Critique of Research Articles, psychology homework help

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Article Critique Brown, K.E. & Medway, F.J. (2007). School climate and teacher beliefs in a school effectively serving poor South Carolina (USA) African-American students: A case study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 529-540. Summary of article Introduction Low income and ethnic minority students in American schools are more likely to have lower achievement and aptitude test scores, more likely to be placed in special education, and more likely to drop out of school. Possible factors for these discrepancies include inequitable access to health care, the difficulty of the family in supplementing education at home, a lower quality of teaching in these schools, and an environment that does not stress the importance of education. Research has been conducted in an effort to identify the elements found in effective schools that are serving these traditionally underperforming populations, and this study is an attempt to build on that body of knowledge. Assumption The key assumption of the article is that certain factors are integral in successfully working with low income and ethnic minority students, and that these factors can be identified and then applied to other school settings. Subjects An elementary school in South Carolina was chosen for this study because of its recent national recognition two years in a row for academic school achievements. The population of the school is over 70% African-American and most students are of low socioeconomic status. The school’s recent successes were based on a 5-year improvement plan that focused on high student expectations. A total of 13 teachers (3rd, 4th, and 5th grade levels) were contacted; nine (eight female, one male) of them consented. These nine nominated six teachers as being exemplary, and then these six were asked to participate in the qualitative portion of the study. All teachers were certified to teach at their grade levels and four of them held a master’s degree. Part of the study also included video tapings of their classrooms. Instruments Two survey instruments were used for the quantitative portion of this study. The first, Organizational Health Inventory (OHI) measured teacher’s opinions on school climate. Five factors were assessed: institutional integrity, community leadership, resource influence, teacher affiliation, and emphasis on academics. Teachers responded to 37 statements on a 4-point scale (rarely occurs; sometimes occurs; often occurs; very frequently occurs). The second instrument, Primary Teacher Questionnaire (PTQ), assessed practices most commonly utilized in the classrooms. Teachers responded to 39 statements reporting their own beliefs towards teaching. The scale for the PTQ ranged from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” In addition to the inventory and questionnaire, teacher interviews comprised of 17 questions drawn from Ladson-Billings work were asked from the six exemplary teachers. Class videotapes were finally conducted to determine if the recurring themes from the interviews could be identified. Classrooms belonging to the exemplary teachers were videotaped twice. Hypothesis Rather than hypotheses, the researchers posed three research questions for the study. First, they were interested in describing the climate of a school that is effectively teaching economically disadvantaged minority students. Second, they were looking to determine teachers’ beliefs about effective instructional methods, and third, they were interested in exploring the relationship between teachers’ expectations and their instructional methods. Procedure Nine teachers were asked to nominate six of their colleagues whom they considered to be exemplary according to a definition provided by the researchers. Once nominations were submitted two teachers from each grade level (3rd, 4th, and 5th) were asked to participate in the qualitative portion of their study. Permissions from the district, teachers and classrooms (for videotaping) were requested and granted. The first nine teachers completed the OHI; through this inventory their responses indicated the degree to which each statement described their school. They then answered statements on the PTQ on which they reported their own perceptions on teaching practices; according to these researchers such perceptions are often linked with real practices. Following the inventory and questionnaire was a qualitative method that included teacher interviews and classroom video tapings. The six exemplary teachers interviewed were asked 17 questions ranging from their own student expectations to their teaching strategies for that population. They were not aware of the questions prior to the interviews nor did they know what others responded. After transcribing these interviews, the authors picked out frequently recurring themes in regards to school practices. They then tried to identify these themes via classroom video tapings. Observations from these recordings and information extracted from the school’s website were used to support themes. Analysis By examining teacher’s believes and strategies through interviews and videotaped classroom instruction, it was possible to determine that the variables in question had indeed created a positive effect on the learning environment of the school. By studying several teachers, validity improved and strengthened the argument that expectations and teaching practices had a positive effect on student performance. Results Collectively teacher’s views on academic education are high based on their OHI scores. Based on their PTQ scores teachers also endorse developmentally appropriate and traditional instruction methods. From the interviews and videotapes, seven themes were identified as being of great importance and having a lasting effect on students. The themes were: sense of collegial cohesiveness, hands on approach to curriculum, teaching philosophy that all students can learn, communicating that all students will be successful, high