Chapter 7 The Disciplines of Emergency Management: Recovery ● 1 8 International Disaster Management What You’ll Learn ● ● ● ● ● ● ● How developing nations are affected by disasters Why and how national, international, and nongovernmental organizations assist countries that are affected by major disasters Important issues that influence how international disasters are managed How several of the United Nations components respond to disasters The nongovernmental response to international disasters Assistance provided by the United States government to other nations affected by disasters Involvement of the international financial institutions, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, in the funding of disaster response, relief, and reconstruction Introduction P eople of all nations face risks associated with the natural and technological hazards described throughout this book, and almost all nations eventually become victims to disaster. Throughout history, civilizations have adapted to their surroundings in the hopes of increasing the likelihood of survival. As societies became more organized, complex systems of response to these hazards were developed on local, national, and regional levels. Response capacity of individual nations can been linked to several factors, including propensity for disaster, local and regional economic resources, government structure, and availability of technological, academic, and human resources. However, as hazards and human settlements change, it is becoming increasingly common that the response capabilities of individual nations fall short in the face of large-scale disasters, and outside international assistance is required. Furthermore, there appears to be an increase in the number of disasters that affect entire regions, which calls upon a global response structure that is still in its infancy. This chapter describes the international disaster concept and introduces the conglomeration of participants in the international disaster management domain (which includes governmental agencies, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and financial institutions) that prepare for, respond to, and bring about recovery from them. The mission and goals of each of these entities and groups are described (although their performance is not detailed). In conclusion, a comprehensive case study is presented on the international response to the Gujarat, India, earthquake of January 26, 2001. Disasters in Developing Nations D isasters of all kinds strike literally every nation of the world, although these events do not occur with uniformity of distribution. The developing nations suffer the greatest impact of nature’s fury, and these same nations are also most often subject to the internal civil conflict that leads to Complex Humanitarian Emergencies (CHEs). Furthermore, the greatest incidence of natural disasters occurs within developing countries, with 90 percent of disaster-related injuries and deaths sustained in countries with per-capita income levels that are below $760 per year (UNICEF, n.d.). A lthough disaster preparedness and mitigation are widely accepted by international development agencies to be integral components in the overall development process, it comes as no surprise that countries ranking lower on development indices have placed disaster management very low in budgetary priority. These nations ’ resources tend to be focused on more socially demanded interests such as education and infrastructure, or on the military, rather than on projects that reduce short- or long-term hazard risk. Because disasters are chance events, and thus not guaranteed to occur, disaster management programs in poor countries tend to be viewed as superfluous. Delegating disaster management responsibilities to the military is also commonly seen even in countries with a moderate level of development, although these agencies rarely are trained to carry out the necessary response tasks required. To compound the situation further, poverty and uncontrolled urbanization often force large populations to concentrate in perilous, highrisk urban areas that contain little or no defense against disasters. International Disasters I n earlier chapters, the term disaster was defined as an adverse event that overwhelms an individual, agency, or jurisdiction’s capacity to respond. As each successive jurisdictional level is overwhelmed, the disaster grows in size and scope. When the response capacity of the entire nation’s emergency management structure is overwhelmed, that event becomes known as an international disaster, and involvement of the international community of responders is required. The threshold beyond which a disaster becomes international in size and scope is unique to each country and driven by a number of factors, including the severity of hazard consequences, the availability of economic resources, the comprehensiveness and appropriateness of responder training, the built-in resilience of infrastructure, the actual ability and the public impression of the government’s ability to manage the situation, and the availability of specialized assets, among many others. Such a threshold is crossed much earlier in poorer countries where deficiencies exist in each of these areas. But even the wealthiest nations find themselves in need of help from the international community Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 3 from time to time, whether for supplies, manpower, money, or a specific skill or asset that cannot be found locally. D ue to the sheer number of events that have escalated to this level, systems and procedures have emerged by which appeals for assistance are made and offers of support (both unsolicited and solicited) are communicated and enacted. In today’s globally interconnected world, driven by instantaneous television (the so-called CNN effect), Internet, and new media, news of a disaster can circle the globe within minutes, stirring the machine of response into action. T hree types of emergencies normally spur an international humanitarian response: natural disasters, technological disasters, and complex humanitarian emergencies (CHEs). The first two are clearly defined, but CHEs have been subject to diverse interpretations and changing standards and thus, for the purposes of this book, are characterized by the definition established by the United Nations (UN). It classifies a CHE as a “ h umanitarian crisis in a country or region where there is total or considerable breakdown of authority resulting from the internal and/or external conflict and which requires an international response that goes beyond the mandate or capacity of any single agency” (DODCCRP, n.d.). Andrew Natsios (1997), a former director of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), identified five characteristics most commonly seen in CHEs in varying degrees of intensity: ● ● ● ● ● Civil conflict, rooted in traditional ethnic, tribal, and religious animosities (usually accompanied by widespread atrocities) Deteriorated authority of the national government such that public services disappear and political control dissolves Mass movements of population to escape conflict or search for food, resulting in refugees and internally displaced people (IDPs) Massive dislocation of the economic system, resulting in hyperinflation and the devaluation of the currency, major declines in gross national product, skyrocketing unemployment, and market collapse A general decline in food security, often leading to severe malnutrition and occasional widespread starvation A lthough these emergencies are fundamentally different from natural and technological disasters in regards to their generally political and intentional sources, they share many characteristics in terms of their requirements for response and recovery. In accordance, many of the organizations and entities described in this chapter respond to all three types of disasters indiscriminately. Important Issues Influencing the Response Process Several issues must be addressed when responding to international disasters. The first, coordination, is a vital and immediate component because of the sheer numbers of responding agencies that almost always appear. It is not uncommon in larger disasters to see several hundred local and international NGOs, each with a particular skill or service to offer. Successful coordination and cooperation can Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 4 lead to great success and many lives saved, but infighting, turf battles, and nonparticipation can lead to confusion and even cause a second disaster (PAHO, n.d.). T he UN has become widely recognized as the central coordinating body, with specialized UN agencies handling the more specific needs associated with particular disaster consequences. Most often, the UN capitalizes on long-standing relationships with the host country to form a partnership on which it establishes joint control. However, UN coordination has limited statutory authority, and many of the nongovernmental and faith-based organizations that respond to international disasters continue to operate outside of any such structure. In fact, several organizations and associations have come up with their own standards on coordination and conduct, including the Red Cross Code of Conduct (www.ifrc.org/publicat/conduct/index .asp), the Sphere Project Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response (www.sphereproject.org/handbook_index.htm), and the Oxfam Code of Conduct for NGOs (www.oxfam.org). T he second issue is that of sovereignty of the state. State sovereignty is based on the recognition of political authority characterized by territory and autonomy. Accordingly, a foreign nation or organization cannot intercede in domestic matters without the prior consent of the ruling government. This can be a major hurdle in response to CHEs that have resulted from civil war, as continues to plague efforts in Somalia where there is no established or stable government with which stakeholders may work. Although less commonly seen, sovereignty has also been an issue in matters of natural and technological disasters, particularly when a nation does not want to be viewed as weak or unable to take care of its people. Examples of such behavior include Japan’s refusal to allow access to international agencies for several days after the earthquake in Kobe, the actions of the former Soviet Union following the nuclear power plant accident in Chernobyl, and most recently the government of Burma’s refusal to allow entry of humanitarian aid workers in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis. The third issue is equality in relief distribution , and this factor also applies to all disaster types. Situations often arise where, for any number of cultural or political reasons, certain groups in need of aid are favored over others. There are two primary causes of such inequality. The first example is discrimination as a result of gender bias, which is most commonly found in societies where gender roles are strictly defined and women are traditionally tasked with duties related to the home and children (which tend to be increased in times of crisis). In these cultures, the men are more likely to have opportunities to wait in relief lines for supplies, and the women (as well as children and the elderly) become even more dependent on them for survival. This situation is exacerbated if a woman is a widow or single parent and has no ability to compete for distributed aid. ADDITIONAL RESEARCH Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 5 Considerable effort has been expended in assessing the effect of gender on disaster vulnerability and the recovery abilities of individuals living in societies where gender bias is prevalent. The following reports shed considerable light on the plight of women affected by disasters throughout the world: • • • The Pan American Health Organization fact sheet “ G ender and Natural Disasters.” http:// www.paho.org/English/DPM/GPP/GH/genderdisasters.pdf The World Health Organization assessment tool “ G ender Considerations in Disaster Assessment. ” http://www.who.int/gender/other_health/en/gwhdisasterassessment.pdf The World Health Organization paper “ G ender and Health in Disasters” T he second form of inequality in relief is that of class bias. Although most obvious in social