The Communication Playbook 2 We dedicate this book to our children, Matthew, a scientist, and Lindsay, an attorney, and their partners Tong and Daniel. We also write it in the memory of our parents, Martha and Marcel Kwal, and Nan and Wesley Gamble, and for our grandchild, Beckham Myles, who came into our lives last year, joyously reminding us of the magic of the cycle of life. Every day in Beckham’s life is an adventure, as it should be for us all. 3 The Communication Playbook Teri Kwal Gamble College of New Rochelle Michael W. Gamble New York Institute of Technology Los Angeles London New Delhi Singapore Washington DC Melbourne 4 FOR INFORMATION: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: order@sagepub.com SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Copyright © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. 5 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Gamble, Teri Kwal, author. | Gamble, Michael, author. Title: The communication playbook / Teri Kwal Gamble, Michael W. Gamble. Description: Los Angeles : Sage, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018021124 | ISBN 9781544337807 (spiral) Subjects: LCSH: Communication—Textbooks. Classification: LCC P90 .G2986 2019 | DDC 302.23—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018021124 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Acquisitions Editor: Terri Accomazzo Editorial Assistant: Sarah Wilson Content Development Editors: Sarah Calabi and Jennifer Jovin Production Editor: Andrew Olson Copy Editor: Colleen Brennan Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd Proofreader: Dennis W. Webb Indexer: Sheila Bodell Cover Designer: Scott Van Atta Marketing Manager: Staci Wittek 6 Brief Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors Chapter 1: Start Right Here Chapter 2: Having Communication Presence in a Multicultural Society and World Chapter 3: The “I” Behind the Eye: Perception and the Self Chapter 4: Communicating With Words: Helping Minds Meet Chapter 5: Nonverbal Messages Speak Chapter 6: Listening, Feedback, and Critical Thinking Chapter 7: Understanding Relationships Chapter 8: Person to Person: Handling Emotions and Conflict Chapter 9: Teamwork: Strategies for Decision Making and Problem Solving Chapter 10: Leading Others and Resolving Conflict Chapter 11: Public Speaking and You Chapter 12: Researching, Supporting, and Outlining Your Speech Chapter 13: Using Presentation Aids and Delivering Your Speech Chapter 14: Informative Speaking Chapter 15: Persuasive Speaking Appendix: Interviewing and Developing Professional Relationships Answer Key Glossary Notes Index 7 Detailed Contents Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors Chapter 1: Start Right Here What Is Communication Presence? SKILL BUILDER: Wi-Fi Me (It’s Not a Question) Communication Choices Are Abundant Communication Presence and Technology Are We Addicted? The Upshot Human and Social Capital The Communication–Success Connection What Is Communication? Defining Communication Types of Communication SKILL BUILDER: Communication Self-Assessment and Future Me Essentials of Communication People Messages Channels Noise Context Feedback Effect Visualizing the Communication Process in Action A Transactional Model of Communication How Good a Communicator Are You? Communication Is Dynamic Communication Is Unrepeatable and Irreversible Communication Has No Opposite EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Focus on Hate Culture Influences Communication Gender Influences Communication Personal Ethics Influence Communication Communication Is Competence Based 8 Digital and Social Media Are Transforming Communication Living Brands Changes Have Upsides and Downsides Why Do We Communicate? To Gain Self-Understanding and Insight Into Others To Form Meaningful Relationships To Influence Others For Career Development CAREER BUILDER: Professional Challenges and Future Me Communication Skills: Practice Effective Communication Chapter 2: Having Communication Presence in a Multicultural Society and World Cultures’ Many Faces Attitudes Toward Diversity Is It Different in the Working World? The Many Faces of Intercultural Communication What Happened to the Melting Pot? The Melting Pot Philosophy The Philosophy of Cultural Pluralism Diversity Is Reshaping the Future Culture and Communication Culture Is a Teacher What We Know About Difference Matters The Effects of Cultural Imperialism How We Feel About Difference Matters The Dangers of Ethnocentrism The Promise of Cultural Relativism On the Look Out for Stereotypes and Prejudice Cultures Within Cultures Influences on Cultural Identity and Communication Presence Gender Roles Age Racial and Ethnic Identities ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Through Others’ Eyes Religious Identity Socioeconomic Identity Generational Differences The Greatest Generation 9 The Baby Boom Generation X Generation Y: The Millennials iGeneration CAREER BUILDER: Gen-You and Future Me Cultures and Co-Cultures Co-Cultures and Communication Strategies Assimilation Accommodation Separation Co-Cultures and Communication Approaches Passive Communication Assertive Communication More Aggressive Communication SKILL BUILDER: Assessing Ethnocentrism Versus Cultural Relativism Dimensions of Culture in Action Individualism Versus Collectivism High Context Versus Low Context High Power Distance Versus Low Power Distance Monochronic Versus Polychronic Culture Masculine Versus Feminine Culture Interpreting Cultural Differences Technology and Community Neighborhoods Need Not Be Real We Consciously Can Choose Our Neighbors Other Reasons We Seek Virtual Communities The Power of Dialogue For Good and Bad Communication Skills: Practice Communicating Interculturally Chapter 3: The “I” Behind the Eye: Perception and the Self Perception of the Self, Others, and Experience What Is Perception? Perception Occurs in Stages Perception Is Selective and Personal Effects of Selectivity Age and Memory Influence Perception We Organize Our Perceptions The Figure-Ground Principle Perceptual Constancy 10 Perceptual Schemata Closure Perceiving the “I” Affects Perception of You Looking at the Self The Importance of Self-Awareness The Nature of Self-Concept How Self-Concept Develops The Connection Between Self-Concept and Behavior Attribution Theory Self-Esteem The Dark Side of Self-Esteem The Bright Side of Self-Esteem SKILL BUILDER: Me, You, and Popular and Social Media Factors Affecting Self-Concept and Outlook Resilience and Grit Developing Self-Understanding ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Combatting Stigma, Stereotypes, and Prejudice Expectations Matter: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy The Pygmalion Effect Real and Life Examples The Galatea Effect How to Enhance Self-Awareness Identify Life Scripts Use the Johari Window Interpersonal Styles in the Johari Window SKILL BUILDER: Symbolizing the Self Manage Impressions Identify Your Multiple Identities Life Is Like a Performance CAREER BUILDER: Work Places and Faces Barriers to Perceiving Yourself and Others Clearly Past Experiences Follow Us We Close Our Mind We Freeze Our First Impression We Exhibit the Behaviors of a Lazy Perceiver We Think We Know It All We Blinder Ourselves We Confuse Facts and Inferences We Exhibit Deficient Empathy Skills 11 Gender, Self-Concept, and Perception Standpoints: Lessons Frame Perceptions Beliefs Can Blind Us Culture, Self-Concept, and Perception Barriers to Understanding Notions of the Self Are Culturally Based Distinctness Stands Out Self-Concept, Perception, and Technology EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Assessing Your Preference for “I” Versus “We” Technology Influences Information Processing Technology Influences Our Online Presence The Internet and Social Networks Promote Self–Other Comparisons Technology Alters Perceptions of Reality Communication Skills: Practice Improving Perception of the Self and Others Chapter 4: Communicating With Words: Helping Minds Meet Language Is Alive: We Use Words to Share Meaning Words, Things, and Thoughts The Triangle of Meaning Problems With the Communication of Meaning Understanding Meaning’s Meaning Meanings Are Both Denotative and Connotative Meaning Is Dated SKILL BUILDER: A Time Capsule for Words Meaning Is Locational Experience Influences Meaning Jargon Slang Whether Language Is Concrete or Abstract Influences Meaning Barriers to Understanding: Patterns of Miscommunication Bypassing: Confusing Meanings Labeling: Mixing Up Words and Things CAREER BUILDER: “The Name Game” Polarization: The Missing Middle Evasive and Emotive Language Words Announce Our Attitudes Do You Talk Doublespeak? 12 Politically Correct Language SKILL BUILDER: Political Correctness and Free Speech Culture and Language Culture Influences the Words Used The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Cultural Differences Can Lead to Confused Translations Culture Affects Communication Style Culture Influences Symbolism and Vagueness Prejudiced Talk Linguistic Prejudice Racial Code Words Globalization’s Effects on Language Gender and Language Sexist Language Naming Practices ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: The Words We Choose Gender and Speech Style Conversational Strategies Gender-lects Words and Power Profanity and Obscenity Profanity in the Workplace Reclamation of Profanity and Slurs Technology and Language Use GIFs Front and Center Online Speak Informality, Anonymity, and Inflammatory Language COMMUNICATION SKILLS: Practice Thinking Critically About Language Use Chapter 5: Nonverbal Messages Speak Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication We All Do It Nonverbal Communication Can Be Conscious or Unconscious Functions of Nonverbal Communication Message Reinforcement or Complementation Message Negation Message Substitution Message Accentuation or Intensification Message Regulation 13 Types of Nonverbal Communication Body Language: Kinesics Facial Expressions Promoting Communication Presence Using Facial Management Techniques Using Facial Appearance to Interpret and Evaluate Communication Presence Facial Areas The Eyebrows and Forehead The Eyes The Mouth Posture CAREER BUILDER: The Ethics of Achieving Status Gestures Voice: Paralanguage Pitch Volume Rate Silence Personal Characteristics Space and Distance: Proxemic and Environmental Factors The Distance Between Us Intimate Distance Personal Distance Social Distance Public Distance Spaces Informal Space Semi-Fixed-Feature Space Fixed-Feature Space Territoriality and Personal Space ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Security and Guarded Territory Appearance The Height Factor The Weight Factor Other Appearance Effects Clothing and Artifacts Colors: Meanings and Associations Time: Chronemics 14 Wait Time SKILL BUILDER: Assessing Your Use of Time Rush Time Touch: Haptics Touch Effects Accessibility to Touch Touch and Status Smell: Olfactics Emotional Triggers and Recall Truth, Deception, and Nonverbal Cues Who’s Best at Deception? Gender and Nonverbal Behavior Dominance and Affiliation Dress Codes Whose Voice? Culture and Nonverbal Behavior Expressing Emotion and Intimacy Judgments of Beauty Attitudes Toward Distance and Touch Be Careful Making Meaning Technology and Nonverbal Communication SKILL BUILDER: Assessing Your Virtual Presence Do Substitutes for Facial Expressions and Gestures Work? Communication Skills: Practice Using and Observing Nonverbal Cues Chapter 6: Listening, Feedback, and Critical Thinking Listening and Communication True “Not Listening” Stories We All Do It! Are You Listening? Listening Is More Than Hearing Defining Hearing Defining Listening Listening Takes Effort How Responsive a Listener Are You? Do You Prepare to Listen? Do You Use Listening Time Wisely? Complications Caused by the Digital Domain Review Your Personal Situation Do You Listen Accurately? 