expectations for all students, parents playing a vital role in student success, and teacher education does not prepare educators to work with diverse student populations. The videotapes were used to see what lessons were put into practice by the teachers. The videos showed that teachers focused on essential understanding and skills rather than memorization of facts. Teachers encouraged students to do better and gained their attention by creating a lesson that was interesting and meaningful to the student while still following the state mandated learning. Students were encouraged to work as a group and think analytically. Teachers also included parents in the students’ education. They called parents on the progress of their child and asked for the parents help in ensuring that homework got done. The five year plan implemented by the school and carried out by these teachers resulted in the student’s achievement at the 95th percentile despite what was expected due to the poverty index and minority population. Conclusions The study shows that teachers who had a collaborative approach and were open to flexible teaching styles did have a positive effect on student performance. Although the techniques seem to be common sense, the teachers at this school site had a plan and followed through with it every step of the way. They included parents in the education process, they held high expectations for their students, changed the student’s way of thinking, included cultural learning into their process, and they focused on how the student learned better, not on how they preferred to teach. These changes challenged the students while still supporting the idea that each student can learn. The outcome was that the school tested in the 95th percentile for two years in a row despite being a school that faced its own unique challenges, such as serving mostly minorities from a low socioeconomic background. Critique of article Problem The research problem is clearly outlined in the beginning of the article where the authors discuss the “particular academic challenges faced by low income and ethnic minority students in American schools,” including their lower test scores and graduation rates. It is clear that this topic has significance for American educators, and the authors even extend the article’s significance to an international level, discussing the connection between illiteracy and poverty in such places as South America, the Caribbean, and Australia. However, although interesting, this connection seems somewhat tenuous as issues in American schools are connected to very different cultural and political influences than in other areas of the world. The researchers’ suggestion that their work has implications for these other regions of the world could lead to threats of external validity, particularly in regard to the interaction of setting and treatment. The authors did provide a sufficient amount of background information on the problem, reviewing the characteristics of successful schools as well as the problems and possible causes faced by low income minority students. Their attempts to identify and define such issues as school climate, teachers’ expectations, and instructional methods do appear to be “researchable” issues from a qualitative standpoint. As a qualitative research study, there are no variables present, but instead the article is focused on the central phenomenon of key factors in a successful school serving low income minority students. Review of Literature The strengths of this section lie in the researchers’ thorough selection of relevant articles. The literature included spans more than a thirty year period and covers several topics. First, an overview of research on successful schools is presented, dating as far back as the 1970s. This is followed by a summary of research done on low income schools and schools with a predominately African-American population, focusing on a wide range of topics such as teacher preparation and school climate. Two areas of critique for the literature review involve the lack of critical analysis and an ineffective discussion of how the current research will add to or enhance the existing body of knowledge. The studies reviewed are not compared or contrasted with one another; rather, they are presented, one after another, as a chain of complimentary ideas. There are no in-depth connections made between them, nor are any alternative contrasting studies presented. In addition, the researchers might have done more to indicate the ways in which their work would enhance or extend the research that has already been performed. The only link between this study and the previous research comes near the end of the literature review when the authors state, “The present research draws on the American literature on effective schools, school climate, and teacher expectations in order to study one public elementary school in South Carolina…” Rather than simply “drawing on” the research, the authors could have been clearer about their desire to test previous findings or expand them in a particular way. Hypotheses The three research questions proposed are presented at the end of the Introduction section of the article. The first two are clear, with one focused on school climate and the other on teachers’ beliefs about instructional methods. The focus in question three is on exemplary teachers and covers the communication of school climate to the students as well as teacher expectations and instructional methods. The third question lumps together several ideas and could perhaps be split into several different questions for the sake of focus and clarity. Subjects Due to the fact that this is a qualitative study, the focus on six teachers in one particular school is appropriate. The researchers clearly outline their use of surveys to select the 6 individuals out of a pool of the 13 teachers in grades 3, 4, and 5. One detail not clearly defined is if the initial 13 teachers contacted are all of the teachers at these particular grade levels, or just certain ones pre-selected for some