systems explicitly based on caste identity, underlying ethnic and racial divides often present similar problems. Avoiding these forms of bias is difficult because the agencies involved must be aware of the discrimination in order to counteract its influence. Often, host-country nationals are “ h ired” by humanitarian agencies to assist in relief distribution, and inadvertent hiring of specific ethnic or social groups can lead to unfair distribution along those same ethnic/social lines. At the same time, humanitarian agencies are quick to focus on those groups most visibly affected by a CHE, such as IDP populations, causing an inordinate percentage of aid to be directed to them while other needy groups go unnoticed. M any of the international response agencies are continuously developing systems of relief and distribution that work to counteract the complex problems associated with these biases; however, the difficult nature of this issue is highlighted in the fact that specifically targeting groups, such as women or children, can lead to reverse discrimination. Any of these biases can lead to a decline in perceived legitimacy or impartiality of the assisting agency and/or result in exacerbation of the needs being addressed (Maynard, n.d.). A fourth issue is the importance of capacity building and linking relief with development. Responding agencies have an obligation to avoid using a bandage approach in assisting the affected country. Disasters almost always present a window of opportunity to rebuild old, ineffective structures and develop policy and practice in a way that leaves behind a more empowered, resilient community. Because these goals mirror those of most traditional development agencies, linking relief and development should not be a major deviation from either type of agencies’ missions. These opportunities are greatest in situations that require the complete restoration of infrastructure and basic social services, and are found equally in disaster and CHE scenarios. In the reconstruction phase, it is vital that training and information exchanges occur and that local risk is fully incorporated to mitigate for repeat disasters. These repeat disasters often contribute greatly to a nation’s lag in development, and therefore fully addressing them is vital to increasing the nation’s likelihood of being developed sustainably. CRITICAL THINKING Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● • • 6 Do problems associated with equality in distribution of relief occur only in developing countries, or can they occur in any country? Can you fi nd any examples of times when there has been inequality in relief distribution in the United States? Why is it imperative that relief is linked with development? Do you think that disaster relief makes recipient nations more dependent or more independent? Explain your answer. The United Nations System T he UN began in 1945, when representatives from 51 countries met in San Francisco to establish the United Nations Charter as a commitment to preserve peace in the aftermath of World War II. Later that year, the Charter was ratified by the five permanent members: China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, as well as several other countries. Today, 192 countries are members of the UN, and the Charter (which is similar to a sovereign state’s constitution and establishes the rights and responsibilities of member states) is amended as is necessary to reflect the changing needs of current world politics. The UN itself is not a government body, nor does it write laws; however, the autonomous member states do have the ability through the UN to resolve conflict and create international policy. No decision or action can be forced on a sovereign state, but as global ideals are naturally reflected through these collaborative policies, they usually are given due consideration. T hrough the major UN bodies and their associated programs, the UN has established a presence in most countries throughout the world and fostered partnerships with Member State governments. Although more than 70 percent of UN work is devoted to development activities, several other issues are central in their mission, including disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. In the event of a disaster, the UN is quite possibly the best equipped to coordinate disaster relief and to work with the governments to rehabilitate and reconstruct. This is especially true in the case of the developing countries, where regular projects are ongoing and must be adjusted to accommodate for damages to infrastructure and economy caused by recurrent disasters, and where disasters quickly exhaust the response capabilities. Upon onset of a disaster, the UN responds immediately and on an ongoing basis by supplying aid in the form of food, shelter, medical assistance, and logistical support. The UN Emergency Relief Coordinator heads the international UN response to crises through a committee of several humanitarian bodies, including the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the World Food Programme (WFP), the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and other associates as deemed necessary in accordance with the problems specific to the event. Each of these agencies, as shown in this section, fulfills a specific need presented by most humanitarian emergencies, be they natural or man-made. The UN also promotes prevention and mitigation activities through its regular development projects. By encouraging the building of early warning systems and the conducting of monitoring and forecasting routines, they are working to increase local capacity to adequately boost local and regional preparedness. In conclusion of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction of the 1990s (which strove to focus on a shift from disaster response – oriented projects to disaster mitigation), the UN adopted its International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) to promote the Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 7 necessity of disaster reduction and risk mitigation as part of its central mission. This initiative seeks to enable global resilience to the effects of natural hazards in order to reduce human, economic, and social losses, through the following mechanisms: ● ● ● ● Increasing public awareness Obtaining commitment from public authorities Stimulating interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnership and expanding riskreduction networking at all levels Enhancing scientific research of the causes of natural disasters and the effects of natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters on societies T hese strategies are carried out through the country offices and local governments in the most vulnerable communities. Mitigation and preparedness strategies are implemented at all levels of society via public awareness campaigns, secured commitment from public authorities, intersectoral cooperation and communication, and technical knowledge transfer. The United Nations Development Programme The UNDP was established in 1965 during the UN Decade of Development to conduct investigations into private investment in developing countries, to explore the natural resources of those countries, and to train the local population in development activities (such as mining and manufacturing). As the concept and practice of development expanded, the UNDP assumed much greater responsibilities in host countries and in the UN as a whole. T he UNDP was not originally considered an agency on the forefront of international disaster management and humanitarian emergencies because, while it addressed national capacities, it did not focus specifically on the emergency response systems (previously considered to be the focal point of disaster management). However, as mitigation and preparedness received their due merit, the UNDP gained increased recognition for its vital risk reduction role. Capacity building has always been central to the UNDP’s mission in terms of empowering host countries to be better able to address issues of national importance, eventually without foreign assistance. International disaster management gained greater attention as more disasters affected larger populations and caused greater financial impacts. Developing nations, where the UNDP worked, faced the greatest inability to prepare and/or respond to these disasters. The UNDP’s projects have shifted toward activities that indirectly fulfill mitigation and preparedness roles. For instance, projects seeking to strengthen government institutions also improve those institutions’ capacities to respond with appropriate and effective policy, power, and leadership in the wake of a disaster. The UNDP now recognizes that disaster management must be viewed as integral to their mission in the developing world, as well as to civil conflict and Complex Humanitarian Emergency (CHE) scenarios. As excerpts from the UNDP mission show, there are implicit similarities between UNDP ideals and those of agencies whose goals specifically aim to mitigate and manage humanitarian emergencies. Here are some examples: Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● ● ● ● ● 8 [The UNDP] is committed to the principle that development is inseparable from the quest for peace and human security and that the UN must be a strong force for development as well as peace. UNDP’s mission is to help countries in their efforts to achieve sustainable human development by assisting them to build their capacity to design and carry out development programs in poverty eradication, employment creation and sustainable livelihoods, the empowerment of women and the protection and regeneration of the environment, giving first priority to poverty eradication. UNDP strives to be an effective development partner for the UN relief agencies, working to sustain livelihoods while they seek to sustain lives. It acts to help countries to prepare for, avoid and manage complex emergencies and disasters. UNDP supports [development] cooperation by actively promoting the exchange of experience among developing countries. T he UNDP links disaster vulnerability to a lack of or weak infrastructure, poor environmental policy, land misuse, and growing populations in disaster-prone areas. When disasters occur, a country’s national development, which the UNDP serves to promote, can be set back years, if not decades. Even small to medium-size disasters in the least developed countries can “ h ave a cumulative impact on already fragile household economies and can be as significant in total losses as the major and internationally recognized disasters ” (SARPN, n.d.). It is the UNDP’s objective to “ achieve a sustainable reduction in disaster risks and the protection of development gains, reduce the loss of life and livelihoods due to disasters, and ensure that disaster recovery serves to consolidate sustainable human development ” (UNDP, n.d.). I n 1995, as part of the UN’s changing approach to humanitarian relief, the Emergency Response Division (ERD) was created within the UNDP, augmenting the organization’s role in disaster response. Additionally, 5 percent of UNDP budgeted resources were allocated for quick response actions in special development situations by ERD teams, thus drastically reducing bureaucratic delays. The ERD was designed to create a collaborative framework among the national government, UN agencies, donors, and NGOs that will immediately respond to disasters, provide communication and travel to disaster management staff, and distribute relief supplies and equipment. It will also deploy to disaster-affected countries for 30 days to create a detailed response plan on which the UNDP response will be based. I n 1997, under the UN Programme for Reform, the mitigation and preparedness responsibilities of the OCHA Emergency Relief Coordinator were formally transferred to the UNDP. In response, the UNDP created the Disaster Reduction and Recovery Programme (DRRP) within the ERD. Soon after, the UNDP again reorganized, creating a Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) with an overarching mission of addressing a range of nonresponse-related issues: ● ● ● ● Natural disaster reduction Recovery Mine action Conflict prevention and peace building Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● ● ● 9 Justice and security sector reform