15 Do You Listen Ethically? Are You a Receptive Listener? Are You Ready to Listen Beyond Words? Types of Listening Appreciative Listening Comprehensive Listening Critical Listening Empathic Listening Decenter Skills to the Rescue Empathic Listening Fosters Healthy Relationships The Stages of Listening: More Than Meets the Ear Hearing Understanding Remembering Interpreting Evaluating Responding More on the Ethics of Listening: Identifying Problem Behaviors ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Talk, Talk, Talk Responding With Feedback What Is Feedback? Types of Feedback Evaluative Feedback Positive Evaluative Feedback Negative Evaluative Feedback SKILL BUILDER: Looking at Faulty Listening and Future Me Formative Feedback Nonevaluative Feedback CAREER BUILDER: Cultural Implications of Feedback Probing Understanding Supportive Feedback “I” Messages The Importance of Critical Thinking What Critical Thinkers Think About The Critical Versus the Uncritical Thinker Questions to Facilitate Critical Thinking Keep in Mind the Mindfulness Factor Gender and Listening Style 16 ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Would You Ask for and Listen to Directions? Cultural Influences on Listening People-Oriented Listeners Content-Oriented Listeners Action-Oriented Listeners Time-Oriented Listeners Mixing Styles Dialogic Listening Technology’s Influence on Listening and Critical Thinking Our Shrinking Attention Span Is the Computer Really Our “Friend”? Listening Etiquette We Are Being Overstimulated More Listening Wrinkles More Options Crossing Barriers COMMUNICATION SKILLS: Practice Listening Skills Chapter 7: Understanding Relationships What Is An Interpersonal Relationship? Why Relationships Matter We Need Connections Relationships Fulfill Different Ends SKILL BUILDER: A Self-Assessment of My Relationships Relationships Meet Needs The Need for Inclusion The Need for Control The Need for Affection These Needs Are Not All Met at the Same Time Conversing: Connecting Through Interpersonal Dialogue Talk Matters Competing Concerns Being Fully Present The Five-Step Pattern The Open Feedforward Goal Elaboration Reflection The Close Take Turns 17 CAREER BUILDER: The Grapevine and the Gossip Mill Who Don’t You Want to Talk To? Relationships Differ in Breadth and Depth Social Penetration Theory Self-Disclosure Affects Relationship Breadth and Depth Privacy Needs Affect Relationship Breadth and Depth Analyzing Relationships Relationship Stages: A Developmental Model Stage 1: Initiating Stage 2: Experimenting Stage 3: Intensifying Stage 4: Integrating Stage 5: Bonding Stage 6: Differentiating Stage 7: Circumscribing Stage 8: Stagnating Stage 9: Avoiding Stage 10: Termination A Special Case: Relationship Termination Caused by a Loved One’s Passing The Grief Process How Others Help Digital Media and Relational Processes Tinder-Like Apps Dropping Relationship Breadcrumbs It’s Over It Ended . . . but Not Really Relationships Come With Costs and Benefits Relationships Experience Tensions Connection Versus Autonomy Predictability Versus Novelty Openness Versus Privacy Dialectical Tension Resolutions Lying, Trust, and Relationships The Effects of Lying Why Lying Takes a Toll ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Self/Other Reflection The Effects of Trust The Trust Paradox How Well Do You Tolerate Vulnerability? 18 Hurtful Messages Laughter as Interpersonal Tool Gender and Relationships The Benefits of a Feminist Partner Flirting Matters Who’s Sorry? Who Engages More With Social Media? Who Focuses on Maintenance? What We Share Culture and Relationships More on Technology and Relationships Does Technology Help? Popularity Is Quantifiable, but Is This Appropriate? Factors Hampering Relationship Development Online Some Find It Easier Communication Skills: Practice Improving Interpersonal Relationships Chapter 8: Person to Person: Handling Emotions and Conflict Five Factors Contributing to Relationship Interest Attractiveness Proximity Reinforcement Similarity Complementarity Understanding the Uncertainty Factor Strategies for Reducing Relationship Uncertainty Predicting Relationship Outcomes Types of Relationships Acquaintanceships Friendships Keeping Friends A Model of Friendship Variant Forms of Friendship Romantic Relationships Unique Characteristics Stages and Changes Dysfunctions Family Relationships Expectations Healthy Versus Unhealthy Communication 19 Evolving Composition Making Sense SKILL BUILDER: My Family Network Work Relationships CAREER BUILDER: What Attitude Do You Bring to Work? Emotions and Relationships We All Have Them We Benefit From Emotional Intelligence The Range of Emotions SKILL BUILDER: The Expression of Angry Feelings Primary and Mixed Emotions Are Feelings Catching? ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Rx for Emotional Contagion Expressing and Sharing Feelings Expression Problems Suppressing and Disclosing Feelings Censoring Feelings Display Rules Gender’s Effect Culture’s Effect Personal Values Play Their Part Effects of Disclosing Feelings Experiencing Relational Conflict Sources of Relational Conflict Categories of Relational Conflict Classifying Conflict by Goal Classifying Conflict by Intensity Classifying Conflict by Type Classifying Conflict by Functionality Managing Relational Conflict Crazy-Making Behavior Effective Conflict Management Conflict Resolution Styles Nonassertiveness Aggressiveness Assertiveness Use a DESC Script Gender, Culture, and Conflict Gender and Conflict 20 Culture and Conflict Technology, Relationships, and the Communication of Emotion Effects on Self-Expression Ego Effects ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Computing Relationship Stats Tuned Into Feelings Get Real Drawbacks and Consequences COMMUNICATION Skills: Practice Handling Feelings Effectively Chapter 9: Teamwork: Strategies for Decision Making and Problem Solving Groups, Teams, and You Differentiating Groups and Teams The Benefits of Group and Teamwork The Prevalence of Group and Teamwork Characteristics and Components of Groups Group Membership Group Size Group Goals, Structure, and Climate Characteristics of Effective Groups The Dynamics of Group Development Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning Using Groups to Make Decisions and Solve Problems Advantages of the Small Group Pooling Resources Motivation Enhancement Error Elimination Better Received Decisions More Pleasant Experience Disadvantages of the Small Group Shirking of Responsibility Goal Conflicts Decision Domination Refusal to Compromise 21 The Risky Shift It Takes Longer ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Golden Rules of Decision Making When to Use a Group for Decision Making and Problem Solving Understanding the Roles Group Members Play Group Role-Classification Model Task-Oriented Roles Maintenance Roles Self-Serving Roles Understanding Group Member Relationships Cooperation Versus Competition Supportiveness Versus Defensiveness Why We Become Defensive Behaviors That Raise and Reduce Perceived Threat Levels Evaluation Versus Description Control Versus Problem Orientation Strategy Versus Spontaneity Neutrality Versus Empathy Superiority Versus Equality Certainty Versus Provisionalism Decision Making In Groups: Reaching Goals Strategies of Decision Making Thinking About the Effectiveness of Decision-Making Methods Majority Vote Averaging Let the Expert Decide Let the Leader Decide The Nominal Group The Delphi Method Quality Circles Decision by Consensus EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Group Polarization Factors to Consider in Weighing Decision Method Effectiveness Questions for Decision Makers: Facts, Values, and Policies Questions of Fact 22 Questions of Value Questions of Policy A Framework for Decision Making: Reflective Thinking The Search for Better Ideas: Brainstorming Where Ideas Come From What Is Brainstorming? Guidelines for Brainstorming What Can Go Wrong? Ways to Foster Creativity Focus on Focus Groups Gender, Culture, Technology, and Group Interaction Gender and Group Member Behavior Decision Making Exercising Power Problem Analysis Culture and Group Member Behavior Openness to Ambivalence Problem Solving and Member Satisfaction Member Orientations Globalization Effects Group Composition and Goals Generational Diversity Technology and Groups The Social Network Paradigm Benefits of Online Groups Drawbacks of Online Groups CAREER-BUILDER: What Can We Learn From Online Speak? Communication Skills: Practice Tips for Improving Group Communication Chapter 10: Leading Others and Resolving Conflict APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP: THE LEADER IN YOU What Is Leadership? Leadership Styles Type X and Type Y Leaders CAREER BUILDER: Shakespeare, Pop Culture, and Leadership Lessons Autocratic, Laissez-Faire, and Democratic Leaders Theories of Leadership Trait Theory Situational Theory 23 Functional Theory Transformational Theory Leading the Way Through Conflict Management Goals and Styles: A Conflict Grid Steer Clear of Groupthink SKILL BUILDER: What Kind of Thinker Are You? Cooperative Versus Competitive Conflict: Win-Win or Win-Lose EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Win-Win The Influence of Gender, Culture, and Technology on Leadership and Conflict Management Gender, Leadership, and Conflict: Comparing Approaches Gendered Leaders and Relationships Gendered Leaders and Conflict Culture, Leadership, and Conflict: Comparing Views Overcoming Cultural Challenges to Reach Common Understandings ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: My Way or the Highway Leading Groups and Handling Conflict in Cyberspace Communication Skills: Practice Tips for Ethical Conflict Management Chapter 11: Public Speaking and You BUILDING PUBLIC SPEAKING CONFIDENCE CAREER BUILDER: TED’s Got Talent Understand Your Fears SKILL BUILDER: Self-Assessment of Speaking Anxiousness Understand Sources of Public Speaking Anxiety Fear of Failure Fear of the Unknown Fear of Evaluation Fear of Being the Center of Attention Fear of Difference Fear Due to Cultural Background Controlling Speechmaking Anxiety Use Deep-Muscle Relaxation to Overcome Physical Symptoms Use Thought Stopping to Overcome Mental Symptoms Use Visualization to Picture Yourself Succeeding Other Techniques 24 Approaching Speech Making Systematically: A Primer for Giving Your First Speech Proceed Step-by-Step First Landing: Topic Selection and Self-Analysis and Audience Analysis Second Landing: Speech Development, Support, and Organization Third Landing: Presentation Practice and Delivery Fourth Landing: Postpresentation Analysis Analyze Yourself Review Your Life: Your Narrative Consider the Moment: This Moment Search the News Use Technology Analyze Your Audience ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: The Magic Bullet of Speech Making Gathering Audience Information Personal Experience Research Draw a Demographic Profile Age Considerations Gender Considerations Sexual Orientation Considerations Family Orientation Religion Cultural Background Occupation Socioeconomic Status Educational Level Additional Considerations Draw a Psychographic Profile Understand Receivers’ Values, Beliefs, and Attitudes Understand How the Audience Perceives You Analyze the Occasion Date and Time: When and How Long? Location: Where? Occasion Specifics: Why? How Many? Select Your Topic Is the Topic Worthwhile? 