University of California Davis CH4 Orthonormal Compliment Linear Algebra Worksheet

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1) (10) Discuss the rank of A varies with t  1 1 0   A = 3 t 1  2 t −1 1   2 − 3 0 1  1   For an 3x5 matrix A =  2 1 − 4 − 1 3  − 2 − 1 1 − 2 3   2) (20) a) Find a basis and the dimension of the row space and the column space of A b) Find an orthonormal basis and the dimension of the null space of A c) d) Find an orthonormal basis and the dimension of the left null space of A Conclusion: Rank, nullity of A? Hint: Follow the example 5 of 4.8 3) (10) Given the set W = (3t − s, t + 2s,2t + s) a) Determine whether W a subspace in R 3 . (You must show the set satisfies a sub-space properties) b) 4) (10) 5) (10) Find the basis and the dimension. Describe this subspace geometrically. Find a basis for orthonormal complement W ⊥ for a set W, a subspace in R 4  x1 − x2 − x3 + x4 = 0 W=  2 x1 + x2 + x3 + 2 x4 = 0 Find the coordinate vector of p( x) in P2 , relative to the basis S = p1 , p2 , p3  , where p( x) = 3 + 6 x − 10 x 2 , p1 ( x) = 2 − 4 x, p 2 ( x) = x + 3x 2 , p3 ( x) = 4 + 6 x 2 6) (10)  x   x  x 2 a) (5) Find the standard coordinate basis   =   for the   =   and  y   y S  y  B1 − 1  3 − 4 B1 =  . 2 1   x  − 1 4  ? b) (5) What is the coordinate basis of   in the basis B2 =   y  2 0 7) (10) Are the following matrices linearly independent? Basis for M 22 ? 3 6  3 − 6   − 8  0 − 1  0  1 0 − 1 0  − 12 − 4 and − 1 2       8) (10) Find the solution set for the equation AX = b where  0 − 1 0 2  x 0  a) A= X =  ;b =    − 1 1 0 1   y 1 b) Deduce from this, find that the null space of A c) What is the left null space A? 9) (5) Given that the set {1, 1 + x + x 2 , p( x)} is a basis for AX = P2 , which of the following is a possible value for p (x ) ? (A) 0 (B) 1 + x (C) −1 (D) 2 + x + x 2 10) (5) What is the transition matrix from S1 to S 2 given  1   4   1 3  S1 =  ,    and S 2 =  ,      − 2  − 4  3 8  3 Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ LESSONS, CHAPTER 4 I) Real Vector Space (VS) : V In this section , we pay attention the the 10 axioms for VS. Let V be a non-empty set of objects. Let u and v a pair of object in V and a scaler k Pay very attention to the axioms (1) closure under addition (u + v)  V (6) closure under scalar multiplication kuV Examples of VS: a) Zero VS b) VS of R n c) VS{sequence of real numbers} d) VS of 2  2 matrices ( and m n matrices e) VS of {real valued functions} Examples of collectios which are VS: a) V = R 2 ; u = (u1 , u 2 ) and ku = (u1 ,0) b) V = {set of real vectors} ; u + v = uv and ku = u k 1I) Subspace (SS) W of a VS V: W is non-empty set W  V and We need to show a SS by satisfying 2 conditions (u + v)  W ( ku)  W a) b) Examples: SS a) b) c) d) e) f) g) The Zero SS Lines through origine in R 2 and R 3 SS of matrices M nn Set { continuous functions in (-∞,∞)} {Continuous derivatives functions} SS of {all polynomials} SS of {all polynomials of degrees ≤ n} Examples: Not a SS a) b) c) d) {Positive real functions} {Set vectors (a,b) such that a,b > 0 } {Invertible matrices M nn } {Set of all polynomials of degrees = n} Subspace of a homogeneous linear system AX = 0 with m