Small arms and demobilization The BCPR helps the UNDP country offices prepare to activate and provide faster and more effective disaster response and recovery. It also works to ensure that the UNDP plays an active role in the transition between relief and development. The UNDP’s disaster management activities focus primarily on the development-related aspects of risk and vulnerability and on capacity-building technical assistance in all four phases of emergency management. T he UNDP has created the Disaster Reduction Unit (DRU) within the BCPR, which includes a team of seven Geneva-based officials and four regional disaster reduction advisors located in Bangkok, Nairobi, New Delhi, and Panama. The DRU works to reduce disaster risk and increase sustainable recovery in countries where the UNDP operates. It strengthens national and regional capacities by ensuring that new development projects consider known hazard risks, that disaster impacts are mitigated and development gains are protected, and that risk reduction is factored into disaster recovery. The DRU provides the UNDP country offices with technical assistance and financial support for the design and implementation of disaster reduction strategies and capacity-building programs to carry out these goals. The UNDP Recovery Unit F ollowing conflict, crises, and disasters, countries must eventually (and as quickly as possible) transition from response to recovery. Many countries are unable to manage the difficult and diverse needs of recovery on their own, as they may have experienced widespread loss of infrastructure and services. Displaced persons and refugees may have little to return to, and economies may be damaged or destroyed. The Recovery Unit (under the BCPR) operates during the period when the response or relief phase of the disaster has ended but recovery has not fully commenced (sometimes referred to as the “ early recovery period ” ). T he Recovery Unit addresses problems normally encountered in this postcrisis period through its Transition Recovery Programme. This program works to restore government and community capacities to rebuild and recover so as to prevent a return to a crisis situation. Sustainable risk reduction as a component of recovery is central to this mission. The UNDP has recognized that local expertise in risk management and reduction may not be available, and that the technical assistance they provide may be the only option these communities have to increase their resilience to future disasters. This program has proven effective in many recovery operations, including Cambodia after three decades of civil war; Afghanistan after the 2001 conflict; Gujarat, India, after the 2001 earthquake; and from 2008 to 2010 in Sri Lanka after the 26 years of civil war. Specific activities of the UNDP Recovery Unit include the following: ● ● ● Performing early assessments of recovery needs and designing integrated recovery frameworks Planning and assistance in area-based development and local governance programs Developing comprehensive reintegration programs for former Internally Displaced Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● ● ● 10 Persons (IDPs), returning refugees, and ex-combatants Supporting economic recovery both at the local and national levels Supporting in-country capacity building, UN system coordination, resource mobilization, and partnerships T o meet these recovery priorities, five support services have been developed within the Recovery Unit to assist the UNDP country offices and other UNDP/UN agencies to identify areas where the BCPR and the Recovery Unit can provide assistance. These support services include the following: ● ● ● ● ● Early assessment of recovery needs and the design of integrated recovery frameworks Planning and assistance in area-based development and local governance programs Developing comprehensive reintegration programs for IDPs, returning refugees, and excombatants Supporting economic recovery and revitalization Supporting capacity building, coordination, resource mobilization, and partnerships W hen required to assist in recovery operations, the Recovery Unit may deploy a special Transition Recovery Team (TRT) to supplement UNDP operations in the affected country. These teams ’ focus varies according to specific needs. For instance, when neighboring countries have interlinked problems (such as cross-border reintegration of ex-combatants and displaced persons), the TRT may support a subregional approach to recovery. I t is important to note that the UNDP has no primary role in the middle of a CHE peacekeeping response; rather, they fulfill a supportive role by ensuring development is tied into relief. During recovery and reconstruction, together with others, they take the lead. In addition to the roles and responsibilities just mentioned, the UNDP leads several interagency working groups. One such group (which consists of representatives from the World Food Programme, the World Health Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization, the UN Populations Fund, and the UN International Children’s Emergency Relief Fund) develops principles and guidelines to incorporate disaster risk into the Common Country Assessment and the UN Development Assistance Framework. The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Working Group on Risk, Vulnerability and Disaster Impact Assessment sets guidelines for social impact assessments. The UNDP also coordinates a Disaster Management Training Programme in Central America, runs the conference “ T he Use of Microfinance and Micro-Credit for the Poor in Recovery and Disaster Reduction, ” and has created a program to elaborate financial instruments to enable the poor to manage disaster risks. T he UNDP has several reasons for its success in fulfilling its roles in the mitigation, preparedness, and recovery for natural and man-made disasters. First, as a permanent incountry office with close ties to most government agencies, activities related to coordination and planning, monitoring, and training are simply an extension of ongoing relationships. Second, the UNDP functions as a coordinating body of the UN agencies concerned with development, so when crisis situations appear, there is an established, stable platform from which it may lead. And third, the UNDP has experience dealing with donors, be they foreign Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 11 governments or development banks, and therefore can handle the outpouring of aid that usually results during the relief and recovery period of a disaster. This contributes greatly to reducing levels of corruption and increasing the costeffectiveness of generated funds. In several recent events, the UNDP has established formalized funds to handle large donor contributions, which have been used for long-term postdisaster reconstruction efforts. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Prior to 1991, the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator managed natural disasters, and special representatives of the UN Secretary General coordinated CHEs. However, UN Resolution 46/182, adopted in December 1991, merged these two roles to create the Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC). The Department of Humanitarian Affairs was created soon after, with the ERC elevated to the status of Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs. The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) replaced the Department of Humanitarian Affairs under the UN Secretary General’s Program for Reform in 1998. OCHA was established to accommodate the needs of victims of disasters and emergencies, with its specific role in disaster management the coordination of assistance provided by the UN system (in emergencies that exceed the capacity and mandate of any individual agency). OCHA response to disasters can be categorized under three main groupings: ● ● ● Coordinating the international humanitarian response Providing support and policy development to the humanitarian community Advocating for humanitarian issues to ensure that the overall direction of relief reflects the general needs of recovery and peace building O CHA operations are carried out by a staff of approximately 1,795 people in New York, Geneva, and in the field. OCHA’s 2009 budget was $239,617,000, of which only slightly more than 5 percent was from the regular UN budget. The remaining 95 percent is from “ extra-budgetary resources, ” primarily donations from member states and donor organizations. As head of OCHA, the Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs/UN Emergency Relief Coordinator is responsible for the coordination of UN response efforts through the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC). The IASC consists of UN and outside humanitarian organization leaders, and analyzes crisis scenarios to formulate joint responses that maximize effectiveness and minimize overlap. The ERC works to deploy appropriate personnel from throughout the UN to assist UN resident coordinators and lead agencies to increase on-site coordination. In March 2007, the Secretary General appointed John Holmes of the United Kingdom to replace Jan Egeland of Norway as Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator. OCHA’s Disaster Response System monitors the onset of natural and technological disasters. This system includes training assessment teams before disasters strike, as well as conducting postdisaster evaluations. When a disaster is identified, OCHA activates a response and generates a situation report to provide the international response community with detailed information (including Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 12 damage assessment, actions taken, needs assessment, and current assistance provided). If necessary, OCHA may then deploy a UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team to assist relief activity coordination and assess damages and needs. If a disaster appears inevitable or is already significant, the ERC in consultation with IASC may designate a humanitarian coordinator (HC), who becomes the most senior UN humanitarian official on the ground for the emergency. The HC is directly accountable to the ERC, thereby increasing the likelihood that the humanitarian assistance provided is quick, effective, and well coordinated. The HC appointment generally signals that the event merits a long-term humanitarian presence. The criteria used by the ERC in deciding whether to appoint an HC are based on recognition of a need for the following: ● ● ● Intensive and extensive political management, mediation, and coordination to enable the delivery of humanitarian response, including negotiated access to affected populations Massive humanitarian assistance requiring action by a range of participants beyond a single national authority A high degree of external political support, often from the UN Security Council A n On-Site Operations Coordination Center (OSOCC) may be set up in the field to assist local first-response teams to coordinate the often overwhelming number of responding agencies. Finally, OCHA can set up communications capabilities if they have been damaged or do not exist at an adequate level, as required by the UN responding agencies. OCHA generally concludes its responsibilities when the operation moves from response to recovery. Overall, OCHA coordinates humanitarian affairs to maximize response and recovery operations and minimize duplications and inefficiencies through established structures and policies set forth by the IASC (adapted from OCHA, 2005): ● ● ● ● ● ● Developing common strategies Assessing situations and needs Convening coordination forums Mobilizing resources Addressing common problems Administering coordination mechanisms and tools T he Field Coordination Support Unit in Geneva manages the human, technical, and logistical resources OCHA uses. These resources are primarily provided by the Danish and Norwegian Refugee Councils, the Danish Emergency Management Agency, the Swedish Rescue Services Agency, and the Emergency Logistics Management Team of the United Kingdom Overseas Development Administration. The Emergency Relief Coordinator The Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs/Emergency Relief Coordinator advises the UN Secretary General on disaster-related issues, chairs the Executive Committee on Humanitarian Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 13 Affairs (ECHA), and leads the IASC. The coordinator is assisted by a deputy, who holds the position of Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator (DERC) and is responsible for key coordination, policy, and management issues. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) T he IASC was established in 1992 under UN Resolution 46/182. It serves as a platform within which the broad range of UN and non-UN humanitarian partners (including UN humanitarian agencies, the International Organization for Migration, three consortia of major international NGOs, and the Red Cross movement) may come together to address the humanitarian needs resulting from a disaster. The IASC’s primary role is to formulate humanitarian policy that ensures a coordinated and effective response to all kinds of disaster and emergency situations. The primary objectives of the IASC are to (OCHA, 2005): ● ● ● ● ● ● Develop and agree on systemwide humanitarian policies Allocate responsibilities among agencies in humanitarian programs Develop and agree on a common ethical framework for all humanitarian activities Advocate common humanitarian principles to parties outside the IASC Identify areas where gaps in mandates or lack of operational capacity exist Resolve disputes or disagreement about and between humanitarian agencies on systemwide humanitarian issues The Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs (ECHA) E CHA was created by the UN Secretary General to enhance coordination among UN agencies working on humanitarian affairs issues. ECHA meets on a monthly basis in New York to add a political and peacekeeping dimension to humanitarian consultations. The OCHA Donor Relations Section The OCHA Donor Relations Section (DRS), separated from the Consolidated Appeals Process in 2003, is the focal point for all relations with donors, particularly for fundingrelated issues. DRS advises the senior management team on policy issues related to interaction with donors and resource mobilization. In addition, it plays a key role in facilitating the interaction of all OCHA entities with donors, both at headquarters and in the field level. The Coordination and Response Division T he Coordination and Response Division (CRD) was created in 2004 by joining the former New York – based Humanitarian Emergency Branch and the Geneva-based Response Coordination Branch. The CRD is responsible for providing disaster-related direction, guidance, and support to the ERC, the UN Resident/Humanitarian Coordinators, and OCHA’s field offices (including the deployment of extra personnel as necessary or emergency cash grants). Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 14 The OCHA Emergency Services Branch (ESB) Based in Geneva, the ESB was created to expedite the provision of international humanitarian assistance. The ESB develops, mobilizes, and coordinates the deployment of OCHA’s international rapid response “ tool kit ”— the expertise, systems, and services that aim to improve humanitarian assistance in support of disaster-afflicted countries. The ESB’s humanitarian response activities include the coordination of disaster response and assessment (UNDAC), the setting of international urban search and rescue standards (INSARAG), and the establishment of OSOCCs. The Field Coordination Support Section (FCSS) was established within the ESB in 1996 to support national governments and the UN Resident Coordinators in developing, preparing, and maintaining “ s tandby capacity” for rapid deployment to sudden-onset emergencies to conduct rapid needs assessments and coordination. The FCSS manages several programs and offices to improve international disaster coordination and cooperation, including the following: ● ● ● ● The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) Team. The UNDAC team is made up of disaster management specialists selected and funded by the governments of UN member states, OCHA, UNDP, and operational humanitarian UN agencies (such as WFP, UNICEF, and WHO). It provides rapid needs assessments and supports national authorities and the UN Resident Coordinator in coordinating international relief. UNDAC teams are on permanent standby status so that they can deploy within hours. The International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG). INSARAG is an intergovernmental network within the UN that manages urban search-and-rescue (USAR) and related disaster-response issues. It promotes information exchange, defines international USAR standards, and develops methodologies for international cooperation and coordination in earthquake response. The Virtual On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (Virtual OSOCC). The Internet has made it possible for humanitarian relief agencies to share and exchange disaster information continuously and simultaneously, and between any locations where Internet access can be obtained. The Virtual OSOCC is a central repository of information maintained by OCHA that facilitates this exchange of information with NGOs and responding governments. The information is stored on an interactive Webbased database, where users can comment on existing information and discuss issues of concern with other stakeholders. The Surge Capacity Project (including the Emergency Response Roster). OCHA’s Surge Capacity Project seeks to ensure that OCHA always has the means and resources to rapidly mobilize and deploy staff and materials to address the needs of countries affected by suddenonset emergencies. The Emergency Response Roster (ERR), which became active in June 2002, aims to rapidly deploy OCHA staff to sudden-onset emergencies to conduct assessments and establish initial coordination mechanisms. Staff included in the ERR are deployable within 48 hours of a request for their services through a deployment methodology based on the UNDAC model. Staff serve on the roster for two months at a time. Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 15 E stablished by the IASC in 1995, the Military and Civil Defense Unit (MCDU) supports humanitarian agencies by providing military and/or civil defense assets. The MCDU conducts civilmilitary coordination courses and coordinates UN participation in major humanitarian emergency exercises. The MCDU also maintains the UN’s Central Register, which is a database of noncommercial, governmental, and other resources that may be called on for humanitarian response and includes a full range of equipment and supplies, teams of experts, and disaster response contacts. T he Logistics Support Unit (LSU) manages stocks of basic relief items that can be dispatched immediately to disaster- or emergency-stricken areas. The stockpile, which is located at the UN Humanitarian Response Depot in Brindisi, Italy, includes nonfood, nonmedical relief items (such as shelter, water purification and distribution systems, and household items) donated by UN member governments. The LSU is also involved in other logistical challenges, such as designing contingency plans for the rapid deployment of emergency relief flights and providing interface on logistical matters with other humanitarian agencies (such as WFP, WHO, UNHCR, IFRC, and ICRC). The LSU participates in the operation of a UN Joint Logistics Center and has cosponsored an effort to adopt a UN-wide system for tracking relief supplies and common procedures for air operations. Finally, the LSU contributes information to the CRR related to stockpiles and customs facilitation agreements (which helps speed up the delivery of relief items). The Environmental Emergencies Section, or the Joint UN Environmental Programme (UNEP)/OCHA Environment Unit, serves as the integrated UN emergency response mechanism that provides international assistance to countries experiencing environmental disasters and emergencies. The joint unit can rapidly mobilize and coordinate emergency assistance and response resources to countries facing environmental emergencies and natural disasters with significant environmental impacts. The unit performs several key functions geared toward facilitating rapid and coordinated disaster response, including the following: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Monitoring Notification Brokerage Information clearinghouse Mobilization of assistance Assessment Financial assistance OCHA Preparedness and Mitigation Measures Although OCHA’s efforts primarily focus on coordinating humanitarian emergency response, the agency also serves a risk-reduction function. For instance, OCHA representatives work with operational humanitarian agencies to develop common policies aimed at improving how the humanitarian response network prepares for and responds to disasters. It also works to promote preparedness and mitigation efforts in member states to decrease vulnerability. CRD and ESB work closely with the UN Development Programme, other UN programs as necessary, and outside Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 16 organizations on various projects and activities to increase working relationships with national governments and apply lessons learned from completed disaster responses. O CHA’s Geneva offices are continually monitoring geologic and meteorological conditions, as well as major news services, for early recognition or notification of emerging disasters. Working with UN resident coordinators, country teams and regional disaster response advisers, OCHA maintains close contact with disaster-prone countries in advance of and during disaster events. OCHA’s Regional Disaster Response Advisers work with national governments to provide technical, strategic, and training assistance. They also provide this assistance to other UN agencies and regional organizations to improve international disaster management capacity. OCHA Information Tools and Services C learly, information is key to disaster management, and information must be timely and accurate to be useful. This is especially true in the case of early warning and disaster prevention initiatives. OCHA maintains several information management activities in support of its humanitarian efforts, and provides systems to collect, analyze, disseminate, and exchange information. These functions are performed jointly by the Early Warning and Contingency Planning Unit, the ReliefWeb project, the Field Information Support Project, and the Integrated Regional Information Networks. Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) DESA is another component within the Secretariat that addresses disaster management, primarily in regards to predisaster capacity building. DESA addresses a full range of issues under three general areas: ● ● ● It compiles, generates, and analyzes a wide range of economic, social, and environmental data and information from which member states draw to review common problems and evaluate policy options. It facilitates the negotiations of member states in many intergovernmental bodies on joint courses of action to address ongoing or emerging global challenges. It advises national governments on translating UN-developed policy frameworks into countrylevel programs and, through technical assistance, helps build national capacities. T his final area is where DESA addresses disaster management activities within its Division for Sustainable Development. As part of this effort, DESA launched a plan of action during the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, that included commitments to disaster and vulnerability reduction. T he UN Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) is another component of DESA that addresses disaster management issues. Through its headquarters in Nagoya, Japan, and its regional offices in Nairobi, Kenya, and Bogot á , Colombia, UNCRD supports training and research on regional development issues and facilitates information dissemination and exchange. UNCRD maintains a Disaster Management Planning Office in Hyogo, Japan, that researches and develops community-based, sustainable projects for disaster management planning and capacity building in Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 17 developing countries. Examples of ongoing projects maintained by the Hyogo office include the Housing Earthquake Safety Initiative in Algeria, Indonesia, Nepal, and Peru, and the School Earthquake Safety Initiative in Fiji, India, Indonesia, and Uzbekistan. The