25 Is the Topic Appropriate? Is the Topic Interesting? Is Sufficient Research Material Available on the Topic? Narrow The Topic and Clarify Your Purpose Formulate a Purpose Statement Compose a Thesis Identify Your Speech’s Main Points SKILL BUILDER: Score Your Subject COMMUNICATION SKILLS: Practice Tips for Improving Speech Preparation Chapter 12: Researching, Supporting, and Outlining Your Speech Research Your Topic Research Both Online and Offline Get to Know the Library Use Reference Works Use Online References and Databases Use E-Mail Check Newsgroups and Subreddits Access the World Wide Web Be Certain to Evaluate What You Find Conduct Primary Research Personal Observations and Experience Informal Surveys Interviews CAREER BUILDER: What Do They Know? Record Information Derived from Research Select the Best Support Possible Definitions Statistics Examples and Illustrations Testimony Comparisons and Contrasts Repetition and Restatement SKILL BUILDER: Reliable Sources & Support Linear and Configural Formats Linear Organizational Formats Chronological Order Spatial Order Cause-and-Effect Order Problem-and-Solution Order 26 Topical Order ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Sound Bites With Bite Internal Previews, Summaries, Transitions, and Signposts Configural Organizational Formats EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Is Attention Cultural? Outlining Your Speech: Building a Speaking Framework Creating Your Outline Outlining Principles Beginnings and Endings The Introduction Functions of the Introduction Types of Introductions The Preview The Conclusion Functions of the Conclusion Types of Conclusions A Sample Outline COMMUNICATION SKILLS: Practice Tips for Speech Design and Organization Chapter 13: Using Presentation Aids and Delivering Your Speech Selecting and Preparing Presentation Aids Why Use Presentation Aids? Types of Visual Aids Objects and Models Graphs Drawings, Photographs, and Maps Guidelines for Evaluating Which Visuals to Use ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Visually Speaking Audio Aids Computer-Assisted Presentations Pitfalls of PowerPoint SKILL BUILDER: Evaluating a PowerPoint Presentation Preparing to Speak Manuscript Speeches Memorized Speeches Impromptu Speeches Extemporaneous Speeches Sound Bite Speaking (Twitter Speak) CAREER BUILDER: Can You Make It Bite Size? Rehearsing 27 Conduct Tryouts: Rehearse, Refine, Rehearse Conduct a Visual Tune-Up Attire Posture Gestures Movements and Facial Expressions Eye-Contact Conduct a Vocal Tune-Up Conduct a Verbal Tune-Up Preparing for the Q&A The Rehearsal–Confidence Connection Presenting: Keys to Remember Beyond the Presentation: Assessing Your Effectiveness Content Organization Wording Delivery COMMUNICATION SKILLS: Practice Tips for Evaluating Your Speech Chapter 14: Informative Speaking Sharing and Conceptualizing Information Avoid Information Overload or Underload CAREER BUILDER: Assessing the Effects of Information Overload Make It Relevant Types of Informative Presentations ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: What Can You Do to Handle the Glut of Information? Speeches About Objects and Ideas Speaking About an Object Organizing Speeches About Objects Speaking About an Idea Organizing Speeches About Ideas Speeches About Events and People Speaking About an Event Speaking About a Person Organizing Speeches About Events and People Speeches About Processes and Procedures Organizing Speeches About Processes and Procedures SKILL BUILDER: Assessing an Informative Speech 28 Guidelines for Informative Speakers Create Information Hunger Offer Information Balance Emphasize Key Points Involve the Audience Make Information Memorable Draw on Novelty and Creativity Integrate Presentation Aids Communication Skills: Practice Tips for Achieving Informative Speaking Goals Chapter 15: Persuasive Speaking The Purpose of Persuasion Goals of Persuasion Types of Persuasive Speeches Propositions of Fact Organizing the Question of Fact Speech Propositions of Value Organizing the Question of Value Speech Propositions of Policy Organizing the Question of Policy Speech Understanding Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Persuading Responsibly, Strategically, and Credibly ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION: Big and Little Lies Building Persuasive Credibility Guidelines for Persuading Effectively Be Clear About Your Goal Consider Receivers’ Attitudes and Beliefs Use the Influence Principles of Consistency and Social Proof Gain Your Audience’s Attention Evoke Relevant Needs and Issues Make the Audience Feel and Think Reason Logically Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning Causal Reasoning Reasoning From Analogy Reason Ethically Hasty Generalizations Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 29 Slippery Slope Red Herring False Dichotomy False Division Personal Attacks Glittering Generalities Bandwagon Appeals Appeal to Fear Appeal to Tradition Appeal to Misplaced Authority Straw Man CAREER BUILDER: Fact Checking Pinocchio at Work and in Public Life Promise a Reward SKILL BUILDER: Assessing a Persuasive Speech COMMUNICATION SKILLS: Practice Tips for Achieving Persuasive Speaking Goals Appendix: Interviewing and Developing Professional Relationships The Employment Interview: Beyond Casual Communication Employer and Employee Perspectives Common Interviewee Fears Securing the Interview: Tools and Tasks Networking and the Job Search Preparing the Cover Letter and Résumé The Cover Letter The Résumé Preliminary Prepping Conducting an Interview Structure: Stages of the Interview The Opening The Body The Close Questions: The Heart of the Interview Interviewee Roles and Responsibilities Assess Yourself Prepare to Withstand Pressure Identify Personal Qualifications S.T.A.R. Interview Categories Remember to Ask Questions 30 Impression Management and Interviewee Presence Looking at the Law: Illegal Interview Questions Diversity, Technology, and the Interview Culture and the Interview Technology and the Job Search Personal Job-Seeking Websites Electronic Résumés Online Interviews and Assessment Online Blunders to Avoid Answer Key Glossary Notes Index 31 Preface The Communication Playbook is the text for the hybrid communication course designed to meet the complex needs of 21st-century communicators —those concerned with how to present themselves to others across the communication spectrum, whether face-to-face, using social media, in workspaces and workplaces, or in public. How might those who matter in your life describe for others what it’s like to interact with you? Might they describe you as being present or distracted, empathetic or distant? How might they describe your behavior as coworker or team member? Might they assess you as cooperative and collaborative or instead report that you come off as self-concerned and a blocker? What words might people listening to you use to describe your presentation skills? Might they find you to be prepared and persuasive or ill-prepared and uninspiring? And were you to switch roles with them, how might those individuals describe you as a member of their audience? Might they report you to be attentive and encouraging or bored and disengaged? In each case, the adjectives others attribute to you is how you come across to them. We 21st-century communicators face complex challenges. Each of us bears personal and social responsibility for developing, sharing, and managing a unique identity—the composite of characteristics we place on display in both physical and online worlds. Effectively, we create both a real-world or face-to-face identity and a digital-world or virtual identity for others to consume. It is as we navigate between these two spaces—the physical and the digital—that we shape our unique and personal communication presence, influencing the nature and course of our relationships and perceived communication effectiveness both online and offline. Our goal in writing The Communication Playbook, of course, is for the communication presence you become known for in your personal life, in the workplace, and in your community to be positive and success enhancing. Becoming adept at connecting with others, whether you actually are in their presence or digitally dispersed, is a skill to be mastered. As such, this text seeks to help you present yourself as 32 competently and confidently as possible in the communication arenas you frequent. Although various means of communication may become more popular than others at different times in our lives, for better or worse, they all evolve. The Communication Playbook shows you how to make communication work across the spectrum of available communication channels. Ultimately, because the communication presence you present and share in social, civic, and professional arenas and personal, group, and public settings affects your relationships and life satisfaction, we believe that you never can become too effective at communicating. The Strategy of the Communication Playbook The Communication Playbook coaches you to personal and career success, guiding you in learning to use and manage an authentic and effective communication toolset that will serve you today and in the future. How skillful you are at communicating as you navigate different life arenas influences how others in your social, professional, and civic spheres perceive and respond to you. What are the competencies you need to master for others to perceive you as having value? What are the skills you need to hone to be considered an effective communicator? What are the understandings you need to develop as you navigate from one life arena to another? These are the questions we answer in this new outcomes- and skills-based hybrid text for the introductory communication course. The Communication Playbook explores communication basics and key life arenas, highlighting the outcomes you need to achieve to become proficient in the essentials of communication; interpersonal communication and interviewing; group communication, leadership/teambuilding, and problem solving; and the preparation, practice, and delivery of public presentations. To accomplish this, The Communication Playbook investigates the communication domains and practices of 21st-century communicators and identifies steps to take, skills to master, and understandings to apply to build and manage a unique and value-laden communication presence, one that is authentic and approachable and that enables you to develop and maintain meaningfully effective personal, community, and work relationships. 33 To the Instructor: What Differentiates The Communication Playbook From Other Hybrid Texts on the Market? The Communication Playbook incorporates some of the successful material that our best-selling textbook Communication Works was known for. However, we also have given The Communication Playbook a renewed focus and fresh content, making it a particularly useful and relevant text for the hybrid course. A prime differentiator of The Communication Playbook is our highlighting the importance of both the physical and the digital domains in students’ lives. We coach students in conceptualizing, creating, cultivating, and communicating an authentic communication presence to foster success not only in their personal relationships online and offline but in their careers and civic lives as well. Although other texts may cover similar topics, none place students in personal control of how others value and perceive them —even though that is what happens as they engage others in both the physical and digital worlds. As Amazon founder Jeff Bezos has said, “Branding is what people say about you when you’re not in the room.” We wrote this text so individuals with whom students interact in any life arena will have good things to say about them both to their faces and in their absence. We wrote this text so that those with whom our students interact are able to perceive their value and open doors and opportunities for them. We want our students to learn more about themselves as communicators— to develop empathy and perspective-taking so that they may envision how they affect others, to tap into existing talents and build communication skills that facilitate goal achievement, and to chart a course that nurtures the continual improvement of their authentic and unique communication presence. In addition, woven through The Communication Playbook are the following proven pedagogical techniques: A series of objectives and desired outcomes designed to facilitate personal development in communication A selection of individual and group activities and self-assessments built to foster engagement A series of personal goals for students to realize as they build their 34 communication presence and develop communication skills and competence End-of-chapter checklists and word-mastery lists that guide students in reviewing and demonstrating learning. Four thematic threads are woven through The Communication Playbook: 1. A concern for communicating ethically 2. A focus on multiculturalism and global and gender self-awareness, particularly what it takes to be comfortable engaging with people who are culturally and ideologically diverse 3. A consideration of how technology and social networks impact every communication arena 4. An exploration of how to build bridges of understanding among those with whom we engage socially, professionally, and civically To this end, The Communication Playbook also contains a series of highlighted boxes within its chapters. Skill Builders: Learning activities for use inside or outside of class. Skill Builders encourage students to observe and consider their own and others’ face-to-face and digital communication practices, to assess their effects, and to experience the insights and practice they need to become more skillful communicators. Career Builders: Exercises and checklists exploring the relationship between communication skills and career success. Exploring Diversity: Activities designed to help students explore the connections between culture, gender, and communication. Ethics and Communication: Experiential vehicles designed to help students work their way through ethical quandaries and define for themselves the meaning of “ethical communication.” Each boxed series is designed to promote critical inquiry and reflection as it challenges students to complete and analyze self-inventories, assess how advances in technology are reshaping communication, and become actively involved in meeting 21st-century communication challenges and designing a “future me”—envisioning and demonstrating how improving communication skills paves a path to personal and professional success. 