equations and n unknowns is a SS of R n Here A is a m  n matrix and X is a m 1 vector III) Spanning sets: Let V be a VS (You will be familiarize the following notations: v j and w  V and k j = constants, j = 1,2....r w =  k j v j j = 1,2....r We say j=1 Is the linear combination with coefficients Further more, if S = (w1 , w2 ,..., wr ) V Then the set W of all possible linear combination vectors in V is a SP of V We say the SS W of V spanned by S Thus, W = span{w1 , w2 ,..., wr } or W = span{ S} Example 1: 1) Standard unit vectors in R n e1 = (1,0....), e2 = (0,1,....),.....en = (0,0,...n) span 2) 3) Rn The vector v = k ( a, b) , k = scalar, span the line passing through (0.0) The vectors u = (a, b), v = (c, d ) span the plane containing u and v I.e: The plane = span u, v 4) The polynomials 1, x, x 2 ....x n span the VS Pn Say : 5) 6) Example 2:  Pn = span 1, x, x 2 ....x n  Vectors u, v and w in R 2 we can find scalars C1 ,C 2 such that The linear combination satisfied: w = C1u + C2 v as long as u is not in span v ( or reverse) Vectors u, v and w in R 3 some time, we can’t find scalars C1 , C2 such that The linear combination satisfied: w = C1u + C2 v since w is not in spanu, v ( or reverse) Express w = (6,11,6) as the linear combination of u1 = (2,1,4) , u2 = (1,−1,3) , u 3 = (3,2,5) We set to solve the system:  2 1 4  c1   6   2 1 4  c1  6             1 − 1 3  c2  = 11  AC = b . Where A =  1 − 1 3 ; C =  c2  and b = 11  3 2 5  c   6   3 2 5 c  6    3      3   1 We have C = A −1b = adj( A) . A 7   − 11 3   We find that the det(A) = 2 and adj( A) =  4 − 2 − 2   5 − 1 − 3   7  6   − 11 3  9  9 / 2         1 1 1 C = A −1b = adj( A)  b  C =  4 − 2 − 2 11 =  − 10  =  − 5  A 2 2    − 1 − 3  6   5  1   1/ 2  That means : 6  2  1   3   9    1  11 =  1  − 5 − 1 +  2   6  2  4  3  2  5          1 12   as a linear combination of Express C =  8 − 2 1 4  2 0 ; B =   A =  3 0  1 2 Example3: We have to find x, y such that 1 4  2 0   1 12   + y  =   x 3 0  1 2 8 − 2 Or solve ( by equating all elements of both sides) x + 2 y = 1 (1) 4 x + 0 y = 12 (2) 3x + y = 8 (3) 0 x + 2 y = −2 (4) x = 3; y = −1 The equation (2) and (4) give These values also satisfy the eq (1) and (3). Thus we have  1 12   1 4   2 0   = 3  − 1  C = 3 A − B or  8 − 2 3 0  1 2 IV) Linear Independent: r Let v j 1  V a VS ; j = 1,2....r Form a vector equations for a linear combination as follows c v j j =0 j Conclusion: v j 1r is said to be Linearly Independent if all a) cj = 0  j  stands for for all b) Otherwise, if ck  0 for some k the set v j 1 is Linear Dependent r Note: r a) The set v j 1 in which vk = 0 for some k , is Linear Dependeny (L/D) b) In R n , any 2 vectors u and v such that u  kv are Linearly Independent (L/I) To show the v j 1 in R n or M ij or set of polynomials Pn always solve the equation r c v j j =0 j c M j j = 0 or j c j fj =0 j Usefull facts: The unit vector in Pn is (1,0,0....0), (0,1,0.....0),....