Regional Commissions Five regional economic commissions are within the Economic and Social Council. The secretariats of these regional commissions are part of the UN Secretariat and perform many of the same functions (including the disaster management functions just listed). The five commissions promote greater economic cooperation in the world and augment economic and social development. As part of their mission, they initiate and manage projects that focus on disaster management. While their projects primarily deal with disaster preparedness and mitigation, they also work in regions that have been affected by a disaster to ensure that economic and social recovery involves adequate consideration of risk reduction measures. These are the five regional commissions: ● ● ● ● ● The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) — www.unescap.org The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) — www.eclac.cl/ The Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) —www.unece.org/ The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) —www.uneca.org/ The Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) —www.escwa.org.lb The United Nations Children’s Fund L ike most other major UN agencies, the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF, formerly known as the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) was established in the aftermath of World War II. Its original mandate was to aid the children suffering in postwar Europe, but its mission has been expanded to address the problems that affect poor children throughout the world. UNICEF is mandated by the General Assembly to serve as an advocate for children’s rights, to ensure that each child receives at least the minimum requirements for survival, and to increase their opportunities for a successful future. Under the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), a treaty ratified by 194 countries (all countries except the United States), the UNHCR holds wide-reaching legal authority to carry out its mission. B efore the onset of disasters, it is not uncommon for UNICEF to have established itself as a permanent in-country presence, with regular budgetary resources. In the situations of disaster or armed conflict where this is the case, UNICEF is well poised to serve an immediate role as aid provider to its specific target groups. This rapid response is important because young mothers and children are often the most marginalized groups in terms of aid received. UNICEF works on a regular basis to ensure that children have access to education, healthcare, safety, and protected child rights. In the response and recovery periods of humanitarian emergencies, these roles are merely expanded to suit the rapidly extended requirements of victims. In countries where UNICEF has not yet established a permanent presence, the form of aid is virtually the same; however, the timing and delivery are affected, and reconstruction is not nearly as comprehensive. Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 18 UNICEF maintains that humanitarian assistance should include programs aimed specifically for child victims. Relief projects generally work to provide a rapidly needed response in the form of immunizations, water and sanitation, nutrition, education, and health. Women are recipients of this aid as well because UNICEF considers them to be vital in the care of children. UNICEF also works through recovery and reconstruction projects, providing for the basic rights of children. UNICEF is currently active in 186 countries. The World Food Programme T he World Food Programme (WFP) is the arm of the UN tasked with reacting to hungerrelated emergencies throughout the developing world. The WFP was created late in 1961 by a resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Chance enabled the program to prove the necessity of their existence when the WFP provided relief to more than 5 million people several months before they were deemed officially operational in 1963. In the year 2009 alone, the WFP fed more than 108 million people in 74 countries, up from 102 million in 78 countries in 2008. Over the course of its existence, the WFP has provided more than 50 million metric tons of food to countries worldwide. B ecause food is a necessity for human survival, it is a vital component of development. The WFP works throughout the world to assist the poor who do not have sufficient food to survive “ t o break the cycle of hunger and poverty.” Hunger alone can be seen as a crisis because more than 1.02 billion people across the globe receive less than the minimum standard requirement of food for healthy survival. Hunger is often associated with other crises, including drought, famine, and human displacement, among others. I n rapid-onset events such as natural disasters, the WFP is activated as a major player in the response to the immediate nutritional needs of the victims. Food is transported to the affected location and delivered to storage and distribution centers. The distribution is carried out according to preestablished needs assessments performed by OCHA and the UNDP. The WFP distributes food through contracted NGOs who have vast experience and technical skills required to plan and implement such projects of transportation, storage, and distribution. The principal partners in their planning and implementation are the host governments (who must request the aid of the WFP to begin with, unless the situation is a CHE where there is no established government, and the UN Secretary General makes the request). The WFP works closely with all responding UN agencies to coordinate an effective and broad-reaching response because food requirements are so closely linked to every other vital need of disaster victims. In the aftermath of disasters, during the reconstruction phase, it is often necessary for the WFP to remain an active player through continued food distribution. Rehabilitation projects are implemented in a way that fosters increased local development, and include providing food aid to families, who as a result will have extra money to use in rebuilding their lives, and food for work programs, which break the chains of reliance on aid as well as provide an incentive to rebuild communities. Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 19 The World Health Organization The idea for the World Health Organization (WHO) was proposed during the original meetings to establish the UN system in San Francisco in 1945. In 1946, at the United Health Conference in New York, the WHO constitution was approved, and on April 7 (World Health Day), it was signed and made official. Like the WFP, WHO proved its value by responding to an emergency (a cholera epidemic in Egypt) months before it was an officially recognized organization. W HO was established to serve as the central authority on sanitation and health issues throughout the world. It works with national governments to develop medical capabilities and health care and assist them in the suppression of epidemics. WHO supports research for the eradication of disease and provides expertise on these subjects when requested. It also provides training and technical support and develops standards for medical care. I n the event of a disaster, WHO responds in several ways that address the health of victims. Most important, it provides ongoing monitoring of diseases traditionally observed within the unsanitary conditions of disaster aftermath. WHO also provides technical assistance to the responding agencies and host governments that are establishing disaster medical capabilities and serves as a constant source of expertise as needs arise. CRITICAL THINKING Is the United Nations the organization best suited to coordinate the response to international disasters? Why or why not? If not, who do you believe should be tasked with coordination? Nongovernmental Organizations The number of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) focusing on international humanitarian relief has grown exponentially in the past few decades. These organizations have come to play a vital role in the response to and recovery from disasters, filling gaps left by national and multilateral organizations. They have significantly improved the ability of international relief efforts to address the needs of victims with a diverse range of skills and supplies. Some of the larger NGOs, like the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), have established an international presence similar to that of the UN and have developed strong local institutional partnerships and a capacity to respond almost immediately with great effectiveness. These grassroots-level organizations are so successful in their activities that the major funding organizations such as USAID, OFDA, and the UN regularly arrange for relief projects to be implemented by them rather than their own staff. There are several classifications of humanitarian organizations, and for the purpose of clarification, they are described as follows. The following broad categorical definitions are widely accepted among the agencies of the international relief community. These are not definitive categories into which each organization will neatly fit, but they have become part of standardized nomenclature in disaster response: ● Nongovernmental organization (NGO). The general term for an organization made up of private citizens, with no affiliation with a government of any nation other than the support from Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● ● ● ● ● 20 government sources in the form of financial or in-kind contributions. These groups are motivated by greatly varying factors, ranging from religious beliefs to humanitarian values. NGOs are considered national if they work in one country, international if they are based out of one country but work in more than four countries, and multinational if they have partner organizations in several countries. Oxfam and the ICRC are examples of multinational NGOs. NGOs can be further defined according to their functionality. Examples of these would be the religious groups, such as the Catholic Church; interest groups, such as Rotary International; residents ’ organizations; occupational organizations; educational organizations; and so on. Private voluntary organization (PVO). An organization that is nonprofit, tax-exempt, and receives at least a part of its funding from private donor sources. PVOs also receive some degree of voluntary contributions in the form of cash, work, or in-kind gifts. This classification is steadily being grouped together under the more general NGO classification. It should be mentioned that although all PVOs are NGOs, the opposite is not true. International organization (IO). An organization with global presence and influence. Although both the UN and ICRC are IOs, only the ICRC could be considered an NGO. There exists international law providing a legal framework under which these organizations can function. Donor agencies. Private, national, or regional organizations whose mission is to provide the financial and material resources for humanitarian relief and subsequent rehabilitation. These donated resources may go to other NGOs, other national governments, or to private citizens. Examples of donor agencies are USAID, the European Community Humanitarian Organization (ECHO), and the World Bank. Coordinating organizations . Associations of NGOs that coordinate the activities of hundreds of preregistered member organizations to ensure response with maximized impact. They can decrease the amount of overlap and help distribute assistance to the greatest range of victims. Also, they have the ability to analyze immediate needs assessments and recommend which member organizations would be most effective in response. Examples of coordinating organizations include InterAction and the International Council for Voluntary Agencies (ICVA). NGOs bring to the field several resources. First, they are well regarded as informationgathering bodies and thus are vital in establishing accuracy in the development of damage and needs assessments. They tend to provide a single skill or group of specific technical skills, such as the medical abilities of Medicin sans Frontiers (MSF, Doctors without Borders) or Oxfam’s ability to address nutritional needs. The sheer number of helping bodies that are provided by the involvement of NGOs allows for a greater capability to reach a larger population in less time. Finally, the amount of financial support provided as a result of the fundraising abilities of NGOs brings about much greater cash resources to address the needs of victims. These organizations can be characterized by several commonly seen characteristics: 1. They value their independence and neutrality. 