35 We hope students and instructors enjoy using The Communication Playbook as much as we enjoyed working on it! All our best, Teri and Michael Gamble 36 Acknowledgments It is such a pleasure to work with the professionals at SAGE that it makes it difficult to single out who to thank because the work that all the folks at SAGE do is seamless. From the firm commitment given this project by Matthew Byrnie; to the unyielding support and fresh ideas provided by acquisitions editor Terri Accomazzo, who believed in this project from the get-go; to the understanding, creativity, and insights provided by content developmental editors Sarah Calabi and Jennifer Jovin; the team behind The Communication Playbook has been phenomenal. We also want to offer a shout-out to the painstaking efforts of production editor Andrew Olson and copy editor Colleen Brennan, who asked all the right questions and helped to ensure the book’s readability and accuracy. But what would a text be without its design team? We would like to offer a very special thanks to them: C&M Digitals and cover designer Scott Van Atta. We are also grateful to the many talented faculty who read our book, offering their suggestions and making this edition a better one. These individuals include: Chantele Carr, Estrella Mountain Community College Yvonne M. Fielder, Des Moines Area Community College Sean McPherson, Massachusetts Maritime Academy Emily Richardson, University of Pikeville David Scales, Naugatuck Valley Community College 37 About the Authors Teri Kwal Gamble, a full professor of communication at the College of New Rochelle in New Rochelle, New York (PhD, New York University; MA and BA, Lehman College CUNY), and Michael W. Gamble, a full professor of communication at the New York Institute of Technology in New York City (PhD, New York University; BA and MFA, University of Oklahoma) are long-time partners in life and work. Professional writers of education and training materials, the Gambles are the coauthors of numerous text and trade books. Their most recent publication was the second edition of the Public Speaking Playbook (2018). Among some of the other books the Gambles have written are Nonverbal Messages Tell More: A Practical Guide to Nonverbal Communication (2017), The Gender Communication Connection (2nd ed., 2014), and Leading With Communication (2013). Prior to Michael’s career as a college professor, he served as an officer and taught leadership skills for the U.S. Army Infantry School. Together, Teri and Mike founded Interact Training Systems, a communication consulting firm. They love living and working together! 38 1 Start Right Here iordani/Shutterstock.com After completing this chapter, you should be able to: 1.1 Discuss the nature of “communication presence.” 1.2 Define communication. 1.3 Explain the essential elements of communication and their interaction. 1.4 Use a transactional model of communication to visualize the communication process in action. 1.5 Describe the core principles of good communication. 1.6 Evaluate the benefits of communicating effectively. 39 1.7 Apply skills for improving your communication effectiveness. Communication—the human connection, is the key to personal and career success. Paul J. Meyer Be brutally honest. Do you spend any of your free time thinking about communication? More specifically, have you ever imagined the words others might choose to describe you as a communicator? Take a moment and do that now. After engaging in conversation with you, might others say that you were present or distracted, authentic or fake, empathetic or distant? How are they likely to describe your behavior as a coworker or team member? Might they see you as cooperative and collaborative, or would they instead judge you to be self-concerned and a blocker? What words might those in an audience you were speaking to use to describe your speech-making abilities? Would they find you prepared and persuasive or ill prepared and uninspiring? And when roles were switched, how might other speakers describe you as a member of their audience? Might they report that you were attentive and encouraging, or would they perceive you to be bored or “out-to-lunch”? In each case, the adjectives others attribute to you, how you come across to them, are your communication presence. Our goal is to help you make communication work as effectively as you can in all the social and professional settings you frequent, whether you are engaging with others online or face-to-face. With this in mind, welcome to The Communication Playbook, your resource for communication skills for life and career success. What is Communication Presence? We 21st-century communicators face complex challenges. Each of us bears personal and social responsibility for developing, sharing, and then managing a unique identity or communication presence—the composite of characteristics we present both in the physical and online world. Effectively, we each create a real-world or face-to-face identity and a 40 digital-world or virtual identity for others to consume. It is as we navigate between these two spaces—the physical and the digital—that the unique personal communication presence that others attribute to us when we interact with them, both online and offline takes shape, and it speaks volumes. How others in both the physical and digital world perceive our communication presence affects their opinions of us and our relationships with them. The objective, of course, is for our communication presence to be positive, authentic, and serve as a success catalyst. Becoming adept at connecting with others, whether they are actually present or digitally dispersed, is one skill we all should want to master. We should want to present ourselves as competently and confidently as possible in the communication arenas we frequent daily, regardless of whether we happen to be physically in the same space or are using social media. Skill Builder Wi-Fi Me (It’s Not a Question) Based solely on the name of your Wi-Fi network, what impressions might others form of you? In an effort to influence others’ reactions, Wi-Fi network names have morphed from boring series of digits to personalized monikers much like vanity license plates. Choose a Wi-Fi name that you believe will reveal to others something they may not know about you. For example, one ballet dance instructor branded her Wi-Fi network “PointToMe.”1 What will you brand yours? What do you think your brand communicates about you? Communication Choices are Abundant We have an abundance of communication options today. To be sure, various means of communicating become more popular than others at 41 different times in our lives. For example, for many of us texting is the dominant form of interaction.2 But for better or worse, our communication choices evolve. The question is: Do we make sound decisions about how to communicate most effectively and appropriately with others? Once we understand what makes communication work across the spectrum of communication channels available to us, we will know how to make it work for us. Ultimately, because the communication presence we present and share in social, civic, and professional arenas and personal, group, organizational, and public settings affects our relationships, our ability to engage with others, and our life satisfaction, we can never become too effective at communicating. Communication Presence and Technology What is your personal “go-to” means of communicating? If you’re like many 21st-century students, your smartphone serves as your prime personal connector. You likely use it to check Facebook, text, tweet, or post on Instagram—but rarely make a phone call. For some people, actually talking to another person causes discomfort. Such individuals find technology freeing, because they don’t have to be in the physical presence of others. They feel able to say what they want without fear of being interrupted or even having to listen to another’s response. Are We Addicted? Although we sometimes discount communicating face-to-face or forget it altogether, doing so effectively is equally, if not more, important than connecting through technology. Despite this, in a 2015 Pew Research Center study, 89% of smartphone owners reported using their phones during the last social gathering they attended. They also reported that they were not happy about it because it impeded conversation.3 42 iStock/damircudic A few years back, a YouTube video titled “I Forgot My Phone” went viral. By now, the video has been viewed more than 50 million times. At the video’s start, we see a couple in bed. The woman stares into space while her boyfriend focuses on his smartphone. The scenes that follow show the woman in the midst of a series of dystopian situations. Her friends ignore her and stare at their phones during lunch. Concertgoers are too busy recording the performance to enjoy it. The guest of honor at a birthday party takes selfies while his friends sing. The last scene finds the couple back in bed. Her boyfriend is still phone obsessed. Are we addicted to smartphones and social media? According to research, we well might be captives of our devices. Many of us use our phones more than we even imagine we do. In fact, when asked to estimate their smartphone usage, participants estimated an average of 37 uses daily. The actual number was about 85 times daily, or once every 11 minutes of your typical waking day. The duration of use was 5.05 hours, including phone calls and listening to music.4 Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter are hypnotically compelling for many of us, in part because they deliver unscheduled “variable rewards”—much like slot machines do. Messages, alerts, notifications, photos, and “likes” are sent to us randomly, making it virtually impossible for us not to react to them. They induce large numbers of us to become compulsive site checkers looking for a dopamine boost—almost as if we were seeking a fix. 43 The Upshot What is the future of person-to-person conversation as texting replaces talking? We have to be able to connect both remotely and in-person, in a social or professional network, or in a social or professional circle. Whenever and wherever we connect, the goal is to make communication work—and that is the primary goal of this book. Human and Social Capital What will it take to make communication work for you? Neither job-specific talent, nor technical expertise, nor graduating from college alone will guarantee you upward mobility or the attainment of goals. In fact, many of us get our jobs because of our social capital, rather than our human capital—the people we know, not what we know.5 This might be because, although our communities and workplaces are prime environments for connecting with others, the Internet makes it relatively easy today to find out anything we don’t know. The Communication–Success Connection What differentiates people who ascend both personal and professional ladders of success from those who do not? The answer is superior communication skills. Among the top 10 skills employers seek when hiring college graduates is the ability to communicate with others both inside and outside of the organization.6 Although not guaranteed, people with good communication skills are more likely to be promoted rapidly, be happy in relationships, and believe their lives are rich and fulfilling. Whatever your age, sex, marital status, or employment history, it is never too late to learn skills that will enrich and improve your career and life. We are not born knowing how to make communication work. We learn and develop communication skills. If you want to improve your ability to relate to people in your social life, job, or academic life, now is the time to start making communication work better for you! 44 What is Communication? We are all communicators. We engage in intrapersonal (with ourselves), dyadic (one-to-one), small-group (one to a few), public (one to many), and mass communication (communicating messages that are shared across great distances with potentially large audiences through a technological device or mass medium). We also engage in computer-assisted or online communication. Defining Communication Every time we knowingly or unknowingly send a verbal or nonverbal message to anyone, communication takes place. We define communication as the deliberate or accidental transfer of meaning. It is the process that occurs whenever someone observes or experiences behavior and attributes meaning to that behavior. As long as what someone does or says is interpreted as a message—as long as the behavior of one person affects or influences that behavior of another—communication is occurring. Communication is our link to the rest of humanity and serves a number of purposes. India Picture/Shutterstock.com Which of the following quotations, if any, do you find most applicable to your own communication experiences? 