(0,0,0,0,0..1) So the function f ( x) = 2 + 2 x + x 3 can be written as  x0   1 x  f ( x) = (2 2 0 3) 2  = 2 + 2 x + 0 x 2 + 3x 3 x   x3    So the vector (2 2 0 3) represents the function f ( x) = 2 + 2 x + x 4 Definition: If the set of function f j 1 ( x) is continuous up to (n-1) th derivative Then the determinamt n f1 f1 ' • • • W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n ) = f1 ( n −1) f2 f2 ' • • • f2 ( n −1) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • fn • • • • fn ( n −1) is called the Wronskian of f1 , f 2 ,...., f n If W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n )  0 on (−,) then f j 1 ( x) are L/I n Conclusion: a) Example 4: b) If W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n ) = 0 on (−,) then f j 1 ( x) are L/D a) Whether sin x and cos x are L/I? n W ( x, cos( x)) = sin x cos x =1 cos x − sin x L/I on on (−,) b) Whether functions f1 ( x) = −1 + 2 x − x 2 f 2 ( x) = x + x 2 f 3 ( x) = 2 + 2 x 2 are L/I − 1 + 2x − x 2 W ( f1 , f 2 , f 3 ) = 2 − 2x −2 x + x2 1 + 2x 2 2 + 2x 2 4x 4 (− 1 + 2x − x )(4(1 + 2 x) − 2(4x)) − ( x + x )(4(2 − 2x) + 8x) = 2 2 + (2 + 2 x 2 )(2(2 − 2 x) + 2(1 + 2 x) ) =8 So we conclude that the set  f j 1 ( x) are linearly independent 3 Another way to do this problem is now, we consider these functions in P2 as vectors And find the Wronskian accordingly  − 1  0  2       2 2 f1 ( x) = −1 + 2 x − x =  2  f 2 ( x) = x + x =  1  , f 3 ( x) = 2 + 2 x =  0   − 1 1  2       −1 0 2 W (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = 2 1 0 = (−2 + 0 + 4) − (−2 + 0 + 0) = 4  0  L / I −1 1 2 2 Note that the Wronskian are not the same. Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ LESSONS, CHAPTER 4 CONTINUE I) Coordinates and Basis and Change of Basis: To make it easy, say the vector  a  a  u =   =   is a vector in standard base  b  b  S 1 0   0 1  a  a   1 0  a    Ie   =   =   b  b  S  0 1  b  Now, it is the same vector, but in different base, say B1 or in any base B j , then we can express u as  a  a   1 0  a     =   =    = B j u j =   b  b  B j  0 1  b     C1    C 2  B (1) j Now, we have to determine C1 , C2 .  1 0  a      = B j u j =   0 1  b     C1  C    = Bk u k = Bk  3  and so on.....  C 2  B C 4  B j j And we are abe to determine C3 ,C 4 too. we want to transform u S uS to u B1 we say: to u B1  ( S )  ( B1 ) , then B1−1 To make it easy u S  u S is to transfor m ( Su S ) = ( B1u B1 ) then the transition matrix is TS 1 = B1−1 NOTES Basically we have the transition matrix from base −1 B j to Bk is T jk = Bk B j (3) (2)  2  2 1 − 1 3 1   and B2 =  Example 1: Given u =   =   . Write u in B1 =   1  1  S 1 3   4 2 We have to find C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 such that  2 1 − 1  C1   1 3  C 3  1 = 1 3  C  =  − 1 5  C   S    2  B1    4  B2 (a) (b) (4) For (a) in (4) We have −1 u B1 = B1 Su S −1  C1   2 1 − 1  C1  1 − 1 2 −1  2       =  = B = 1 C  1  1       S 1 3  C 2  B1   S 1 3  1 S  2  B1  C1  1  3 1 2 1  7   7/4  C  = 4  − 1 1 1  = 4 − 1 = − 1 / 4    S      2  B1 So ve have C1 = 7 / 4 and C2 = −1/ 4 For part (b) in (4), we have two options, we either i) transform from S  B2 ii) transform from B1  B2 If we choose option i), the transition matrix TS 2 is B2−1 S = B2−1 If we choose option ii), the transition matrix T12 = B2−1 B1 Now: i) If we choose option i), The the transition matrix T2 S is B2−1 S = B2−1 TS 2 = B −1 2 3 1  =   4 2 −1 = 1  2 − 1   2  − 4 3  therefore C 3   2  3 1  C 3   2 1  2 − 1 2 1 3  1 =  