2. They tend to be decentralized in their organizational structure. Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 21 3. They are committed. 4. They are highly practice-oriented. The most well-known and most widely established NGO is the Red Cross. The International Red Cross T he International Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement consists of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). The concept of the Red Cross was initiated by Henry Dunant in 1859, following a particularly brutal battle in Italy that he witnessed. Dunant gathered a local group to provide care for the battle-wounded through medical assistance, food, and ongoing relief. Upon returning to Switzerland, he began the campaign that led to the International Committee for Relief of the Wounded in 1863 and, eventually, the ICRC. The Committee, and their symbol of a red cross on a white background, has become the standard of neutral wartime medical care of wounded combatants and civilians. The IFRC was founded in 1919 and has grown to be the world’s largest humanitarian organization. After World War I, American Red Cross War Committee president Henry Davison proposed a creation of a League of Red Cross Societies so the expertise of the millions of volunteers from the wartime efforts of the ICRC could be used in a broader scope of peacetime activities. Today, the IFRC includes 195 member societies, a Secretariat in Geneva, and more than 60 additional delegations dispersed throughout the world. T he IFRC conducts complex relief and recovery operations in the aftermath of disasters throughout the world. Their four areas of focus include promoting humanitarian values, disaster response, disaster preparedness, and health and community care. Through their work, they seek to “ i mprove the lives of vulnerable people by mobilizing the power of humanity, ” as stated in their mission. These people include those who are victims of natural and man-made disasters and postconflict scenarios. Like the UN, the IFRC is well established in most countries throughout the world and is well poised to assist in the event that disaster strikes. Volunteers are continuously trained and utilized at the most local levels, providing a solid knowledge base before a major need presents itself. Cooperation among groups, through the federation, provides an enormous pool of people and funds from which to draw when local resources are exhausted. W hen a disaster strikes and the local capacity is exceeded, an appeal by that country’s national chapter is made for support to the Federation’s Secretariat. As coordinating body, the Secretariat initiates an international appeal for support to the IFRD and many other outside sources and provides personnel and humanitarian aid supplies from its own stocks. These supplies, which can be shipped in if not locally available, pertain to needs in the areas of health, logistics and water specialists, aid personnel, and relief management. The appeal for international assistance is made an average of 30 times per year, and these assistance projects can continue for years. Long-term rehabilitation and reconstruction projects, coupled with the goal of sustainable development and increased capacity to handle future disasters, Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 22 have become the norm in regards to major disasters in the poorer countries. The following is how the IFRC responds to international disasters. Depending on the complexity of the required response, a Field Assessment and Coordination Team (FACT) may be deployed to assist the local chapter in determining the support needs for the event. The teams, which are deployable to any location with only 24 hours’ notice, consist of Red Cross/Red Crescent disaster managers from throughout the IFRC, bringing with them skills in relief, logistics, health, nutrition, public health, epidemiology, water and sanitation, finance, administration, and psychological support. The team works in conjunction with local counterparts and hostgovernment representatives to assess the situation and determine what the IFRC response will consist of. An international appeal is drafted, and then launched, by the Secretariat in Geneva. The teams stay in-country to coordinate the initiation of relief activities. Once the effort has stabilized and has become locally manageable, the FACT concedes its control to the local Red Cross headquarters. I n 1994, following a spate of notably severe disasters (i.e., the Armenian earthquake, the Gulf War Kurdish refugee problem, and the African Great Lakes Region crisis), the IFRC began to develop an Emergency Response Unit (ERU) program to increase disaster response efficiency and efficacy. These ERUs are made up of preestablished supplies, equipment, and personnel, who respond as a quick-response unit on a moment’s notice and are trained and prepared to handle a much wider range of scenarios than before. This concept, similar to the UNDP Emergency Response Division (ERD), has already proven effective in making IFRC response faster and better, through several deployments, including Hurricane Mitch in Honduras. The teams, upon completion of their response mission, remained incountry to train the locals in water and sanitation issues, thus further ensuring the sustainability of their efforts. ERU teams are most effective in large-scale, sudden-onset, and remote disasters. T he IFRC is in the final stages of wrapping up a decade-long strategic effort called Strategy 2010. This effort focused on three “ Directions ” : 1. National Society programs that are responsive to local vulnerability and focused on the areas where they can add the greatest value. The four core areas of this effort are: a. Promotion of humanitarian values and principles b. Disaster response c. Disaster preparedness d. Health and care in the community 2. Well-functioning national societies which can mobilize support and carry out their humanitarian mission, contributing to the building of civil society. 3. Working together effectively through program cooperation, long-term partnerships and funding as well as more active advocacy. A s a result of this strategy the IFRC has become more heavily engaged in disaster preparedness and has identified several mitigation strategies in the communities where they operate. These activities, which focus on consequence reduction and working toward better prediction and prevention methods, are becoming a fundamental component of local Red Cross/Red Crescent Society programs. The IFRC has recognized the following four points of action as most vital: Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● ● 23 Reducing the vulnerability of households and communities in disaster-prone areas and improving their ability to cope with the effects of disasters Strengthening the capacities of National Societies in disaster preparedness and postdisaster response Determining a role and mandate for National Societies in national disaster plans Establishing regional networks of National Societies that will strengthen the Federation’s collective impact in disaster preparedness and response at the international level ● ● ● The plan is to increase local capacity to handle disasters in order to decrease the magnitude of international assistance required on disaster onset. This increase in capacity eventually results in a decreased loss of life and property, as development progresses in each country and resilience from catastrophe grows. The IFRC aims to accomplish these results through their regular local capacitybuilding projects, performed in conjunction with research and analysis. IFRC is in the process of developing Strategy 2020, which will guide the actions of the organization and its National Societies over the decade spanning 2011 – 2020. CRITICAL THINKING • • Should nongovernmental organizations be required to adhere to the UN or another governmental coordination system that is in place during the response to international disasters? Why or why not? What are the major risks for an NGO that refuses to participate in the coordination mechanism in place in the disaster-affected country or region? What does it gain and what does it lose by choosing to participate? Assistance Provided by the U.S. Government U.S. Agency for International Development The United States has several means by which it provides assistance to other nations requiring aid in the aftermath of a disaster, accident (transportation-based, nuclear, biological, chemical, or other), or conflict. The U.S. agency tasked with providing development aid to other countries, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), has also been tasked with coordinating the U.S. response to international disasters. USAID was created in 1961 through the Foreign Assistance Act, which was drafted to organize U.S. foreign assistance programs and separate military and nonmilitary assistance. One branch of USAID, the Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Response (DCHA), manages the various mechanisms with which the United States can respond to humanitarian emergencies of all types. The office under DCHA that most specifically addresses the needs of disaster and crisis victims by coordinating all nonfood aid provided by the government is the Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) (see Figure 8– 1 ). Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 24 Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance OFDA is divided into three distinct subunits: Operations Division (OPS); Program Support Division (PS); and Disaster Response and Mitigation (DRM). The Disaster Response and Mitigation Division is responsible for coordinating the provision of humanitarian assistance and relief supplies. The Operations Division develops and manages logistical, operational, and technical support for field offices and disaster responses, including Urban Search & Rescue (USAR) teams, Disaster Assistance Response Teams (DARTs), and Response Management Teams (RMTs). The Program Support Division provides programmatic and administrative support, including budget and financial services, procurement planning, contracts and grants administration, training support, information technology, communications support, and information services. The administrator of USAID holds the title of President’s Special Coordinator for International Disaster Assistance. When a disaster is declared in a foreign nation by the resident U.S. ambassador (or by the Department of State, if one does not exist), the USAID administrator is appealed to for help. This can be done when the magnitude of the disaster has overwhelmed a country’s local response mechanisms, the government has requested assistance or will at least accept it, and it is in the interest of the U.S. government to assist. OFDA is authorized to immediately disburse $50,000 in emergency aid to the U.S. Embassy to be spent at the discretion of the ambassador for immediate relief, and given that the disaster satisfy three criteria: (1) the magnitude of the disaster is beyond the capacity of the host country to respond; (2) the host country accepts, or is willing to accept, assistance; and (3) a response is in the best interest of the U.S. government. OFDA also can immediately send regional advisors with temporary shelter and medical aid supplies from one of four OFDA stockpiles in Guam, Italy, Honduras, and the United States (see Figure 8 – 2). If the disaster is considerable in size, the U.S. ambassador or USAID Mission Director posted in the affected country will appoint a Mission Disaster Relief Officer to oversee the developing response effort. A Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) is deployed to the country to assess the damages and recommend the level of assistance that should be made by the U.S. government. DARTs work quickly to develop a strategy to coordinate U.S. relief supplies; provide operational support; coordinate with other donor