45 Talk and change the world. (Slogan of a group of U.S. senators who happened to be female) Whatever words we utter should be chosen with care for people will hear them and be influenced by them for good or ill. (Buddha) We all need people who will give us feedback. That’s how we improve. (Bill Gates) The best way to solve problems and fight against war is through dialogue. (Malala Yousafzai) Two monologues do not make a dialogue. (Jeff Daly) What would you say? Types of Communication Because our focus is communication, we need to distinguish among the types of communication we use. During intrapersonal communication, we think about, talk with, learn about, reason with, and evaluate ourselves. We listen and interact with the voice in our head. When we engage in interpersonal (or dyadic) communication, we interact with another, learn about him or her, and act in ways that help sustain or terminate our relationship. When we participate in group communication, we interact with a limited number of others, work to share information, develop ideas, make decisions, solve problems, offer support, or have fun. Every person in a group can actively participate with others in the group. Organizational communication is conducted with larger, more stable collections of people who work together to achieve the organization’s goals. Organizations include corporations, nonprofits, entertainment, sports, health operations, and political, religious, and charitable groups. Through public communication, we inform others. We also persuade the members of various audiences to hold certain attitudes, values, or beliefs so that they will think, believe, or act in a particular way. We also function as members of different audiences, in which case another person will do the same for us. During mass communication, the media entertain, inform, and persuade us. Messages are sent to large dispersed audiences using electronic and print media. We, in turn, have the ability to use our 46 viewing and buying habits to influence the media. When engaged with digital and social media, we navigate cyberspace as we converse, research, exchange ideas, and build relationships with others using computers and the Internet. Social media are more personal than the mass media. The size of the intended audience in social media varies, and the communication itself can be more interactive. Skill Builder Communication Self-Assessment and Future Me Identify five individuals with whom you shared a sustained conversation during the past 7 days. For each person you name, indicate the nature of your relationship (e.g., was the person your instructor, parent, boss, friend, or significant other?), the context in which the interaction occurred (was it a classroom, office, home, or restaurant?), the channel(s) used to communicate the messages that were sent and received (did you communicate face-to face, e-mail, phone, text, or via social media?), and the outcome of the exchange (what happened as a result of your communicating?). Finally, and this is most important, evaluate your communication effectiveness in each interaction by rating it on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 represents extremely ineffective and 5 represents extremely effective, giving your reasons for each rating. Person Context Channel Outcome Rating With Reasons 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. After reviewing your self-evaluations, how would you replay any of the preceding interactions if given the opportunity? Be specific. For example, might you opt not to text while walking down a street with a friend? Would you decide not to answer your phone when dining with a coworker? If it were up to you, would you opt to increase or decrease the number 47 of online versus face-to-face interactions that you shared? Why? Essentials of Communication Whatever the nature or type of communication in which we are involved, the communication act itself is characterized by the interplay of seven elements. All communication interactions have these common elements that together help define the communication process. The better you understand these components, the easier it becomes for you to develop your own communicative abilities. Let’s begin by examining the essentials of communication, those elements present during every communication event. People Obviously, human communication involves people. Interpersonal, smallgroup, and public communication encounters take place between and among all types of senders (people who encode and send out messages) and receivers (people who take in messages and decode). Although it is easy to picture a communication experience beginning with a sender and ending with a receiver, it is important to understand that during communication the role of sender does not belong exclusively to one person and role of receiver to another. Instead, the processes of sending and receiving occur simultaneously. Even if only one person is speaking, others can communicate through facial expression, attentiveness, or raising a hand to ask a question. Messages A message is the content of a communicative act. During every communication act, we all send and receive verbal and nonverbal messages. What you talk about, the words you use to express your thoughts and feelings, the sounds you make, the way you sit and gesture, your facial expressions, and perhaps even your touch or your smell all communicate information. 48 Pressmaster/Shutterstock.com Some messages we send are private (a kiss accompanied by “I love you”); others are public and may be directed at hundreds or thousands of people. We send some messages purposefully (“I want you to know. . .”) and others accidentally (“I had no clue you were watching . . . or ‘lurking’”). Everything a sender or receiver does or says is a potential message as long as someone is there to interpret it. Channels Channels are the media we use to carry messages. We classify channels according to which of our senses carries or receives the message, whether the message is being delivered verbally, nonverbally, or both, and the primary means of communication we use to deliver the message, that is, whether we use face-to-face interaction, text messaging, or a mass medium such as television or a podcast. We are multichanneled communicators. We receive sound messages (we hear noises from the street), sight messages (we size up how someone looks), taste messages (we enjoy the flavor of a particular food), smell messages (we like the scent of a friend’s perfume), and touch messages (we feel the roughness of a fabric). 49 iStock/MStudioImages Which channel are you most attuned to? To what extent do you rely on one or more channels while excluding or ignoring others? Effective communicators are adept channel switchers. They recognize that communication is a multichannel experience. The following dialogue between a husband and wife illustrates the multichannel nature of communication: Wife: Jim, you’re late again. Is that a drink I smell on your breath? Now, we’ll never get to the Adams’ on time. Husband: No, I didn’t stop for a drink. You must be smelling what’s left of my cologne. I tried my best to be on time (places a consoling hand on her shoulder). Wife: (Sarcastically) Sure, you tried your best. (Drawing away and shaking her finger) I’m not going to put up with this much longer. My job is every bit as demanding as yours, you know. Husband: (Lowering his voice) Ok. Ok. I know you work hard, too. I don’t question that. Listen, I really did get stuck in a conference. (Smiles at her) Let’s not blow this up. I’ll tell you about it on the way to Bill and Ellen’s. What message is the wife (the initial source-encoder) sending to her husband (the receiver-decoder)? She is letting him know with her words, her voice, and her physical actions that she is upset and angry. Her husband responds in kind, using words, vocal cues, and gestures in an 50 effort to explain his behavior. Both are affected by the nature of the situation (they are late for an appointment), by their attitudes (how they feel about what’s happened), and by their past experiences. Noise In the context of communication, noise is anything that interferes with or distorts our ability to send or receive messages. Although we are accustomed to thinking of noise as particular sound or group of sounds, noise can have both internal and external causes. Internal noise is attributed to a communicator’s psychological makeup, intellectual ability, or physical condition. External noise is attributed to the environment. Thus, noise includes distractions such as a loud siren, a disturbing odor, and a hot room; personal factors such as prejudices, daydreaming, and feelings of inadequacy; and semantic factors such as uncertainty about what another person’s words are supposed to mean. Context Communication always takes place in a context, or setting. Sometimes a context is so natural that we barely notice it. At other times, however, the context exerts considerable control over our behavior. Would your behavior be the same at a friend’s 21st birthday party and at a baby shower? Both are parties, but the context is different. Consider how your present environment affects the way you act toward others. Also, consider the extent to which certain environments might cause you to alter your posture, manner of speaking, attire, or means of interacting. Feedback Whenever we communicate, we receive feedback in return. The verbal and nonverbal cues that we perceive in reaction to our communication function as feedback. Feedback tells us how we are coming across. A smile, a frown, a chuckle, a sarcastic remark, a muttered thought, or simply silence in response to something we do or say can cause us to change, continue, or end a communication exchange. Feedback that encourages us to continue behaving as we are is positive feedback; it enhances behavior in progress. In contrast, negative 51 feedback extinguishes a behavior; it serves a corrective rather than a reinforcing function. Note that the terms positive and negative should not be interpreted as “good” and “bad”; these labels simply reflect the way the responses affect behavior. Both positive and negative feedback can emanate from internal or external sources. Internal feedback is feedback you give yourself as you monitor your own communicative behavior. External feedback is feedback from others who are involved in the communication event. To be an effective communicator, you must be sensitive to both types of feedback. Effect As we communicate, we are changed in some way by the interaction. Communication has an effect and can be viewed as an exchange of influences. An effect can be emotional, physical, cognitive, or any combination of the three. Communication can elicit feelings of joy, anger, or sadness (emotional); it can cause you to fight, argue, become apathetic, or evade an issue (physical); or it can lead to new insights, increased knowledge, the formulation or reconsideration of