4 2  C   C  = TS 2 1 = 2  − 4 3  1 = 2 − 5  S    4  B2  S    S   B2  4  B2 ii) If we choose option ii), The the transition matrix T12 is B2−1 B1 T12 = B2−1 B1 = 1  2 − 11 − 1 1  1 − 5    =   2  − 4 3 1 3  2  − 1 13  Thus C 3  1  1 − 5  7 / 4  1  1 − 5  7  1  12  1  3  C  = T12u B1 = 2  − 1 13  − 1 / 4  = 8  − 1 13  − 1 = 8  − 20  = 2 − 5 =           B2  4  B2 II) Dimension: To make it easy, dimension of a set vectors in R n of a finite dimension spacet is the numbers of vectors which are linearly independent Example 2: a)  2   4  1        1 ,  1  2  has Dim =3 ( they are L/I) cgeck it by find the det ≠0  1   2  3       b)  2   4  1        1 ,  2  5  has Dim =2, since v2 = 2v1 L / D  1   2  3       c)  2   4  − 2        1 ,  2  − 1  has Dim =1, since v2 = 2v1 L / D  1   2  − 1       c) d) e) This Spannig set spnans a line. So the basis for example a) is Span{v1 , v2 , v3 } the basis for example a) is Span{v1 , v3 } the basis for example a) is Span{v1} Base on examples above Let W be subspace of a finite dimensional vector space V, then i) W is finite dimensional ii) DimW ≤ Dim V iii) Dim W = Dim V  W = V Example 2: a)  2   2  1   3   1  − 1           B1 =  1 ,  − 1 2 , B2 =  1 ,  1  0   1   1  1   − 5   − 3  2            Find the transition matrix from B1 to B2 . As discussed above 5   2  3  2  1 − 1  2 2 1    3     1 = B2−1 B1 =  1 1 0  1 −1 2 =  − 2 − 3 −   2 − 5 − 3 2  1 1 1  5 1 6          −1 T1→2 −1 b)  2 2 1   − 5  9   − 5         −1 If W =  8  , then W B1 = B1 W =  1 − 1 2   8  =  − 9   1 1 1   − 5  − 5  − 5         c) Thn we can compute WB1 as d) 5    7 2  3  −  2  9   2   1   23  WB1 = T1→2W1 =  − 2 − 3 −  − 9  =   2    2   5 1 6  − 5   6          By direct computing WB2 IV 1 − 1  3   =B W = 1 1 0 − 5 − 3 2    −1 2 −1  1  − 5      8  = −1  − 5  1     1 2 1 2 2 1   7  −  2  − 5   2  1   23  −  8  =  2    2  1  − 5   6        Row space, Column space and Null space To be short: For finte dimentional space. Let Amn be a matrix containing m vectors in R n 1) The Row Space ( Row ( A) ) is the space spanned by the remaining horizontal vectors v j after elementary ro elementary operation. We say Row ( A) = Span{v j } 2) The Column Space ( Col ( A) ) is the space spanned by the remaining Vertical vector vk after elementary ro elementary operation. We say Col ( A) = Span{vk } 3) The Null Space ( Null ( A) ) is the solution of AX = 0 For further easy thought 1) The Row Space ( Row ( A) ) is space of independent horizontal vectors 2) The Column Space ( Col ( A) ) is the space independent vertical vectors 3) The Null Space ( Null ( A) ) is the solution of AX = 0 , X  R n Null space of A is spanned by independent vectors in X Theorem: The vector b is said to be in the col(A) if there is asolution x such that Ax = b Or we can say that Ax = b is consistent if b  Col ( A) Example 3: Assume A be a 4 by 6 matrix. After row elimination, we have 1  0 A is row equivalent to  0  0 0  2 −2 −3 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1   2 0  2 − 2  0 0  0 0   1   0  0        2   0  0   − 2   1  0  Row ( A) = span  ,    or any 3 original L/I row vectors  − 3   3  1   0   2  2        1   0  − 2   1   − 2   − 3         0   1   3  Col ( A) = span  0 ,  