countries, UN agencies, NGOs, and the host government; and monitor and evaluate projects carried out with U.S. funds. In the largest of disasters, Response Management Teams (RMTs) may be established in both Washington, D.C., and the disaster site to coordinate and offer administrative assistance and communication for the several DARTs that would be deployed. O FDA developed a Technical Assistance Group (TAG) to increase its capabilities in planning and programming. TAGs consist of scientists and specialists in agriculture and food security, emergency and public health, water and sanitation, geoscience, climate, urban planning, contingency planning, cartography, and so on. TAGs work with DARTS and RMTs in response, as well as USAID development missions in preparation and mitigation for future disasters. In addition to the direct aid and logistical and operational support offered, OFDA provides grants for relief assistance projects. These projects are carried out primarily by PVOs and NGOs, as well as IOs, the UN, and other various organizations (such as a pilots’ club that is hired to transport supplies). Not all this monetary aid goes to response, however. The DRM works to facilitate projects that aim to reduce the impact of disasters before they happen again. These types of projects seek to empower Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 25 national governments to make them less likely to need international assistance in subsequent events. All these organizations are monitored carefully by OFDA to ensure that they are working efficiently and are spending monetary resources sensibly. Other USAID Divisions U nder the USAID DCHA, several other offices provide humanitarian aid. The Office of Food for Peace (FFP) handles all the U.S. government’s food assistance projects (U.S. food aid is categorized as Title II or Title III, with the first having no repayment obligations and the second considered a bilateral loan). The Office of Transition Initiatives (OTI) works FIGURE 8-1 The USAID organizational chart. Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 27 OFDA Office of the Director Operations Division Field Support Team Program Support Division Operations Support Team Overseas Administration Team Resources Team Disaster Response and Mitigation Division Management and Administration Team Disaster Response Team Technical Assistance Group Sudan Europe, Middle East, and Central Asia Southern, West, and North Africa Latin America and the Caribbean and Asia/Pacific East and Central Africa FIGURE 8-2 The OFDA organizational chart. in postconflict situations to help sustain peace and establish democracy. The Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation (CMM) supports early responses to address the causes and consequences of conflict and war. T he Office of Military Affairs (OMA) helps to build partnerships for humanitarian relief with U.S. Department of Defense officials and offices for planning, training, mitigation, response, and recovery. The Department of State Bureau for Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM) provides monetary grants to NGOs, PVOs, IOs, and the UN to respond to emergency refugee emergencies. A good portion of this assistance goes directly to the UNHCR. The Department of Defense (DOD) responds through its Office of Peacekeeping and Humanitarian Affairs (PK/HA). It is important to note that the developed nations of the world are highly unlikely to receive U.S. assistance on the level that is provided to the developing nations. The U.S. Military The U.S. military often is involved in relief efforts of natural and technological disasters and CHEs. The involvement of the military, a well-funded and equipped force whose primary function is national defense, brings about an entirely new perspective to the area of operations. It often is argued that nobody is better equipped to handle disasters than the military, with their wide assortment of heavy equipment, enormous reserve of trained personnel, and common culture of discipline and missionoriented standard operation; however, it is also said that the military is a war agency, not a Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 28 humanitarian assistance agency, and that these two organizational ideals are too fundamentally and diametrically opposed in practice to allow for effective military involvement. The assistance of the military normally is requested by USAID/OFDA through the DOD Office of Political/Military Affairs. The chain of command for military operations begins with the President of the United States and the Secretary of Defense, collectively referred to as the National Command Authority (NCA). The NCA, which directs all functions of the U.S. military, is advised by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines. The U.S. military is heavily involved in the response to international disasters through organized operations termed Foreign Humanitarian Assistance (FHA) or Humanitarian Assistance Operations (HAO). FHAs are authorized by the DOD Office of Political/Military Affairs (DODPM) at the request of OFDA (the president, as commander in chief, gives final authorization for any support operation). Assistance may be provided in the form of physical or technical support, such as logistics, transportation, communications, relief distribution, security, and emergency medicine. In emergencies of natural or manmade origin that do not involve conflict, the role of the military is to provide support, rather than leadership, to the national government and the overall relief community. T he military is known for its self-contained operational abilities, arriving on-scene with everything they need, so to speak. Usually, they provide more than adequate personnel and supplies for the mission they were called to act upon. Once in-country, they work under the strict guidelines of Force Protection (enforced security of all military and civilian personnel, equipment, and facilities associated with their mission) and Rules of Engagement (ROE, a structured, preestablished guideline of “ circumstances and limitations under which the military will initiate or continue combat engagement ” ). The ROE dictate military action in both peacekeeping and disaster operations. I f a particular command unit is tasked with assisting a relief operation, they may deploy a Humanitarian Assistance Survey Team (HAST) to conduct a needs assessment, which relates to the specific functions the military is suited to address. These assessments are occasionally much different than those generated by more humanitarianbased organizations, such as the UN or OFDA, because the military operates in such a fundamentally different fashion. The concerns of the HAST tend to focus on the military support requirements and the logistical factors involving deployment of troops. A Joint Task Force (JTF) will be established soon after to handle the management and coordination of military personnel activities, with a commander for the JTF designated as the person in charge of the operation on-site; however, if an operation involves only one military service, or is minimal in size, a JTF may not be needed. O ne of the main roles of the JTF is to establish a Civil Military Operations Center (CMOC). This center effectively functions to coordinate the military support capabilities in relation to the overall response structure involving all other players involved. The CMOC mobilizes requests for assistance from OFDA, the UN, NGOs, and the host government. All intermilitary planning is conducted through this center, including those operations involving cargo transportation and food logistics. This center is the primary node of information exchange to and from the JTF. CMOCs have taken on expanded responsibility in the past, including the reestablishment of government and civil society and the repair or rehabilitation of critical infrastructure. Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 29 CRITICAL THINKING • • • The Posse Comitatus Act limits the involvement of the U.S. military in domestic operations, but not international disasters. Do you believe that the U.S. military would be better equipped than DHS to lead the federal response to domestic disasters? Why or why not? What aspects of the military make it so effective overseas? Why do you think OFDA is a component of the U.S. Department of State and not the DHS? The International Financial Institutions The international financial institutions (IFIs) provide loans for development and financial cooperation throughout the world. They exist to ensure financial and market stability and to increase political balance. These institutions are made up of member states, arranged on a global or regional basis, which work together to provide financial services to national governments through direct loans or projects. In the aftermath of disasters, it is common for nations with low capital reserves to request increased or additional emergency loans to fund the expensive task of reconstruction and rehabilitation. Without these IFIs, most developing nations would have no means with which to recover. The largest of these IFIs, the World Bank, and one of its subsidiaries, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), are detailed as follows. Other regional IFIs with similar functions include the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), which works primarily in Central and South America, and the Asian Development Bank (ADB), based in Manila, Philippines, which works throughout the Asian continent. The World Bank T he World Bank was created in 1944 to rebuild Europe after World War II. In 1947, France received the first World Bank loan of $250 million for postwar reconstruction. Financial reconstruction assistance has been provided regularly since that time in response to countless natural disasters and humanitarian emergencies. Today, the World Bank is one of the largest sources of development assistance. In the 2008 fiscal year, it committed more than $38.2 billion in loans, funding hundreds of ongoing and new projects in scores of developing countries. The World Bank is owned collectively by 186 countries and is based in Washington, D.C. It comprises several institutions referred to as the World Bank Group (WBG): ● ● ● ● ● International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Development Association International Finance Corporation Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes T he World Bank’s overall goal is to reduce poverty, specifically, to “ i ndividually help each developing country onto a path of stable, sustainable, and equitable growth, [focusing on] helping the Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 30 poorest people and the poorest countries ” (The World Bank, n.d.). As disasters and CHEs take a greater and greater toll on the economic stability of many financially struggling countries, the Bank is taking on a more central role in mitigation and reconstruction. Developing nations, which are more likely to have weak disaster mitigation or preparedness capacity and therefore little or no affordable access to disaster insurance, often sustain a total financial loss. In the period of rehabilitation that follows a disaster, loans are essential to the success of programs and vital to any level of sustainability or increased disaster resistance. The Bank lends assistance at several points along this cycle. F irst, for regular financial assistance, the Bank ensures that borrowed funds are applied to projects that give mitigation a central role during the planning phase. It utilizes its privilege as financial advisor to guide planners, who otherwise might forego mitigation measures in an effort to stretch the loaned capital as far as possible. Ensuring that mitigation is addressed increases systems of prediction and risk analysis in World Bank– f unded projects. Since its inception, the World Bank has been heavily involved in national reconstruction efforts. Over time, these postdisaster programs have not only grown in number and scope, but have also shifted in focus from that of post conflict scenarios to that of a more diverse hazard portfolio— w ith natural disasters emerging as the prominent instigating factor. The Bank has established and adjusted its policy on managing the postdisaster needs of member nations through successive policy adjustments