opinions, silence, or confusion (cognitive). Some effects are not always visible or immediately observable. Effects can be delayed. Visualizing the Communication Process in Action Through communication, we share meaning with others by sending and receiving messages—sometimes intentionally and sometimes unintentionally. Thus, communication includes every element that could affect two or more people as they knowingly or unwittingly relate to one another. At this point, we need to reiterate that communication occurs whenever one person assigns significance or meaning to another’s behavior. But, you might ask, will knowing this enable you to understand or establish better and more satisfying relationships with your friends, significant other, employer, parents? The answer is yes! If you understand the processes that permit people to contact and influence each other, if you 52 understand the forces that can impede or foster the development of every kind of effective communication, then you stand a better chance of communicating effectively yourself. A Transactional Model of Communication Now that we have examined the basic elements of communication, we are ready to see how we can use a picture, or transactional model, of the communication process to reflect our understanding of communication in action. A model is a useful tool in discovering how communication operates and in examining your own communication encounters. The model of communication in Figure 1.1 is a transactional one. A transactional communication model depicts communication as a continuous circle with sending and receiving as simultaneous rather than separate acts. Such a model enables us to visualize the vital complexity and dynamic nature of communication. Each person in the model is pictured sending and receiving messages (including feedback) through one or more channels at the same time as the other, because they both have sending and receiving responsibilities and their messages will build upon and affect one another. Figure 1.1 Gamble and Gamble’s Model of Communication Each person’s field of experience—their culture, past experiences, education, biases, and heredity—influences the interaction. Of consequence is the extent to which their fields of experience overlap. In theory, the more individuals communicate with each other, the more overlap they create. 53 In addition, we see that noise can enter the interaction at any point—it can pop up in the message, be present in the channel, come from one’s field of experience, or derive from the context. Such noise can affect the sending and/or the receiving abilities and effectiveness of the communicators. Every interaction we have with another has an impact on our future interactions with that person and potentially with others. How Good a Communicator Are You? Simply communicating frequently does not mean that you are as effective a communicator as you could be. Too often, we neglect problems with our communicative relationships. When we either lack empathy or fail to consider the feelings of others, our relationships suffer. There is no such thing as being too effective at establishing maintaining and controlling personal and public contacts with others. Being mindful of the principles discussed in this section can help you to improve your communication skills. Communication is Dynamic When we call communication a dynamic process, we mean that all its elements constantly interact with and affect each other. Because we are interconnected, whatever happens to one person determines in part what happens to others. Relationships evolve. Nothing about communication is static. Everything is accumulative. We communicate as long as we are alive. Thus, every interaction we engage in is part of a series of connected happenings. Present communication experiences can be thought of as points of arrival from past encounters and as points of departure for future ones. Do your experiences support this? Communication is Unrepeatable and Irreversible Every human contact we experience is unique. It has never happened before and will never again happen in just the same way. Our interpretation of the adage “You can never step into the same river twice” 54 is that the experience changes both you and the river forever. A communication encounter similarly affects and changes people so that one encounter can never occur exactly in the same way a second time. In addition to being unrepeatable, communication is also irreversible. We cannot take back something we have said or tweeted any more than we can erase the effects of something we have done. Just as toothpaste cannot be squeezed back into a tube, the e-mails, texts, and tweets we send are going to be out there forever. When has the unrepeatable and irreversible nature of communication caused you a problem? Communication Has No Opposite We often assume that communication is purposeful and that we communicate only because we want to. Although this sometimes is true, it is also true that sometimes we communicate without any awareness of doing so—and just as often, even without wanting to. pixelheadphoto digitalskillet/Shutterstock.com Whenever we are involved in an interaction, we respond in some way. Even if we choose not to respond verbally, even if we maintain absolute silence and attempt not to move a muscle, our lack of response is itself a response; it constitutes a message, influences others, and communicates. 55 We can never stop behavior—because behavior has no opposite. No matter how hard we try, we cannot not communicate, because all behavior is communication and therefore is a message. Exploring Diversity Focus on Hate Years ago, researcher Gordon Allport wrote the following in his now classic The Nature of Prejudice: See that man over there? Yes. Well, I hate him. But you don’t know him. That’s why I hate him. Although Allport wrote this long ago, his observations remain true today and are being magnified by social media. To what extent do you believe that enhanced understanding can help resolve this? Why does a lack of knowledge or familiarity help breed hate? Why might some people experience “hate” when encountering individuals from a new or unfamiliar culture or group? Culture Influences Communication As we will learn in Chapter 2, how we formulate and interpret messages depends on our culture. Cultural diversity, including race, ethnicity, gender, and age, influences the meanings we attribute to communication. Cultural differences exist not only between people who speak different languages but also between people who speak the same language. Every cultural group has its own rules or preferences for interaction. When these are unknown or ignored, we are apt to misinterpret the meaning of messages received and miscalculate the impact of messages sent. 56 iStock/FamVeld Gender Influences Communication “To be an ‘I” at all means to be gendered.”7 Our culture shapes our conceptions of gender, and conceptions of gender shape our communication.8 We learn socially accepted variations in the definitions of gender differences as we grow up. Girls, for example, learn to “play nice.” Boys learn to act tough. Gender is a relational construct with individuals promoting the gender ideologies they accept. To what extent do you believe that your communication has been influenced by gender constructions or restrictions and what society considers “normal”? Personal Ethics Influence Communication Every time we communicate, we decide implicitly or explicitly if we will do so ethically. Ethics are the moral principles, values, and beliefs that members of society use to guide behavior. Since communication has consequences, it involves judgments of right and wrong. When the agreedupon standards of behavior are violated, the behavior is judged unethical. For example, most of us expect those with whom we interact to be honest, play fair, respect our rights, and accept responsibility for their actions. 57 Communication is Competence Based A communication scholar once said that if communication can fail, it will.9 Our challenge is determining how we can prevent communication from failing. One solution is to make wise choices. In certain situations, some messages are appropriate and okay to say to particular receivers, whereas others are not. Even though we all have different communication strengths and weaknesses, we can all benefit from getting better at communicating. When we add to our knowledge and make a commitment to develop the skills to apply that knowledge across an array of communication situations or contexts, we gain communication competence. For example, included among the skills necessary for effective communication is the ability to think critically. When we think critically, we have the ability to examine ideas reflectively and to decide what we should and should not believe, think, or do, given a specific set of circumstances.10 Digital and Social Media are Transforming Communication Decades ago, media critic Marshall McLuhan cautioned, “The medium is the message.”11 In McLuhan’s view, different channels of communication affected both how a sender encoded a message and how a receiver responded to it. This means that the same words delivered face-to-face, on paper, via text, or with a tweet do not constitute the same message. The channel of communication changes things. What channel would you use to say good-bye to someone who was moving away? Which channel would you use to tell someone “I’m sorry?” What about “I love you?” 58 iStock/hocus-focus New communication forms—new channels—alter our communication experiences. Technology and social media are game changers. Using them speeds up communication. Instead of valuing sequential understanding and careful logic, we seek immediate gratification and emotional involvement with people near and distant, close to home and around the world. As our real and virtual communication repertoires expand, we exist simultaneously both in the physical world and online. Living Brands Do you know anyone whose life has become a brand? A 2017 film, Ingrid Goes West, satirized the sometimes very painful ways in which social media impact lives.12 In the film Ingrid goes into a rage after seeing photos online of a wedding to which she wasn’t invited. A loner, she turns her life on its head by traveling to Los Angeles and reinventing herself into the image of her Instagram obsession, Taylor, a person who posts perfectly posed photos of herself along with inspirational quotes and has gazillions of followers. Now, who would you rather be: Ingrid or Taylor? The devoted follower or the influencer? Has a filtered life that you have observed ever made you green with envy? 59 Changes Have Upsides and Downsides The changes in how we communicate affect our social, emotional, and professional lives. On the upside, they influence our cultural sensibilities, making it easier for many among us to identify like-minded people who share our interests. On the downside, they make it less likely that we will expose ourselves to different points of view. Also on the downside, they make it possible for us to remain anonymous or to disguise ourselves. But on the upside, if we do remain anonymous, our online communication will be evaluated more for what we write than for how we look. On the downside, again, social media allow us to present our lives through filters —delivering a carefully curated image of ourselves to the world—but then again, those filters can be humorous too.13 Social media reshape human consciousness and relationships. Because there are only so many hours in a day, the time we spend using social media takes time away from other activities. Social media impede our living “in the moment.” Rather than enjoying the company of others or an event or celebration, we tweet, use Snapchat, or check Facebook. They also foster our dependency on others—we wait anxiously to see if our post will receive approval and affirmation.14 On the other hand, they do make it more possible for marginalized groups to find support. They have upsides and downsides, downsides and upsides. Being a communicator in a digital age adds multiple layers to our communication experiences. For one thing, our messages become more permanent. For another, ethically challenged individuals can troll our pages, hack into our files, make our private messages public, and forward to other people something that we had no intention of communicating to them. What happens online influences offline realities. Why Do We Communicate? Every communication experience serves one or more functions. For example, communication can help us discover who we are, help us establish more meaningful personal and professional relationships, or prompt us to examine and try to change either our own attitudes and behaviors or the attitudes and behaviors of others. 