0 ,  1  any 3 original L/I column vectors      0   0   0         0   0   0  For the Null (A), pay to the attention that this is X  R 6 . If we solve the equation AX = b The number survival vectors are 3. The solution space is involved 3 parameters Let Then x 2 = s, x5 = t , x 6 = w x4 = −2 x5 + 2 x6 = −2t + 2w x3 = −3x4 − 2 x5 = −3(−2t + 2w) − 2t = 4t − 6w x1 = −2 x2 + 2 x3 + 3x4 − x6 = −2s + 2(4t − 6w) + 3(−2t + 2w) − w = −2s + 2t − 7w  − 2s + 2t − 7 w   0   2  − 7         s    − 2  0   0   4t − 6w   0   4  − 7  = s  + t   + w   or Null ( A) =   − 2t + 2w   0   − 2   2         0  t    0   1       0   0   1  w          0   2   − 7         − 2   0   0   0   4   − 6  Null ( A) = Span ,  ,    0   − 2   2   0   1   0         0   0   1  CHECK: All vectors in Null(A) are orthogonal to all rows of equivalence of A or orthogonal to all the vectors of the original matrix A V) The Rank The Nullity Definition: 1) The Rank of a matrix A Rank ( A) is the number of vectors in Row(A) or in Col(A) 2) The Nullity of a matrix A is the number of vectors in Null(A) For the Example 3 above, the Rank ( A) = 3. This is also the “Dimension of A” (Some textbook denotes Rank ( A) = RA , The Null Space A =  ( A) and Nullity =  ) Note that, for matrix Amn DimA = Rank ( A) 1) 2) 3) 4) The Row(A) is a subspace in R n The Col (A) is a subspace in R m The Null (A) is a subspace in R n The Rank(A)+ Nullity = n If W is a subspace in R n then 1) W ⊥ is a subspace in R n 2) The only common vector of W and W ⊥ is 0 3) The orthogonal complement of W ⊥ is W We also see that 1) The Null (A) is the orthogonal complement of Row (A)in R n 2) The Null ( A T ) is the orthogonal complement of Col (A)in R m Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ LESSONS, CHAPTER 4 CONTINUE I) Coordinates and Basis and Change of Basis: To make it easy, say the vector  a  a  u =   =   is a vector in standard base  b  b  S 1 0   0 1  a  a   1 0  a    Ie   =   =   b  b  S  0 1  b  Now, it is the same vector, but in different base, say B1 or in any base B j , then we can express u as  a  a   1 0  a     =   =    = B j u j =   b  b  B j  0 1  b     C1    C 2  B (1) j Now, we have to determine C1 , C2 .  1 0  a      = B j u j =   0 1  b     C1  C    = Bk u k = Bk  3  and so on.....  C 2  B C 4  B j j And we are abe to determine C3 ,C 4 too. we want to transform u S uS to u B1 we say: to u B1  ( S )  ( B1 ) , then B1−1 To make it easy u S  u S is to transfor m ( Su S ) = ( B1u B1 ) then the transition matrix is TS 1 = B1−1 NOTES Basically we have the transition matrix from base −1 B j to Bk is T jk = Bk B j (3) (2)  2  2 1 − 1 3 1   and B2 =  Example 1: Given u =   =   . Write u in B1 =   1  1  S 1 3   4 2 We have to find C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 such that  2 1 − 1  C1   1 3  C 3  1 = 1 3  C  =  − 1 5  C   S    2  B1    4  B2 (a) (b) (4) For (a) in (4) We have −1 u B1 = B1 Su S −1  C1   2 1 − 1  C1  1 − 1 2 −1  2       =  = B = 1 C  1  1       S 1 3  C 2  B1   S 1 3  1 S  2  B1  C1  1  3 1 2 1  7   7/4  C  = 4  − 1 1 1  = 4 − 1 = − 1 / 4    S      2  B1 So ve have C1 = 7 / 4 and C2 = −1/ 4 For part (b) in (4), we have two options, we either i) transform from S  B2 