that point to an evolution in thinking about how the bank assists its “ customers ” facing disasters. T he range of disaster events the Bank has addressed through its various response and reconstruction programs has grown over time. All Bank policy stipulates that postdisaster projects should concentrate on restoring assets and productivity levels, thereby focusing on reconstruction (with explicit specification that relief and consumption cannot be financed — under the guiding theory that lending should be reserved for economically productive activities, thereby leaving relief managed by local groups, affected governments, bilateral relief programs, NGOs, and specialized relief organizations). Bank policy, in fact, restricts the Bank from participating in the financing of any of the following: ● Temporary shelter Search and rescue ● Evacuation ● Health care ● Food and water distribution ● Temporary sanitation ● Restoration of access to transport W ithin the framework of these restrictions, the Bank is able to offer effective assistance to disaster-affected nations through a range of loan and technical assistance instruments. The current policy describes five forms of Bank emergency assistance: emergency recovery loans (ERLs) and credits, loan reallocation, the redesign of pipeline projects, new free-standing mitigation projects, and ● Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 31 assessments. These, and other related capabilities, are grouped into the categories of Lending Instruments, Coordination, and Technical Assistance. World Bank Lending Instruments Since 1980, the Executive Board of the World Bank has approved more than 500 projects involving the management of disasters in some capacity. Through these projects, a total of more than $40 billion of bank lending— r epresenting about 10 percent of all Bank loan commitments— w as provided. Among these projects, the amount of disasterrelated support ranges from a few thousand to a halfbillion dollars. While some projects were entirely devoted to natural disasters, such as the Emergency Recovery Loans (ERLs; described following), more than two-thirds involved disasters as a component of more comprehensive development goals. The value of the projects dedicated entirely to disasters totals $12.2 billion. The various disaster-related loan instruments are as follows. The Emergency Recovery Loan (ERL) Program The Emergency Recovery Loan is a loan instrument designed to reduce the time required to complete the project appraisal process in order to meet the disaster-affected borrowers’ urgent needs. The goal of an ERL is to implement the funded emergency projects within a period of two to three years. Borrower nations are limited in how they can use ERL funds for reconstruction. Projects funded must be limited to the rapid restoration of physical structures and productive activities. Policy discourages the creation of permanent new institutions for project implementation, but limited changes, such as those that reduce vulnerability, are advocated. ERLs are not intended to address long-term economic problems that require major policy adjustments. They are also not intended for projects addressing broad sectoral, structural, or institutional goals. ERLs, as a disaster response instrument, are designed for more rare disasters, rather than recurrent or longer-term events such as flooding and drought (which are better managed through the use of more traditional development loan programs). ERLs must make every effort to incorporate policy and action that result in an overall reduction in vulnerability from the hazard encountered. Bank policy calls for detailed study, planning, and preparation in advance of and during the implementation of funded projects to ensure overall risk is reduced. Retroactive Financing Bank policy normally restricts financing for payments made by borrowers for a project before the date of a loan agreement. However, the disaster policies allow up to 20 percent of loans to retroactively pay for emergency recovery operation expenditures, as long as they occurred after the the disaster and within four months before the expected date of loan signing. And, in extraordinary circumstances, exceptions to the 20 percent limit may be granted. Loan Reallocations When a government requests post-disaster assistance, Bank country staff begin by examining the existing country portfolio to identify loans for which reallocation for reconstruction is possible. Because not all emergency situations demand ERLs, the Bank often uses the reallocation of existing Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 32 loans to quickly provide smaller amounts of funding as appropriate, or to supplement ERLs in larger disasters. Reallocation works so quickly because the source projects are already approved; therefore funds can be very quickly rededicated to disaster-specific needs (often within the broad sector into which they were originally dedicated). Reallocations are most appropriate in situations where the relevance of the original project has been reduced or eliminated by the disaster. Over the past 20 years, funds from 217 projects have been reallocated. In total, almost $3.05 billion has been made available for disaster response through loan reallocation. Redesign of Projects Not Yet Approved Another way to make funds available to a disaster-affected government is to redesign projects that have not yet been approved. In doing so, newly acquired data about the country’s disaster profile, and thus their vulnerability reduction needs, can be incorporated, as can new project components that contribute to postdisaster reconstruction that were not part of the original project design. Balance of Payment Support B alance of payment support is designed to provide quick disbursement pressing financial needs of affected countries. Designed to provide macroeconomic conditions and facilitate recovery following a calamity, very common; only 15 loans have been made for balance of payment disasters. of funds to meet the most quick inputs to stabilize this kind of support is not support following natural Free-Standing Investment Projects for Mitigation After a disaster occurs, when new hazard risk information is acquired through assessment and study, disaster mitigation projects can be designed in a way that more effectively limits risk. In this context, the Bank offers another lending instrument, the free-standing mitigation project loan, that nations may use to reduce their long-term risk. Though mitigation and risk analysis are considered essential components of regular loan programs, freestanding mitigation loans designed specifically to help prevent foreseeable disasters from occurring and/or limiting their destructive impact allow for a more targeted outcome. Disaster Lending Instruments under Development T he Bank has been developing promising alternatives to these lending instruments. For instance, increasing the amount of lending for existing projects, which is already in use for nondisaster-related projects, is being explored in the disaster context. Another specialized form of development policy lending, the Contingent Hazard Recovery and Management Loan, is currently in development. It is hoped that these alternatives will help to avoid the diversion of funds from their original purposes, as occurs with reallocation. World Bank Coordination The Bank is one of a large number of institutions that governments can call upon to offer coordination assistance following a disaster. Bank policy states that it is within both the ability and interest of the Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● 33 Bank to assist disaster-affected borrowers in the coordination of overall donor efforts — especially as they relate to the gathering of damage assessment information. The policy requires that following a disaster, the Bank should facilitate collaboration between the government, the Bank, multilateral and bilateral donors, and NGOs to develop a common recovery strategy. Coordination can help to ensure that prevention and mitigation activities are incorporated in all reconstruction projects, Bankfunded or otherwise, and that neither duplication nor omission of coverage occurs. The Bank has and continues to work with other donors in post-disaster situations on several different levels — cofinancing Bank-supported projects, cofinancing others ’ projects, donors working on related projects of their own, or by performing joint damage assessments. At present, the Bank fulfills this coordination role through partnership with the UNDP and other international agencies, bilateral donors, and local nongovernmental organizations as appropriate and possible. The Bank’s coordination role in the immediate aftermath of disasters has been somewhat limited. However, it has maintained a more prominent role in longer-term reconstruction efforts. The Bank typically concentrates on infrastructure and housing during the reconstruction, given its comparative advantage in that area. However, the Bank also has considerable experience with disaster recovery, as well as an important role in assisting with coordination that ensures that country needs are met with as few overlaps and conflicts of priorities as possible. World Bank Technical Assistance TheWorld Bank assists countries managing their disaster risk, or facing an actual disaster, through the provision of several technical assistance programs. These programs include the following: ● ● ● Analytical Work: Through the generation of publications, working papers, articles, and reports on natural disaster topics, the Bank continues to advance the study of and knowledge about disasters and their management. These publications have explored a range of topics that have included risk management and financing mechanisms. Application of the Country Assistance Strategy (CAS): The Bank’s Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) is designed to synthesize the country situation, government priorities, Bank Group strategy, and Bank partner activities into a coherent program for future work together. In countries with significant disaster-related issues, the CAS has been used to incorporate a hazard risk component in order to elevate the importance of disasters in overall development strategy planning. The Disaster Risk Management Team: In 1999, in response to an increase in disasterrelated lending, the Disaster Management Facility was established, which later became the Hazard Management Unit (HMU). This office provided Bank task managers with disaster-specific technical assistance, thereby allowing them to provide a more strategic and rapid response. In 2005, this unit was drastically modified to reflect a decentralized structure, and given the new title of Hazard Risk Management Team (within the Urban Unit), later changed to the Disaster Risk Management Team. The Disaster Risk Management Team, which is considered the anchor for the much larger Hazard Risk Management Thematic Group (which consists of more Chapter 8 International Disaster Management ● ● ● ● 34 than 100 Bank staff in the various organizational units with a particular interest in hazard risk management), works to facilitate greater adherence to prevention and mitigation objectives in Bank-funded development projects. The Disaster Risk Management team provides technical support to Bank operations in promoting capacity building and establishing partnerships with the international and scientific community working on disaster issues. Disaster Damage and Needs Assessment Assistance: Bankwide experience has shown it is important to identify local vulnerabilities and determine how to reduce them in ways that lead to durable solutions. With increasing frequency, the Bank has helped borrowers to assess disaster damages and to develop a recovery strategy. Almost three-quarters of all the disaster assessments (23 out of 32) in which the Bank was involved led to a more rapid granting of an ERL. Emergency Preparedness Studies: Disaster projects often have a studies component related to the achievement of an important project objective. These studies may be used to increase disaster resilience for the project goals. Because so many disaster projects either have experienced or are expected to face repeat or new disasters in the future, disaster...
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