unspecified reason. The methods used did not result in a representative, unbiased sample; however, as an extreme case study, the researchers’ goal is to locate and study the most exemplary teachers, so they cannot be faulted in this regard. However, because state-wide test scores are being used to determine the school’s success, perhaps the researchers could have selected those teachers whose classes performed the best in previous years, rather than teachers who are perceived to be exemplary by their colleagues. All participants consented to be included in the study. The sample size was stated, yet their certifications were not too clear. We would have liked to know the type of certifications each teacher had; knowing this could possibly provide some connection to the student’s successes. We would have also liked to know the number of years each teacher had been teaching for. Did they all take part in the 5-year plan to improve student academic success implemented by the school? Instruments The researcher did a good job in providing the purpose and content of each measurement. They provided the questions used in the interviews. Detailed rationale behind instrument selection would have been preferred. The reasoning behind teacher interviews and classroom video tapings was that by doing so, repeating themes would be extracted and compared to real teaching practices. Not much rationale was provided for using the OHI and PTQ. Hardly any evidence was available suggesting effectiveness of instruments towards this particular study. There were comparisons with other countries, regarding the reasoning for this research. Yet the researcher did not mention if those instruments had previously shown effectiveness. This article used preexisting methods, yet it was not clear if all had been used the same. They used a questionnaire, inventory, interviews, and video recordings all in this one study. Furthermore, internal validity is briefly mentioned in terms of the number of teachers included in this study. The problem with this is that the groups answering both the OHI and PTQ were different than those being interviewed. Though there might have been some overlap with the participants, portraying two groups makes it feel inconsistent. The reliability coefficients were .87 to .95 but no validity coefficients were presented. Design and Procedure We felt that the design and procedures were appropriate for answering the questions being raised in this study. They helped gather perceptions and beliefs of those responsible for teaching the students being affected. The procedures were sufficiently described, as we mentioned earlier the questions used in the interview are available at the end of the article, in such a way that others could possibly imitate such research. Results A major part of this paper was qualitative. Most of the data was driven from surveys and videotapes. The surveys were taken by teachers who were thought of as being exemplary. We question why they only surveyed those teachers. Why not take a random sample of the teachers in the whole as they all played a part in making the change? Also, the videotaped classrooms were headed by exemplary teachers. Why not videotape random teachers? This seems like the smallest population of teachers were used to represent all the teachers. On the videotapes, the researcher did not indicate whether or not the teachers knew when they were going to be videotaped. If the teachers knew when and where this was going to happen, it seems as though they could have simply been exhibiting good behavior to satisfy the research. On the results for the PTQ and OHI test, the means and standard deviations were given, however the study did not address what the average was. They simply stated that the numbers were within the average. Why not provide the average of teacher’s thoughts on affiliation, institutional integrity, collegial leadership, resource influence, and academic emphasis. This would allow the reader to confirm or deny the statements made by the researcher. Also, this information has little to do with the actual study. The research is claiming that teachers are flexible with their teaching styles and the test only shows that the teachers are comfortable with both traditional teaching and development appropriate ones, still preferring traditional. Discussion (recommendations and conclusions) The authors concluded that teachers’ willingness to change did in fact help students. They also concluded from the survey that teachers are ill prepared to deal with diverse and disadvantaged students. Teachers in this study are seen as exemplary, we have to ask why? They are simply recognizing that not all people learn the same way. They are modifying traditional teaching styles in order to better fit their students’ needs. These teachers are saying that their schooling does not prepare them to teach diverse students. Now we have classes that are specific to cultural awareness. Also, the surveys that were given were about teachers’ feelings toward the dynamics of the school; did these thoughts change over night, or did the teachers always think the same? If so, why did the school along with the teachers implement the changes sooner? This research did not indicate whether or not new education was introduced to the teachers in order to prepare them to teach their students. This research was different in that there was no comparison group. This school was isolated and looked at due to the advances in their test scores. Also there is no indication of how the classroom setting was before the implementation of the new plan. Therefore, it is difficult isolate variables that might have caused change. That being said the videos in the study were very helpful in persuading the reader into believing that these teachers were creating a positive environment that fostered growth within the child. However, we believe that in order to really understand the effects of the change, this should be done at another school site, which would also help validate the study by helping control any external variables. Project