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time, the benefits from that economic activity will be short-lived.
0 < Chapter 7 The Enviro...
Go to Chapter 7 The
Environment: Part II
Poverty harms the environment, as we saw for example in the case of deforestation, where poor people
searching for land to farm and for fuel are one cause of the extensive destruction of the remaining
tropical rainforests. Economic growth that benefits the majority of people is needed to protect the
environment. And a control on the rapidly expanding populations of many of the poorest countries is also
needed to protect the environment, since increasing numbers of poor people hurt the land on which they
live as they struggle to survive.
224
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233 Responsible Use
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For both rich and poor nations, the environment is important. Economic growth is also important,
especially for the poorer countries. The challenge remains for both poor and rich to achieve the optimal
level of economic activity while simultaneously maintaining healthy ecosystems and sustaining the land,
air, and water upon which all life depends.
236
Environmental Politics
238
Overdevelopment
Notes
238
Conclusions
239
Notes
1
American Cancer Society, "Lifetime Risk of Developing or Dying from Cancer," January 10, 2014, citing US National Cancer
Institute's Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) database, at http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/CancerBasics/lifetime-
probability-of-developing-or-dying-from-cancer (accessed July 2015).
242
Further Reading
229
240
2 "Study Hailed as Convincing in Tying Fat to Cancers," New York Times, April 24, 2003, p. A23; and Jane Brody, "Another Study Finds
a Link between Excess weight and Cancer," New York Times, May 6, 2003, p. 07.
3
Robin C. Puett et al., "Particulate Matter Air Pollution Exposure, Distance to Road, and Incident Lung Cancer in the Nurses' Health
Study Cohort," Environmental Health Perspectives, 122 (9) (2014), pp. 926-31; Solana Pyne, "Small Particles Add up to Big Disease Risk,"
Science, 295 (March 15, 2002), p. 1994.
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reduced in a number of countries by industrialization - obviously an impressive benefit of the new
economic activity. But that activity harmed both people and the environment. Slowly and painfully,
people in the developed countries have come to realize that economic growth is not enough. Attention has
to be paid to its effect on the Earth and on people. And awareness has grown in the industrialized nations,
and continues to grow, that the question of how economic growth is affecting the environment needs to be
asked and answered. The rich countries are slowly learning that it is cheaper and causes much less
suffering to try to reduce the harmful effects of an economic activity at the beginning, when it is planned,
than after the damage appears. To do this is not easy and is always imperfect. But an awareness of the
need for such effort indicates a greater understanding and moral concern than did the previous
widespread attitude that focused only on creating new products and services.
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233 Responsible Use
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236
Environmental Politics
238
Overdevelopment
238
Conclusions
Developing countries are slowly realizing that the effects of economic activity on the environment should
not be ignored. But here the new awareness is less widespread than in the rich countries. This is
understandable because, except for some of the rulers and elite groups, the reduction of poverty is the
first concern people have. It explains why some developing countries have welcomed polluting industries,
such as factories that manufacture asbestos, since jobs today are more important than a vague worry that
workers may contract cancer in 20 to 30 years. But also in developing countries, a slowly growing number
of people realize that if the economic activity that gives jobs to people harms the environment at the same
time, the benefits from that economic activity will be short-lived.
239
Notes
242
Further Reading
Poverty harms the environment, as we saw for example in the case of deforestation, where poor people
searching for land to farm and for fuel are one cause of the extensive destruction of the remaining
tropical rainforests. Economic growth that benefits the majority of people is needed to protect the
environment. And a control on the rapidly expanding populations of many of the poorest countries is also
needed to protect the environment, since increasing numbers of poor people hurt the land on which they
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food Banana Nut Bread
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is taken to reduce a pollutant, because of the inherent delays in the system the harmful effects of the
pollutant do not decrease until a number of years later. Thus the inclination of the public official - and the
business person-is to do nothing and hope that something turns up showing that the problem was not as
bad as feared or that there is a cheaper way to deal with it.
ji
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Environment: Part II
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An additional factor in environmental politics is unique to the United States. The American dream has
been one of continuing abundance. For much of the country's history, there has seemed to be an
unlimited abundance of many things needed for the good life, such as land, forests, minerals, energy,
clean air, and natural beauty. It is a country that seemed to offer unlimited opportunities for many to
make a better life for themselves, and "better" has been usually defined as including more material goods.
The setting of limits on consumption and production that environmentalists often promote is certain to
cause dismay to many.
