of people of Latin or Hispanic origin. • In 2012 Latinos made up approximately 17 percent of the population. • In 2013, the majority of Latinos in the United States were from Mexico (about 63.2%), Puerto Rico (about 9.5%), Cuba (3.9%), and the Dominican Republic (3.3%). Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 4 of 5 Asian Americans • The term Asian American is very broad, encompassing diverse and sometimes clashing peoples from China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia. • Asian Americans are unique among ethnic minorities because of their high average socioeconomic status, surpassing that of most other ethnic minorities as well as most whites in terms of educational attainment. Ethnic Groups in the United States Slide 5 of 5 Middle Eastern Americans • Middle Easterners come from places as diverse as the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, Iran, Iraq, and the Palestinian territories. • Today about 2 million Americans report Arab ancestry, and even more Americans have a Middle Eastern heritage, because not all Middle Easterners are Arab. • Widespread misunderstandings about Middle Easterners derive, in part, from their negative stereotyping in the mainstream media. The Importance of Being White “White” is a flexible label that has expanded over time to include many formerly nonwhite groups such as Jews, Irish, and Italians. Peggy McIntosh argues that whiteness is an “invisible knapsack of privileges” that puts white people at an advantage, just as racism places nonwhites at a disadvantage. Discussion Question 2 According to author Nell Irvin Painter, “The foundation of white identity is that there isn’t any. You’re just an individual.” How does this illustrate the uniqueness of “white” as a racial category? Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 1 of 5 Robert Park’s concept of straight-line assimilation offered a universal and linear model for how immigrants assimilate. Milton Gordon’s alternative model suggests that immigrant populations pass through (or stall in) seven stages of assimilation. Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 2 of 5 Pluralism, in the context of race and ethnicity, refers to the presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society, with no one group being in the majority. Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 3 of 5 Segregation is the legal or social practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnicity. • Segregation was the official policy in the United States, particularly in the South, until the 1960s. • Although it has been illegal for over 40 years, there is still ample evidence of segregation in American society today, particularly in schools, housing, and prisons. Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 4 of 5 Minority–Majority Group Relations Slide 5 of 5 The final paradigm of race relations is conflict relations, when antagonistic groups within a society live integrated in the same neighborhoods, hold the same jobs, and go to the same schools. Genocide is the mass killing of a group of people based on racial, ethnic, or religious traits. Group Responses to Domination Four ways in which groups respond to oppression are withdrawal, passing, acceptance, and resistance. Prejudice and Discrimination Slide 1 of 2 Prejudice refers to negative thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group. Discrimination refers to harmful or negative acts against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category. Prejudice and Discrimination Slide 2 of 2 As overt racism declines, scholars are beginning to find traces of a new kind of racism gaining ground. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva calls this color-blind racism. • This new kind of racism replaces biology with culture and presumes that there is something fixed, innate, and inferior about nonwhite cultural values. How Race Matters: The Case of Wealth Slide 1 of 2 Equity inequality captures the historical disadvantage of minority groups and the way those disadvantages accrue over time. Average household net worth in 2016 • African Americans: $17,100 • Latinos: $20,600 • Whites: $171,000 How Race Matters: The Case of Wealth Slide 2 of 2 Institutional racism refers to institutions and social dynamics that may seem race neutral but actually disadvantage minority groups. The Future of Race Slide 1 of 2 • For the first time ever, the 2000 Census allowed respondents to check off more than one box for racial identity. • About 9 million self-identified as multiracial by checking more than one race box in 2010. The Future of Race Slide 2 of 2 Jennifer Lee Interview • Jennifer Lee explains how sociologists think about race and describes the differences between race and ethnicity. • Click here to watch her interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 Ethnocentrism is a) the notion that ethnic ties are fixed in a deeply felt connection to one’s homeland culture. b) the idea that we should recognize differences across cultures without passing judgment on, or assigning value to, those differences. c) the judgment of other groups by one’s own standards and values. d) the adoption of a symbolic ethnicity for certain holidays or cultural events. Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 How was the one-drop rule related to laws forbidding miscegenation in the United States? a) The one-drop rule reinforced antimiscegenation laws because any offspring of a mixed-race union would be categorized as black. b) The one-drop rule was a precursor to formal laws forbidding miscegenation. c) When antimiscegenation laws were struck down in the courts, the one-drop rule was an informal way of enforcing the same policy. d) all of the above Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 A pluralistic society is one in which a) numerous distinct cultures engage and coexist peacefully within one large sociocultural framework. b) numerous distinct cultures live within the same political boundaries but do not interact. c) numerous distinct cultures live within the same political boundaries but may experience great tension and inequality. d) numerous distinct cultures vie for power and domination within one large sociocultural framework. Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 __________ is the least explored, and perhaps the most striking, of the disparities in social outcomes between blacks and whites in the United States. a) Income disparity b) The high incarceration rate among blacks c) The wealth gap d) The difference in educational attainment Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 The “new racism” couches its rhetoric in terms of __________ between groups rather than __________. a) religious differences; intellectual differences b) learned differences; innate differences c) behavioral differences; physical differences d) cultural differences; physical differences Discussion Questions 1. Have the four forms of minority–majority group relations been prevalent in the United States? 2. How have minority groups in the United States responded to racial domination? 3. What do you think is the future of race and ethnicity in the United States? Sociology on the Street Decades after real estate segregation (or “redlining”) became illegal, many Americans still live in communities that are highly segregated by race and/or socioeconomic status. How does unofficial segregation occur? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 9 Race For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 43 Chapter 8 Gender Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • How do we investigate inequality between men and women without reinforcing binary thinking about gender? • Watch the animated short about the gender paradox at: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Sex, Sexuality, and Gender Sex refers to the perceived biological differences that society typically uses to distinguish males from females. Gender denotes a social position—namely, the set of social arrangements built around normative sex categories. Sexuality refers to desire, sexual preference, sexual identity, and behavior. Sex: A Process in the Making The study of gender boils down to seeing how nature and nurture overlap and shape each other. Essentialist arguments explain social phenomena in terms of natural, biological, or evolutionary inevitabilities. In contrast, sociologists think of the nature-behavior relationship as a two-way street. Gender: What Does It Take to Be Masculine or Feminine? Slide 1 of 3 • We acquire our gender identity through socialization. • Rigid boundaries are imposed to maintain a gender order. • But if we look at how gender systems vary, we can expose those boundaries as social constructions. Gender: What Does It Take to Be Masculine or Feminine? Slide 2 of 3 Not all cultures have a binary gender configuration. • In Navajo tribes, there are not two but three genders: masculine men, feminine women, and the nadle. The growing social awareness of transgender people in our own society helps us break out of binary thinking about gender, since we tend to assume everyone is cisgender. Gender: What Does It Take to Be Masculine or Feminine? Slide 3 of 3 Gender differences vary over time as well. Ideals about masculinity and femininity are historically contingent. Historical change in ideal feminine beauty is one example, but definitions of masculinity vary over time too. • Ideal masculinity in the 1700s went hand in hand with kindness and intellect, and even poetry. Discussion Question 1 What characteristics and traits are associated with ideal femininity and masculinity in contemporary society? Give examples. Amos Mac Interview • Amos Mac shares his experiences as a transgender man. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 1 of 9 • Feminism is a social movement to get people to understand that gender is an organizing principle in society and to address gender-based inequalities. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 2 of 9 At the start of the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1960s, theorists scrambled to find an answer to the “woman question”: • What explains the nearly universal dominance of men over women? • What is the root of patriarchy, a system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity? Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 3 of 9 Rubin’s sex/gender system challenged the assumption that because women’s subordination occurred everywhere it must be fulfilling some societal function. • Rubin argued that women are treated like valuable property whose trade patterns strengthen relations between families headed by men. • This sex/gender system is not natural, but a result of human interaction. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 4 of 9 According to Parson’s Sex Role Theory • men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives/mothers because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies, fulfilling the function of reproducing workers. This structural functionalist approach to gender • assumes gender differences exist to fulfill necessary societal functions. • doesn’t allow for the possibility that other structures could fulfill the same function or that structures change throughout history. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 5 of 9 Psychoanalytic theories of gender • focus on individualistic explanations for gender differences as opposed to societal ones. • support that there are natural differences between men and women that dictate how they behave. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 6 of 9 Conflict theories focus on power and argue that patriarchal capitalists benefit through systems that subordinate women. • Socialist feminists, also known as radical feminists, argue that the root of all social relations, including relations of production, stemmed from unequal gender relations. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 7 of 9 Interactionist theories focus on “doing gender.” • West and Zimmerman argue that gender is not a fixed identity or role that we take with us into our interactions. Rather, it is the product of those interactions. • To be a man or a woman is to perform masculinity or femininity constantly. • In this social constructionist theory, gender is a process, not a static category. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 8 of 9 Black feminism points out the importance of intersectionality. • This is the idea that the identities surrounding gender, sex, and sexuality intersect with other meaningful social categories like race or class. • Patricia Hill Collins identified the matrix of domination, which highlights how black women face unique oppressions that white women don’t. Theories of Gender Inequality Slide 9 of 9 Postmodern theorists question the whole notion of “woman” as a separate, stable category and the value and appropriateness of Western scholars applying their cultural logic to the study of non-Western societies. Discussion Question 2 Which theory of gender inequality do you find most convincing and which least convincing? Why? Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 1 of 4 What accounts for the wide range of statistical differences between men and women? Essentialists refer to natural sex differences. But sociologists are apt to call these same differences “deceptive distinctions,” those that arise because of the particular roles individuals come to occupy. Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 2 of 4 Increase of Women in the Workforce, 1970-2016 Year Civiliarn labor force Civiliarn labor force (percent of population) (percent of population) male female 1970 80 20 1975 79 21 1980 78 22 1985 77 23 1990 76 24 1995 75 25 2000 74 26 2005 72 28 2010 70 30 2015 69 31 Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 3 of 4 Although legally entitled to enter all lines of work, women routinely face sexual harassment. Additionally, women have consistently been paid less than their male peers, earning about 81 cents to every $1 of a man’s wage. Growing Up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind Slide 4 of 4 The glass ceiling refers to an invisible limit on women’s climb up the occupational ladder. • Kanter argues this is due to a cultural conflation of authority with masculinity. The glass escalator refers to the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs. Ashley Mears Interview • Ashley Mears talks about gender inequality and the wage structure in the modeling industry. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Sociology in the Bedroom Slide 1 of 2 Much like gender differences, sexual practices vary across time and place, supporting the notion that sexuality is as much a social construct as gender. There is enormous variation in how humans have sex and what it means to them. Sociology in the Bedroom Slide 2 of 2 Homosexual, which refers to the social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and/or relations with people of the same sex, is a concept or identity that emerged in the midnineteenth century. Heteronormativity is the idea that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate. Paula England Interview • Paula England discusses her research on “hook-up” culture and romantic relationships among college students. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 _____ is what we as a society make of biological sex differences between males and females. a) Sexuality b) Gender c) Patriarchy d) Cisgender Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 _______ is a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity. a) Patriarchy b) Sexism c) Matriarchy d) Hegemonic masculinity Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 Michel Foucault argued that the development of homosexuality as a social identity was related to a) changes in the nineteenth century with regard to the notion of the ideal man. b) the development of scientific disciplines and a desire to monitor and categorize people and their behavior. c) the development of the field of psychoanalysis in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. d) society’s need to establish cohesion by identifying “others” who exhibit “deviant” behavior. Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 Sexual harassment is an illegal form of discrimination that can be manifested through ________, with the intent of making a person, usually a woman, feel uncomfortable or unsafe, particularly in a work setting. a) inappropriate jokes b) sexual assault c) requests for sexual favors d) all of the above Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 Women working in male-dominated professions often find that there are _____opportunities for advancement, and men working in female-dominated professions often advance _____ their female colleagues. a) limited; more slowly than b) limited; as quickly as c) ample; as quickly as d) limited; more quickly than Discussion Questions 1. What are some examples from your own life where you or those around you “perform” or “do” gender? 2. How would others react if you or someone you know suddenly stopped doing these things? Sociology on the Street Internet dating is a major resource for people looking for potential partners with a seemingly unlimited pool. What are the similarities and differences between dating online compared to dating in person? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 8 Gender For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 35 Chapter 1 The Sociological Imagination: An Introduction Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • A successful sociologist makes the familiar strange. • Click here to watch the paradox animation: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 What Is Sociology? • Sociology is the study of human society. The Sociological Imagination Slide 1 of 2 Sociological imagination, a term coined by C. Wright Mills, is a tool that helps us to • connect our personal experiences to society at large and to greater historical forces. • “make the familiar strange,” or question habits or customs that seem “natural” to us. The Sociological Imagination Slide 2 of 2 “Why go to college?” College graduates earn about $960,000 more over their lifetimes than those with only a high-school education. • If the benefits of college are due to the learning that takes place, why not do it on your own for free? • If it’s really about getting a “piece of paper” then why not print out a fake diploma? Asha Rangappa Interview • Asha Rangappa, the dean of admissions at Yale Law School, discusses the role that class plays in acceptance. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Discussion Question 1 • Why are you in college? • Did the people around you, including friends and family, expect you to go to college? Do you think this is the same for everyone? Why or why not? What Is a Social Institution? Slide 1 of 2 A social institution is a complex group of interdependent positions that, together, perform a social role and reproduce themselves over time. • The legal system • The labor market • The educational system • The military • The family What Is a Social Institution? Slide 2 of 2 A college is a social institution that • acts as gatekeeper to “legitimate” forms of education by deciding who can attend. • segregates great swaths of the population by age. • is a proprietary brand that is marketed on items like sweatshirts and through televised sporting events. • has an informal set of stories told within a social network of students, faculty, administrators, alumni, and so on. What Is Social Identity? Social identity is the way individuals define themselves in relation to groups of which they are a part (or in relation to groups of which they choose not to be a part). The History of Sociology Slide 1 of 3 Auguste Comte—the best way to understand society is by determining the logic or scientific laws governing human behavior, called social physics or positivism. Harriet Martineau—the first person to translate Comte’s written works into English, and one of the earliest feminist social scientists. The History of Sociology Slide 2 of 3 Karl Marx—proposed the theory of historical materialism, which identifies class conflict as the primary cause of social change. Max Weber—his emphasis on subjectivity became a foundation of interpretive sociology. The History of Sociology Slide 3 of 3 Émile Durkheim—the founder of positivist sociology; developed the theory that the division of labor helps to determine how social cohesion is maintained, or not maintained. Georg Simmel—proposed a formal sociology, or a sociology of pure numbers (for instance, how a group of two is different than a group of three). American Sociology Slide 1 of 2 Early American sociology became prominent at the University of Chicago. The “Chicago School” perspective focused on empirical research, with the belief that people’s behaviors and personalities are shaped by their social and physical environments. • Robert Park • Louis Wirth • George Herbert Mead • Charles Horton Cooley American Sociology Slide 2 of 2 W. E. B. Du Bois—the first African American to receive a PhD from Harvard and the first sociologist to undertake ethnography in the African American community. Jane Addams—founded Hull House, where the ideas of the Chicago School were put into practice and tested. Talcott Parsons—leading theorist of functionalism in the midtwentieth century. W. E. B. Du Bois Modern Sociological Theories Slide 1 of 3 Functionalism • the theory that various social institutions and processes in society exist to serve some important (or necessary) function to keep society running Conflict Theory • the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general Modern Sociological Theories Slide 2 of 3 Feminist theory • a catchall term for many theories with an emphasis on women’s experiences and a belief that sociology and society in general subordinate women Symbolic interactionism • a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people’s actions Modern Sociological Theories Slide 3 of 3 Postmodernism • a condition characterized by a questioning of the notion of progress and history, the replacement of narrative within pastiche, and multiple, perhaps even conflicting, identities resulting from disjointed affiliations Midrange theory • a theory that attempts to predict how certain social institutions tend to function Discussion Question 2 Compare functionalism and conflict theory. How would the two differ in their understanding of inequality? Sociology and Its Cousins Slide 1 of 2 Sociology focuses on making comparisons across cases to find patterns and create hypotheses about how societies work now or how they worked in the past. Sociology looks at how individuals interact with one another as well as at how groups, small and large, interact with one another. Sociology and Its Cousins Slide 2 of 2 Distinctions are important, but a lot of overlap exists between different academic disciplines. • History and anthropology—cultural anthropology in particular—tend to focus more on particular circumstances. • Psychology and biology examine things on a more micro level than sociology does, and economics is an entirely quantitative discipline. • Political science focuses on one aspect of social relations— power. Julia Adams Interview • Historical comparative sociologist Julia Adams discusses the difference between historians and sociologists. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Divisions within Sociology • Microsociology understands local interactional contexts, focusing on face-to-face encounters and gathering data through participant observations and in-depth interviews. • Macrosociology looks at social dynamics across whole societies or large parts of them and often relies on statistical analysis to do so. Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 Which of the following is an example of using one’s sociological imagination? a) being in unfamiliar surroundings and imagining being in a more comfortable place b) creating different hypotheses to explain an individual’s behavior c) creating a story to explain unfamiliar social customs d) being puzzled by how people in another country greet one another and then thinking about why they might do it that way Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 Social identity is a) a construct that no longer has meaning in the postmodern era. b) a collection of social roles that a person might fill. c) a way that individuals define themselves in relation to groups. d) determined by the social group into which a person is born. Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 The Chicago School of American Sociology emphasized the importance of a) the social and moral consequences of the division of labor. b) the environment in shaping people’s behavior and personalities. c) heavy statistical research. d) none of the above Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 Sociology is distinct from other academic disciplines in its attempt to a) embrace quantitative and qualitative research. b) ask probing questions about how societies function. c) detect patterns in how different societies handle or respond to similar phenomena. d) examine human interaction on the micro level. Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 Which of the following is an example of a study that might be undertaken by a macrosociologist? a) assessing how people choose where to sit on a public bus b) observing customers’ responses to being greeted upon entering a store c) conducting a statistical analysis of when professional men and women choose to start families d) examining how men and women react to riding in an elevator with an infant Discussion Question 3 Imagine a historian and a sociologist are both studying the civil rights movement. How might their approaches differ? Sociology on the Street The neighborhood where you grow up exerts a significant effect on the rest of your life. How did your house, neighbors, street, and town influence you? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 1 The Sociological Imagination: An Introduction For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 32 Chapter 2 Methods Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Paradox • If we successfully answer one question, it only spawns others. There is no moment when a social scientist’s work is done. • Click here to watch the paradox animation: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Research Methods Slide 1 of 2 The scientific method is a procedure involving the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses based on systematic observation, measurement, and/or experiments. Theory is an abstracted, systematic model of how some aspect of the world works. Research Methods Slide 2 of 2 Research methods are standard rules that social scientists follow when trying to establish a causal relationship between social elements. • Quantitative methods seek to obtain information about the social world that is in, or can be converted to, numeric form. • Qualitative methods attempt to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form. danah boyd Interview • danah boyd uses many research methods in her work. She explains how studying teen behavior both online and offline enhances her research. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Approaches to Research Slide 1 of 2 A deductive approach to research • starts with a theory. • develops a hypothesis. • makes empirical observations. • analyzes the data collected through observation to confirm, reject, or modify the original theory. Approaches to Research Slide 2 of 2 An inductive approach to research • starts with empirical observation. • works to form a theory. • determines if a correlation exists by noticing if a change is observed in two things simultaneously. The Research Cycle Causality versus Correlation Slide 1 of 2 Correlation (or association) is when two variables tend to track each other positively or negatively (i.e., they tend to vary together). Causality is the idea that a change in one factor results in a corresponding change in another factor. Causality versus Correlation Slide 2 of 2 Sociologists conduct research to try to prove causation. To prove causation, correlation and time order are established and alternative explanations are ruled out. Variables Slide 1 of 2 A dependent variable is the outcome that a researcher is trying to explain. An independent variable is a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable. Variables Slide 2 of 2 A hypothesis is a proposed relationship between two variables, usually with a stated direction. • The direction of the relationship refers to whether your variables move in the same direction (positive) or in opposite directions (negative). Hypothesis Testing Operationalization is the process of assigning a precise definition for measuring a concept being examined in a particular study. • For example, religiosity (how religious a person is) could be operationalized as frequency of religious service attendance. What Makes “Good” Research? Good research should be valid, reliable, and generalizable. • Validity: the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure • Reliability: the likelihood of obtaining consistent results using the same measure • Generalizability: the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied Discussion Question 1 In a previous slide, we saw one way to operationalize religiosity (as frequency of religious service attendance). Come up with an alternative way to operationalize the concept of religiosity and explain why you think it is a valid measure. Role of the Researcher Slide 1 of 2 “White coat” effects are those that researchers have on the very processes and relationships they are studying by virtue of being there. Reflexivity means analyzing and critically considering our own role in, and effect on, our research. Role of the Researcher Slide 2 of 2 Feminist methodology • treats women’s experiences as legitimate empirical and theoretical resources. • promotes social science that may bring about policy change to help women. • is as conscious of the role of the researcher as of that of the subjects being studied. Types of Data Collection Slide 1 of 5 Types of data collection used in social research: • Participant observation • Interviews • Survey research • Historical methods • Comparative research • Content analysis • Experimental methods Types of Data Collection Slide 2 of 5 Participant observation is a qualitative research method that seeks to uncover the meanings people give their social actions by observing their behavior in practice. Interviews are another common form of gathering qualitative data. We can learn how and why people do things by asking them about it. Mitchell Duneier Interview • Mitchell Duneier talks about the challenges of doing ethnography, the responsibilities of a researcher, and the ethics of ethnographic research. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Types of Data Collection Slide 3 of 5 • Surveys are an ordered series of questions intended to elicit information from respondents. Types of Data Collection Slide 4 of 5 Historical methods collect data from written reports, newspaper articles, journals, transcripts, television programs, diaries, artwork, and other artifacts that date back to the period under study. Comparative research is a methodology by which a researcher compares two or more entities with the intent of learning more about the factors that differ between them. Historical Analysis Types of Data Collection Slide 5 of 5 Content analysis is a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication, such as a written work, speech, or film. Experimental methods seek to alter the social landscape in a very specific way for a given sample of individuals and then track what results that change yields. Duncan Watts Interview • Duncan Watts describes his experimental research on the Matthew effect. He hypothesizes that it is not just the quality of something that determines its success, but also its luck of catching on via peerto-peer influence. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Discussion Question 2 Think of a potential research project. What is the best research methodology to do this study? • participant observation • interviews • survey research • comparative research • experimental methods • content analysis • historical methods Ethics of Social Research Slide 1 of 2 Researchers must meet codified standards set by professional associations, academic institutions, or research centers when conducting studies. Researchers must guard against causing physical, emotional, or psychological harm to their subjects. Ethics of Social Research Slide 2 of 2 Informed consent and voluntary participation are guidelines researchers use to ensure subjects know they are participating in a study and have voluntarily chosen to participate. The Political Battle over Statistical Sampling How we sample the population we are studying can have a significant effect on what we end up finding. The Census Bureau’s sampling methods are used as an example in the text. When federal funding and congressional seats are dependent on population size, it matters significantly how accurately the Census Bureau counts the U.S. population. Discussion Question 3 Much research is done on college campuses with undergraduates as research participants. Do you think this is a problem? Why or why not? Shamus Khan Interview • Shamus Khan explains that most sociologists working in elite departments like his come from a privileged background. • Click here to watch the interview: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Concept Quiz Question 1 of 5 Which of the following describes the deductive approach to research? a) A researcher makes empirical observations, and based on these observations, he or she develops a theory. b) A researcher develops several hypotheses to explain a correlation he or she has observed between two factors. c) A researcher establishes causation and then develops a theory to explain it. d) A researcher starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, makes observations, and then analyzes the data to confirm, reject, or refine the original theory. Concept Quiz Question 2 of 5 What is a moderating variable? a) a factor that is positioned between the independent and dependent variables but does not affect the relationship between them b) a factor that affects only the independent variable in a hypothesis c) a factor that can replace the dependent variable in a hypothesis d) a factor that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables Concept Quiz Question 3 of 5 A thermometer that consistently gives readings that are five degrees cooler than the actual temperature is a) valid but not reliable. b) reliable but not valid. c) neither reliable nor valid. d) both reliable and valid. Concept Quiz Question 4 of 5 Which of the following data collection methods are commonly used in social research? a) comparative study, survey, interview b) historical method, participant observation, case study c) natural experiment, double-blind study, comparative research d) content analysis, census, panel survey Concept Quiz Question 5 of 5 Joan systematically observes where people sit on the bus every day for a month. Based on the patterns she observed she comes up with a theory of personal space in public situations. This would be an example of a) the deductive approach. b) the inductive approach. c) feminist sociology. d) experimental methods. Sociology on the Street There are many ways to research a sociological issue. How might your choice of research methods, subjects, and even your perspective alter your results? Watch the Sociology on the Street video to find out more: https://digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for: Chapter 2 Methods For more learning resources, please visit: digital.wwnorton.com/youmayask6 Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company 38 Lecture 6 UNIT 6: Social Construction ...
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Social Construction of Gender and Race
The research paper seeks to highlight that class, gender, and race are developed from
social thoughts and have grounded social organization principles. Society can also create
ideologies, behaviors, guidelines, and beliefs for people to follow. For example, a white
child's social standing has a bigger difference than a black child; the social stereotypes have
the same effect on sex and gender. Although these are biological realities, boys and men have
different positions and opportunities from girls and women.
Race: can be referred to as a section of people who have similar biological formation
attributed by skin color or texture of their hair. The distinction between whites and blacks is
purely based on racial factors like skin color.
The race is biological and natural since nobody proposed to be of a certain color though
they treated and judged differently based on their race's social meaning. It is important to
note that race does not determine intelligence or behavior and that there no such thing as a
pure race.
Ethnicity: is described as a selected group of people with common attributes based on
religion, language, or nationality. For example, Hispanics can be racially black, others are
racially white, and others are brown, though they share the same language and nationality
hence ethnically related.
Gender is termed as the social attributes associating with different sex categories. It is a
social structure that determines opportunities, roles, and positi...


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