60 To Gain Self-Understanding and Insight into Others One key function of communication is self–other understanding: insight into ourselves and others. When we get to know another person, we also get to know ourselves and when we get to know ourselves, we learn how others affect us. We depend on communication to develop self-awareness. We need feedback from others all the time, and others are constantly in need of feedback from us. Interpersonal, small-group, public, and mediated and digital communication offer us numerous opportunities for self–other discovery. Through communication encounters we are able to learn why we are trusting or untrusting, whether we can make our thoughts and feelings clear, under what conditions we have the power to influence others, and whether we can effectively make decisions and resolve conflicts and problems. Modern communicators need to be able to interact with people culturally different from themselves. Although it might be feasible in the virtual world to seek comfort in similarity, insulating ourselves from intercultural contact in our social networks, communities, and workplaces is neither possible nor desirable. It is through communication that we reveal to others what is important to us and what we stand for. To Form Meaningful Relationships In building relationships, we cannot be overly concerned with ourselves but must consider the needs and wants of others. It is through effective communication that our basic physical and social needs are met. 61 iStock/fstop123 Psychologists tell us that we need other people just as we need water, food, and shelter. When we are cut off from human contact, we become disoriented and maladjusted, and our life itself may be placed in jeopardy. People who are isolated from others—people who lack satisfying social relationships—are more likely to experience health problems and to die earlier than those who have an abundance of satisfying relationships. Communication offers each of us the chance to satisfy what psychologist William Schutz calls our “needs for inclusion, control, and affection.”15 The need for inclusion is our need to be with others, our need for social contact. We like to feel that others accept and value us, and we want to feel like a full partner in a relationship. The need for control is our need to feel that we are capable and responsible, that we are able to deal with and manage our environment. We also like to feel that we can influence others. The need for affection is our need to express and receive love. Because communication allows each of these needs to be met, we are less likely to feel unwanted, unloved, or incapable if we are able to communicate meaningfully with others. Communication also gives us the chance to share our personal reality with people from our own and different cultures. Whether we live in an East Coast urban area, a southern city, a desert community, a home in sunny California, a village in Asia, a plain in Africa, or a town in the Middle 62 East, we all engage in similar activities when we communicate. We may use different symbols, rely on different strategies, and desire different outcomes, but the processes we use and the motivations we have are strikingly alike. Equally significant is the fact that insensitivity to another’s needs and preferred ways of interacting can hamper our ability to relate effectively. To Influence Others During all kinds of communication, we have ample opportunities to influence each other subtly or overtly. We spend a great deal of time trying to persuade others to think as we think, do what we do, like what we like. Sometimes our efforts meet with success. In any case our experiences with persuasion afford each of us the chance to influence others so that we may try to realize our personal and professional goals. For Career Development Employers are concerned about the lack of communication skills in new hires. In fact, most are less concerned about technical skills and more concerned with the abilities of potential employees to relate to and engage with others in the workplace.16 Among the perennial complaints of employers are the poor written communication and presentation abilities of applicants, along with their lack of interpersonal skills. Employers report that recent college graduates tend to ramble when asked to explain something, have difficulty making a point, and are prone to sending emails and texts that are far too casual for the professional world.17 As we noted earlier in this chapter, a positive relationship exists between the ability to communicate and career success. Employers seek to hire those who know how to make communication work. If you develop the ability to speak so that others listen, listen when others speak, critically evaluate what you read and hear, adapt to differences in cultural perspectives, handle conflicts and solve problems, and make sound decisions, then you will exhibit skills valued by employers.18 Career Builder: Professional Challenges and Future Me 63 1. Using what you have learned to this point, explain what you think distinguishes an effective communicator in the workplace from a poor one. 2. Elaborate on how improving a specific communication skill could benefit you professionally in the future. 3. Identify the pros and cons of virtual versus face-to-face workplace interactions. 4. Explain how improving communication skills will enable you to make a difference in your workplace. Communication Skills Practice Effective Communication The primary purpose of this book is to help you gain an understanding of communication and to assist you in developing your interpersonal, small-group, public, and digital and social media skills. Engaging with the following tasks will give you a great start. Become actively involved in studying communication. Once you commit to putting the principles we discuss into practice, you are on your way to becoming a better communicator. Use the learning objectives in this text to clarify your personal communication objectives. Use the embedded self-assessments and boxed features to further explore what you must know and do to become a more effective communicator. Make the effort to increase both your selfawareness and your awareness of others by developing the following assets. An appreciation of the extent to which gender, culture, and digital and social media affect communication 64 The capacity to listen to and process information Sensitivity to silent messages that you and others send Knowledge of how words affect us An understanding of how relationships develop A realization of how feelings and emotions affect relationships The ability to disagree without being disagreeable An understanding of how beliefs, values, and attitudes affect the formulation and reception of messages and the development of speaker-audience relationships Believe in yourself. Above all else, you need to believe that you are worth the time and effort required to develop your communication skills. You also need to believe that developing these skills will improve the quality of your life immeasurably. Communication is a skill that you can learn. It’s like riding a bicycle or typing. If you’re willing to work at it, you can rapidly improve the quality of every part of your life. Brian Tracy Complete this Chapter 1 Checklist Become a Word Master channels 7 communication 4 communication presence 2 context 9 digital and social media 6 effect 9 essentials of communication 7 ethics 13 external feedback 9 feedback 9 65 group communication 5 human capital 4 internal feedback 9 interpersonal communication 5 intrapersonal communication 5 mass communication 6 message 7 need for affection 16 need for control 16 need for inclusion 16 negative feedback 9 noise 8 organizational communication 5 positive feedback 9 public communication 5 receivers 7 senders 7 social capital 4 transactional communication model 10 66 2 Having Communication Presence in a Multicultural Society and World iStock/DMEPhotography After completing this chapter, you should be able to: 2.1 Explain the significance of intercultural communication in the global community. 2.2 Explain how U.S. society evolved from a melting pot philosophy to a philosophy of cultural pluralism. 2.3 Analyze attitudes toward diversity. 2.4 Explain influences on cultural identity, distinguishing the difference 67 between cultures and co-cultures. 2.5 Illustrate the five main dimensions of cultural variability. 2.6 Explain how technology brings diversity into our lives. 2.7 Apply communication skills to reduce the strangeness of strangers. A lot of different flowers make a bouquet. Anonymous Have you ever decided that you liked or disliked someone without really knowing him or her? Has anyone ever done the same to you—forming a positive or negative opinion of you—judging you, without really knowing you? If your answer to either of these questions is yes, it is likely that stereotypes, the mental images that guide our reactions to others, played a role. A stereotype expresses the knowledge, beliefs, and expectations we have of the members of a particular group.1 Whereas some of the stereotypes we hold of cultural groups are positive, others are astoundingly negative and overly generalized. Some contain kernels of truth, whereas others prevent us from recognizing our misconceptions. What groups of people do you stereotype positively and/or negatively? What stereotypes might others hold of you? And how do our evaluations of one another affect our communication? Some years back, Representative Peter King, chair of the House Committee on Homeland Security, convened a series of controversial hearings on the radicalization of Muslims in the United States. Critics of the hearings objected to the broad-stroke inquiry, arguing that we should view the Muslim community more objectively and stop treating Muslims with automatic suspicion. Furthermore, they asserted that individuals should be able to distinguish between mainstream Muslims and those belonging to the radical fringe.2 Representative Keith Ellison, the first Muslim elected to Congress, observed that individuals, not communities, commit terrorist acts. He said, “When you assign their violent actions to the entire community, you assign collective blame to the whole group. This is the very heart of stereotyping and scapegoating.”3 68 It’s not just Muslims who face stereotypes. Relations between all groups are complicated by stereotypes. Yet we all share a common desire—and a need—to get along better with one another.4 Stereotyping is just one of the topics we address in this chapter as we explore a host of factors that influence our ability to communicate in a multicultural society and world. Cultures’ Many Faces Globalization is the increasing economic, political, and cultural integration and interdependence of diverse cultures—the worldwide integration of humanity. Diversity, a related concept, is the recognition and valuing of difference, encompassing such factors as age, gender, race, ethnicity, ability, religion, education, marital status, sexual orientation, and income. Because the likelihood of our working and living with people from all over the world is increasing, the time is right to embrace diversity and learn about other cultures so that we refrain from unfairly stereotyping them. An early observer of how technology affects behavior and thinking, Marshall McLuhan, predicted many years ago that our world would become a global village.5 He was right. We now are linked physically and electronically to people around the globe. Digital technology is playing its part in erasing the notion of territorial boundaries between countries, gradually eroding the idea of the term nation. People we once considered strangers are now friends and coworkers, highlighting the importance of multiculturalism—engagement with and respect toward people from distinctly different cultures. In addition to using the Internet with