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B A 回目
236
Environmental Politics
238
Overdevelopment
238
Conclusions
239
Notes
If the above were not enough to make environmental politics very difficult, there is also the fact that the
costs in environmental matters are often very difficult to measure. One can calculate the cost of a
scrubber on a coal-burning power plant, but how do you measure the cost of a shortened life that occurs if
the scrubber is not used? How do you place a dollar figure on the suffering a person with emphysema
experiences, or a miner with brown lung disease, or an asbestos worker with cancer? How do you
measure the costs the yet unborn will have to pay if nothing is done now about climate change? And how
do you put a dollar figure on the loss of natural beauty? Because it is so difficult to weigh the costs in
conventional terms of measurement, the costs often were not weighed in the past.51
242
Further Reading
There is, of course, also the matter of values - the value individuals place on more material goods, the
convenience of throwaway products, open spaces, and clean air. The resolution of conflicts over values
can often be handled only by politics, in a democracy by the community as a whole making decisions
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can often be handled only by politics, in a democracy by the community as a whole making decisions
0 < Chapter 7 The Enviro...
through its representatives and then requiring all members of the community to obey them. That such
stuff causes controversy and stirs passions should not be surprising. It is hard work.
Go to Chapter 7 The
Environment: Part II
Overdevelopment
The Workplace and the Home >
Perhaps a good way to end this chapter is to explain the concept of overdevelopment. According to the
Managing Waste
>
Australian biologist Charles Birch, "Overdevelopment of any country starts when the citizens of that
country consume resources and pollute the environment at a rate which is greater than the world could
233 Responsible Use
>
stand indefinitely if all the peoples of the world consumed resources at that rate."52 From this perspective,
it can be seen that the United States could be considered the most overdeveloped country in the world,
Environmental Politics
followed closely by many other industrial countries. People in the United States, who constitute about 4
Overdevelopment
percent of the world's population, consume about 25 percent of the world's annual use of natural
resources, and do so, as this chapter has shown, with devastating effects on the environment. This
Conclusions
devastation is being reduced as new environmental laws are enacted and gradually enforced in the
developed world, but it has not been reduced to such an extent that the concept of overdevelopment is
Notes
outdated. We saw in Chapter 3 that present global consumption already requires the resources of 1.5
Earths.
Further Reading
Conclusions
B A 回目
236
238
238
239
242
239
Development is more than economic growth: it also includes the social changes that are caused by or
accompany economic growth. As this chapter has shown, the increase in the production of goods and
services that came with industrialization had, and still has, frightening costs. Poverty was dramatically
raduced in number of countries buindustrialization ohuicuelon im roccitro honofit of the natit
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by upper middle-class people who have gained economic security and now want to improve the quality of
their lives further by reducing environmental pollutants. On the opposite side, he sees both lower income
groups and the rich - lower income people because they see environmental laws making it more difficult
for them to find jobs and obtain a better income, and the rich because they can often buy their way out of
environmental problems and see pollution laws as making it more difficult for them to increase their
wealth even further. 48
Go to Chapter 7 The
Environment: Part II
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233 Responsible Use
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236
Environmental Politics
Other conflicting interests are also involved in environmental politics. Antipollution laws often make it
more difficult and costly to increase energy supplies, extract minerals, and increase jobs by industrial
growth. Barry Commoner's Fourth Law of Ecology - There Is No Such thing as a Free Lunch - means that
for every gain there is some cost.49 There are tradeoffs involved in making the air and water cleaner as
there are in making more cars and television sets. Also, the costs of pollution control often increase
substantially as you try to make the environment cleaner and cleaner. The cost required to make a 50
percent reduction in a pollutant is often quite modest, whereas if you try to reduce the pollutant by 95
percent, the cost usually increases dramatically - balanced against the impacts of unabated pollution.50
238
Overdevelopment
238
Conclusions
239
Notes
242
Further Reading
Much environmental destruction is extremely difficult for the political system to deal with, since the
damage often shows up many years after the polluting action takes place. It is now clear that prevention is
much cheaper than trying to clean up the damage after it has occurred, but the nature of politics does not
lend itself to long-range planning. Generally, politicians have a rather short-term outlook, as do many
business people. Both are judged on their performance in handling immediate problems; this promotes a
tendency to take actions showing some immediate result. Such actions further the politician's chances for
reelection and the business person's profits or chances for promotion. Yet environmental problems often
call for actions before the danger becomes clear. A further complication is the fact that, even after action
is taken to reduce a pollutant, because of the inherent delays in the system the harmful effects of the
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