Paper Critique of Research Articles The goal of this project is to give you an opportunity to apply whatever you learned in this course in evaluating research papers. You might have done some article summaries or even critical evaluation of some resources. However, this project is unique because you evaluate research articles from a methodology perspective. For this project, you summarize and evaluate 3 research articles on the topic of your choice. This assignment could be done individually. In the summary section, you should write a brief summary of the articles in your own words. In the critique section, you evaluate the articles using the following grading criteria. Grading criteria for research critique • Your paper must be in APA style. • Your critique should be longer than your summary. • There is no page limit; your grade on this project will be based on how well you covered. Here are some questions to guide your paper: • • • • • • • • • • What is (are) the research problem(s)? What is (are) the research question(s) (or hypothesis)? Is the research important? Why? In your own words, what methods and procedures were used? Evaluate the methods and procedures. Describe the sample used in this study. Describe the reliability and validity of all the instruments used. What type of research is this? Explain. How was the data analyzed? What is (are) the major finding(s)? are these findings important? What do you suggest to improve this research? You may also look at the chart below: Criteria Significance and contribution to the field Methodology or approach (this usually applies to more formal, research-based texts) Argument and use of evidence Writing style and text structure Possible focus questions • What is the author's aim? • To what extent has this aim been achieved? • What does this text add to the body of knowledge? (This could be in terms of theory, data and/or practical application) • What relationship does it bear to other works in the field? • What is missing/not stated? Is this a problem? • What approach was used for the research? (eg; quantitative or qualitative, analysis/review of theory or current practice, comparative, case study, personal reflection etc...) • How objective/biased is the approach? • Are the results valid and reliable? • What analytical framework is used to discuss the results? • Is there a clear problem, statement or hypothesis? • What claims are made? • Is the argument consistent? • What kinds of evidence does the text rely on? • How valid and reliable is the evidence? • How effective is the evidence in supporting the argument? • What conclusions are drawn? Are these conclusions justified? • Does the writing style suit the intended audience? (eg; expert/non-expert, academic/non-academic) • What is the organising principle of the text? Could it be better organised? Project Presentation Students are to record their presentation either orally using PPTs or using a video. For your presentation, you are to discuss summary of your articles and your critique in 5-10min. 1. Post your presentation by clicking reply under this thread. 2. Provide comments on your classmates' presentations. Running head: ARTICLE CRITIQUE 1 Article Critique CSULB October 28, 2009 Article Critique Lee, O., Maerten-Rivera, J., Penfield, R.D., LeRoy, K. & Secada, W.G. (2008). Science ARTICLE CRITIQUE 2 achievement of English language learners in urban elementary schools: Results of a first year professional development intervention. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45, 31-52. doi:10.1002/tea.20209 Summary Introduction The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 expects all students to achieve proficient levels of knowledge in core subject areas. Teachers of English language learners (ELL) face the added challenge of providing meaningful and accessible curricula while integrating English language and literacy development. This research study addresses ELL students’ low science achievement in the context of national standards and accountability in the 2006-2007 school year. Several studies have examined the influence of professional development interventions on students’ science achievement. Research suggests that hands-on and inquiry-based science lessons develop literacy as well as content knowledge. Research also indicates that students’ science achievement is positively correlated with the amount of teacher professional development. This study builds upon existing research by using a quasi-experimental design to assess students’ science achievement after the first-year implementation of a professional development intervention that focused on science achievement, literacy, and math skills. Specifically, the study addresses three research questions: (1) whether treatment group students show gains in science achievement, (2) whether gaps in science achievement change for ELL and low-literacy (retained) students in the treatment group, and (3) whether treatment group students perform differently compared with non-treatment group students on a statewide mathematics test, particularly on the measurement strand that is emphasized in the intervention. Participants ARTICLE CRITIQUE 3 The study was conducted during the 2004-2005 school year in a large urban district in the southeastern United States. Schools were selected for participation based on high percentages of ELL and low socioeconomic status students and low state accountability school grades. Thirtythree schools met these criteria. Of the thirty-three, seventeen volunteered and fifteen eventually participated. Participants included 1,134 third-grade students at seven treatment schools and 966 thirdgrade students at eight comparison schools. Numbers of males and females were equal. The comparison group included a slightly lower percentage of Hispanic students and a higher percentage of African-American students than the treatment group. Procedure A professional development intervention was implemented at the treatment schools. It consisted of curriculum units and five full-day teacher workshops. Three curriculum