increasing frequency, many of us move a number of times during our lives for personal or professional reasons.6 We also travel abroad regularly, some of us to visit relatives (one in five Americans was born abroad or has at least one parent who was), others to represent an employer, and still others to vacation. Each of these provides us with opportunities to improve cultural understanding. We don’t have to be in the diplomatic corps to assume an active role. Attitudes Toward Diversity 69 Some people do not embrace diversity eagerly. In the book Bowling Alone, written at the turn of this millennium, author Robert Putnam reported that reciprocal and trustworthy social networks were on the decline. Aware that people were doing more and more things alone, Putnam asked why? After studying 30,000 people across the United States, Putnam found a correlation between ethnically mixed environments and withdrawal from public life. He reported that the people living in diverse communities tended to “hunker down.” Sadly, they were more likely to distrust their neighbors—whether they were of the same or a different race, a similar or different background.7 Do you find this to be true today? Is It Different in the Working World? Happily, the working world reveals a different story. In organizations, people with identity diversity (people who come from different races and religions) and cognitive diversity (people who come from different outlooks and training) come together to do the organization’s work. iStock/Rawpixel Thus, the challenge facing us is to follow the lead of diverse organizations by working to create a new and broader sense of “us.” In effect, we need to harness community out of diversity.8 The Many Faces of Intercultural Communication The remainder of this chapter will explore the ways cultural values and habits influence interaction. We’ll introduce you to intercultural 70 communication, the process of interpreting and sharing meanings with individuals from different cultures,9 to help you better understand how cultural variability influences communication. In reality, we practice intercultural communication in our own backyards as well as with people around the world. Among intercultural communication’s many aspects are interracial communication (which occurs between people of different races), interethnic communication (which occurs when the communicating parties have different ethnic origins), international communication (which occurs between people representing different political structures), and intracultural communication (which includes all forms of communication among members of the same racial, ethnic, or other coculture groups). By sensitizing yourself to the many faces of culture, you will become better able to respond appropriately to varied communication styles, expand your choices as a communicator, and increase your effectiveness in interacting with people from diverse cultural groups. What Happened to the Melting Pot? To what extent has the amount of contact you have with people of diverse cultural backgrounds changed since you were a child? Changes in demography and technology have made it more likely that you will interact with people unlike yourself. For most of us, intercultural communication is now the norm. In fact, living in the United States gives us an incredible opportunity to engage with intercultural communication without having to pay for international travel. But it hasn’t always been that way. The Melting Pot Philosophy Years ago, the United States embraced a melting pot philosophy. According to that theory, when individuals immigrated to the United States, they lost or gave up their original heritage and became Americans. The national motto, E pluribus unum (a Latin phrase meaning “one out of many”), reflected this way of thinking. It was believed that diverse cultural groups should be assimilated into the parent or dominant culture. 71 iStock/RoosterHD The Philosophy of Cultural Pluralism Over time, the philosophy of cultural pluralism, allowing for cultures to maintain differences while coexisting in broader society, replaced the melting pot philosophy. Cultural pluralists believe in respect for uniqueness and tolerance for difference. In a multicultural society, every group will do things differently, and that’s OK. Diversity is Reshaping the Future Demographers tell us that diversity will shape our country’s future. According to U.S. Census Bureau statistics, the five largest ethnic groups currently are composed of people who identify themselves as White (223.6 million), African American (38.9 million), Hispanic (50.5 million), Asian American (14.7 million), and Native American (American Indian and Alaska Native) (3.8 million).10 Hispanics are now the largest minority group. Within one generation, minorities are forecast to become the majority (Figure 2.1). Recent projections, however, assert that Asian immigration will make Asians the largest immigrant group by 2065 at 38%, surpassing Hispanics who are estimated to then comprise 31% of the population.11 Additionally, acknowledging the blurring of racial lines and the evolution of racial identity, the 2010 U.S. Census let the nation’s more than 308 72 million people define their racial makeup as one race or more. Results revealed that multiracial Americans are among the fastest growing demographic groups.12 The United States is the most demographically diverse country in the world, making it very probable that the number of contacts we have with people of other cultures will continue to increase in the future. This alone makes it important for us to be able to understand and communicate with those whose backgrounds, nationalities, and lifestyles differ from our own. Figure 2.1 Projected U.S. Population by Race and Hispanic Origins Source: Pew Research Center, “Modern Immigration Wave Brings 59 Million to the U.S., Driving Population Growth and Change Through 2065,” September 28, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/28/modern-immigration-wavebrings-59-million-to-u-s-driving-population-growth-and-changethrough-2065. Culture and Communication As cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall put it, “Culture is communication and communication is culture.”13 Culture is the lens through which we view the world. It is the mirror we use to reflect and 73 interpret reality.14 It teaches us how to think and what to think about. It reveals to us what is beautiful or ugly, helpful or harmful, appropriate or out of place. Culture is a Teacher In effect, every culture provides its members with a series of lessons. Among the lessons we learn are how to say “hello” and “good-bye,” when to speak or remain silent, how to act when angry or upset, where to focus our eyes when functioning as a source and receiver, how much to gesture, how close to stand to another, and how to display emotions such as happiness or rage. By instructing its members, culture guides behavior and communication, revealing to members how to act, think, talk, and listen.15 What We Know About Difference Matters Cultures outside of our own are operating with their own expectations for behavior and communication. If we fail to realize that people from different cultures may not look, think, or act as we do, we risk appearing insensitive, ignorant, or culturally confused (lacking knowledge of cultural difference). The culturally confused pay a high price. The following examples demonstrate the cost of cultural ignorance and its effect on communication. 74 AP Photo/ASSOCIATED PRESS Showing the sole of a shoe (while crossing one’s legs, e.g.) means nothing to observers in the United States or Europe. In Muslim cultures, the gesture is perceived as insulting.16 Similarly, crossing your legs in the United States indicates you are relaxed, whereas in Korea it is a social faux pas. Blinking while another person talks is considered normal to North Americans; to Taiwanese it is considered impolite.17 McDonald’s fast-food chain unintentionally offended thousands of Muslims when it printed an excerpt from the Koran on its throwaway hamburger bags.18 Muslims saw this as sacrilegious. The Japanese view business cards as an extension of a person, handling them with great care, whereas North Americans view them as a business formality and a convenience. Consequently, Americans often end up insulting the Japanese by treating a business card too casually.19 Arabs typically adopt a direct body orientation when communicating, which can seem aggressive and unnerving to North Americans, who employ a stance that is somewhat less direct. Arabs and South Americans also tend to gesture vigorously when speaking to others, which the less physical North Americans construe as inappropriate and unmannerly. It is common in Middle Eastern cultures for both males and females to physically exaggerate responses, whereas in the United States emotions are more likely to be less public. In Japan, individuals may try to hide or mask certain emotions. It is common among Asian cultures to exhibit reserve and emotional restraint. North Americans place a high value on looking someone in the eye and tend to distrust those who fail to do so. The Japanese, in contrast, believe eye contact over a sustained period of time shows disrespect. Among Asian cultures, too much eye contact is deemed intrusive. Arabs, on the other hand, maintain direct eye contact for prolonged periods. The Effects of Cultural Imperialism Cultural imperialism is the expansion or dominion of one culture over another culture. When one culture presents itself as superior to others, relationships between members of the diverse cultures suffer. Not taking 75 cultural practices into account impedes relationship building, whereas recognizing, respecting, and responding to differences among cultures allows for more meaningful relationships. We need to be mindful not to rely on stereotypes. Everyone from a particular culture does not necessarily exhibit the same characteristics and communication traits. Failing to develop insights into cultural nuances can lead to lost opportunities and increased levels of tensions between people. Being unaware of how others outside a culture view that culture’s members can be equally costly. Deficient self- and cultural-awareness takes a toll on individuals and society. A survey was conducted of 1,259 teenagers from 12 countries whose main contact with Americans was through popular culture, including television programs and movies they watched and the music they listened to. Based on these experiences, in their judgment, Americans were violent, materialistic, sexually promiscuous, disrespectful of people unlike them, unconcerned about the poor, and prone to criminal activity. The study concluded that the export of American popular culture contributed to impressions of cultural imperialism. Because the way of life in the United Stated was promoted as superior to other ways of life, feelings of anti-Americanism had been fostered inadvertently.20 iStock/tanukiphoto According to critics of cultural imperialism, the news, entertainment, and 76 products of industrialized countries such as the United States tend to overwhelm the national cultures of other countries. There are signs, however, that the reign of American pop culture is beginning to erode. Increasing numbers of foreign films have been successes in the United States. U.S. music charts also regularly feature vocalists from the United States or other countries who sing in foreign languages, often Spanish. Foreign news services are increasingly influencing news coverage. Such exposure contributes to learning about diverse cultures and ourselves. How We Feel About Difference Matters When we interact with people whose values or behavioral norms are different from ours, we need to be able to accept that diversity. Being culturally flexible enables us to communicate more effectively. The Dangers of Ethnocentrism When we reject diversity, we exhibit ethnocentrism, the tendency to see our own culture as superior to all others. This also is a key characteristic of failed intercultural communication. People who are ethnocentric experience great anxiety when engaging with people outside their culture. They may say things like, “They take our jobs,” “They’re everywhere,” or “They’re just not like us.” T...
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