units were implemented: measurements, states of matter, and water cycle and weather. Each contained strategies to promote understanding of science concepts through inquiry and guides for incorporating mathematics and literacy skills. Two measures were used to obtain data: a science test created by the project team and a statewide mathematics test. The science test was given to the students in the treatment group at the beginning and at the end of the intervention. Instruments The science test developed by the project team assessed student achievement based on the intervention materials. Tests were given in English with accommodations for students with limited literacy skills. The test format included multiple-choice, extended response, and short answer questions. Students used data to construct graphs and tables, suggest explanations, and form conclusions. A scoring rubric assessed accuracy and completeness. District staff scored ARTICLE CRITIQUE 4 student responses on the pretest and posttest with an inter-rater agreement of 90%. Internal consistency reliability estimates were .60 for the pretest and .71 for the posttest. The reliability estimate for the pretest fell below the range generally considered acceptable, while the reliability estimates for the posttest were within acceptable range. The statewide mathematics test assessed five strands, including measurement, the strand emphasized in the intervention. The test consisted of multiple-choice, extended response, and short answer questions. Data Analysis To examine the effectiveness of the intervention, the treatment group was tested for science achievement. The original sample size was 1,134 students. However, only 818 students received both the pretest and posttest. Descriptive statistics provided a general idea of student gains from pretest to posttest. To analyze gaps in science achievement due to language and literacy levels, a hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analysis was used to provide two levels of models for analysis, one of which is the mean-as-outcome model, using gender, ethnicity, exceptional student education (ESE), English to speakers of other languages (ESOL), and retention (low literacy) as independent variables. To compare the treatment and comparison groups, results from the statewide mathematics test were analyzed. Results were obtained from the school district database for 942 students in the treatment group and 966 students in the comparison group. Descriptive statistics provided the overall picture, and an HLM analysis examined whether differences between the groups were attributable to the treatment. Results and Conclusions ARTICLE CRITIQUE 5 Descriptive statistics for the treatment group show a mean pretest score of 7.40 (SD = 3.36) and a mean posttest score of 14.34 (SD = 4.30). Mean scores for ESOL were lower than for non-ESOL at both pretest and posttest. Similarly, mean scores for retained were lower than for never retained at both pretest and posttest. Inferential statistics are presented, including variable, coefficient, standard error, tstatistic, degrees of freedom, and p-value. They specify an alpha of p < .01. For the science test, the overall mean gain score equaled 8.65 (p = .000). They use the p-value to conclude that the overall gain differed significantly. When analyzing the subgroups, they conclude that overall gains for ESOL and retention were not statistically significant (p = .329 for ESOL and p = .295 for retention). For the math test, results for the treatment group differed significantly from zero (p = .003). The coefficient differed significantly for ESOL (p = .004). The study did not find a significant difference between retained and never retained students. They identify three findings: (1) the treatment group showed a significant increase in science achievement, (2) there was no significant difference between ESOL and non-ESOL students, and there was no significant difference between retained and never retained students, and (3) the treatment group showed significantly higher scores on the math test than the comparison group, particularly in the measurement strand emphasized in the intervention. The researchers conclude that the intervention focusing on science inquiry was effective, particularly on the measurement strand of the math test. They offer implications of their study—the need for continued longitudinal research and more efforts to improve science learning simultaneously with English language and literacy development. Critique ARTICLE CRITIQUE 6 Problem This research is a quasi-experimental study designed to assess the effectiveness of the treatment—a professional development intervention. The problem (science achievement of ELL students) is clearly stated and is researchable by comparing achievement of the treatment group with a comparison group. The educational significance (high-stakes testing) of this problem is stated several times. The problem statement includes the variables of interest and suggests a positive correlation between teacher professional development and students’ science achievement. Review of Literature The review is comprehensive and relevant to the research questions and design of the intervention. The authors cite previous research, mostly primary sources, to justify the contents of their intervention. For example, the authors cite a study indicating that hands-on activities are more effective for ELL students because of a lowered dependency on mastery of formal academic language. Therefore, the authors developed their intervention to include hands-on activities. The review concludes with a brief summary of the literature and its implications for the problem being investigated. Hypothesis The authors list three specific research questions. However, rather than being explicitly stated, the hypothesis is suggested by the extensive literature review indicating that increased professional development and use of hands-on, inquiry-based science curriculum increased students’ science achievement. The hypothesis is testable by assessing treatment students’ science achievement both before and after the intervention and in comparison with non-treatment students. ARTICLE CRITIQUE 7 Participants Treatment and non-treatment students were similar in terms of ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status with slight variations in the number of Hispanic and African-American students. The percentage of retained students was similar for both groups. The demographics of the teachers implementing the intervention are described. However, the demographics of the non-treatment teachers were not included. Although the method of selecting this sample was clearly described and the large sample size reduces potential error, ultimately, participation in the research was voluntary and therefore non-random. Although not explicitly stated as such, it appears that the authors used a convenience sampling method. Therefore, non-random sampling is a limitation of the study. For example, volunteering schools may have been more willing to implement and support curriculum change, which may have lead to improvement that cannot be attributed solely to the intervention. Instruments The contents of both instruments used in this study are described in detail. There was no data available from past uses of the first instrument, a science test. However, the test was developed using similar questions or actual questions from standardized tests used in science assessment. Internal consistency reliability estimates were acceptable for the posttest but were outside of the acceptable range for the pretest. No mention is made of validity. The second instrument, a statewide mathematics assessment, had no data given regarding its reliability or validity. Procedure ARTICLE CRITIQUE 8 The design is appropriate to answer the questions of the study. First, the pretest and posttest administered to the treatment group assessed the effectiveness of the intervention. Given the context of national standards and high-stakes testing, it was appropriate to use a test to measure students’ science achievement. Second, the treatment and comparison groups were given the statewide mathematics test once towards the end of the school year. In a quasiexperimental design, it is appropriate to test students once to determine differences between the treatment and non-treatment groups. One limitation of the study is that pretesting the treatment group may have affected the internal validity of the results—that is, the improvement in scores may be due to student familiarity with the instrument. Data Analysis There are several strengths in this section. Sample size was adequate, even when broken down into subcategories of gender, ethnicity, ESE, ESOL and retention. Descriptive analysis seemed like a proper procedure for comparison of science pretest and posttest for the treatment group. The HLM analysis was an appropriate program to use since it is a more advanced form of single linear regression. The HLM allowed researchers to analyze data on multiple levels, such as the five independent variables, whereas single linear analysis would not have allowed them to do that. The only issue with using HLM analysis is that it does not appear to be a well-known program, so confirming the research would be difficult to do and that may raise suspicion. Another issue is that some of the data was lost due to mortality—in the treatment group, two teachers failed to administer posttests to their students. However, the mortality rate (28%) is not unusual for field studies of this nature. Results and Conclusions ARTICLE CRITIQUE 9 The results are presented clearly and specifically address each research question. Every hypothesis was tested. Appropriate descriptive (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics are presented in organized tables and described in the text. The authors set and specify the probability value before addressing the results of the study. Results are related to the original hypotheses and other research studies. Generalizations are consistent with results. Possible uncontrolled or mediating factors, such as teacher practices, are discussed as limitations of the study. The authors recommend future research based on their statistical as well as practical findings. For example, they discuss the need to continue their longitudinal study to better understand curriculum development, teacher professional development, and classroom practices affecting the achievement of English language learners.
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Running head: OBESITY AS MAJOR CAUSE OF CHRONIC DISEASES

Obesity as Major Cause of Chronic Diseases
Author
Institution

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OBESITY AS MAJOR CAUSE OF CHRONIC DISEASES

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Booth, F. W., Roberts, C. K., & Laye, M. J. (2012). Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic
diseases. Comprehensive Physiology, 2(2), 1143-1211.
Summary
The article addresses how lack of physical activity is a major cause of majority of the
chronic diseases. The article begins by describing the activity and the prevention definition.
According to the article past evidence shows that inactivity is detrimental to an individual health
and the normal functioning of organs. The article examines physical activity against as the main
prevention against 35 chronic conditions. The article concludes by addressing the long term
impact of being inactivity. According to the article the body health condition and life quality
deteriorate. According to the evidence presented by the article physical activity prevents or
delays the occurrence of chronic diseases.
Assumptions
The article assumes that other factors that contribute to chronic diseases are none existing
and that the primary cause of chronic disease is inactivity.
Subjects
There are no subjects in this article since it gathers data from research conducted by other
researchers in the past and analysis the findings.
Instruments
The data collection method used in the art...


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