ii) transform from B1  B2 If we choose option i), the transition matrix TS 2 is B2−1 S = B2−1 If we choose option ii), the transition matrix T12 = B2−1 B1 Now: i) If we choose option i), The the transition matrix T2 S is B2−1 S = B2−1 TS 2 = B −1 2 3 1  =   4 2 −1 = 1  2 − 1   2  − 4 3  therefore C 3   2  3 1  C 3   2 1  2 − 1 2 1 3  1 =  4 2  C   C  = TS 2 1 = 2  − 4 3  1 = 2 − 5  S    4  B2  S    S   B2  4  B2 ii) If we choose option ii), The the transition matrix T12 is B2−1 B1 T12 = B2−1 B1 = 1  2 − 11 − 1 1  1 − 5    =   2  − 4 3 1 3  2  − 1 13  Thus C 3  1  1 − 5  7 / 4  1  1 − 5  7  1  12  1  3  C  = T12u B1 = 2  − 1 13  − 1 / 4  = 8  − 1 13  − 1 = 8  − 20  = 2 − 5 =           B2  4  B2 II) Dimension: To make it easy, dimension of a set vectors in R n of a finite dimension spacet is the numbers of vectors which are linearly independent Example 2: a)  2   4  1        1 ,  1  2  has Dim =3 ( they are L/I) cgeck it by find the det ≠0  1   2  3       b)  2   4  1        1 ,  2  5  has Dim =2, since v2 = 2v1 L / D  1   2  3       c)  2   4  − 2        1 ,  2  − 1  has Dim =1, since v2 = 2v1 L / D  1   2  − 1       c) d) e) This Spannig set spnans a line. So the basis for example a) is Span{v1 , v2 , v3 } the basis for example a) is Span{v1 , v3 } the basis for example a) is Span{v1} Base on examples above Let W be subspace of a finite dimensional vector space V, then i) W is finite dimensional ii) DimW ≤ Dim V iii) Dim W = Dim V  W = V Example 2: a)  2   2  1   3   1  − 1           B1 =  1 ,  − 1 2 , B2 =  1 ,  1  0   1   1  1   − 5   − 3  2            Find the transition matrix from B1 to B2 . As discussed above 5   2  3  2  1 − 1  2 2 1    3     1 = B2−1 B1 =  1 1 0  1 −1 2 =  − 2 − 3 −   2 − 5 − 3 2  1 1 1  5 1 6          −1 T1→2 −1 b)  2 2 1   − 5  9   − 5         −1 If W =  8  , then W B1 = B1 W =  1 − 1 2   8  =  − 9   1 1 1   − 5  − 5  − 5         c) Thn we can compute WB1 as d) 5    7 2  3  −  2  9   2   1   23  WB1 = T1→2W1 =  − 2 − 3 −  − 9  =   2    2   5 1 6  − 5   6          By direct computing WB2 IV 1 − 1  3   =B W = 1 1 0 − 5 − 3 2    −1 2 −1  1  − 5      8  = −1  − 5  1     1 2 1 2 2 1   7  −  2  − 5   2  1   23  −  8  =  2    2  1  − 5   6        Row space, Column space and Null space To be short: For finte dimentional space. Let Amn be a matrix containing m vectors in R n 1) The Row Space ( Row ( A) ) is the space spanned by the remaining horizontal vectors v j after elementary ro elementary operation. We say Row ( A) = Span{v j } 2) The Column Space ( Col ( A) ) is the space spanned by the remaining Vertical vector vk after elementary ro elementary operation. We say Col ( A) = Span{vk } 3) The Null Space ( Null ( A) ) is the solution of AX = 0 For further easy thought 1) The Row Space ( Row ( A) ) is space of independent horizontal vectors 2) The Column Space ( Col ( A) ) is the space independent vertical vectors 3) The Null Space ( Null ( A) ) is the solution of AX = 0 , X  R n Null space of A is spanned by independent vectors in X Theorem: The vector b is said to be in the col(A) if there is asolution x such that Ax = b Or we can say that Ax = b is consistent if b  Col ( A) Example 3: Assume A be a 4 by 6 matrix. After row elimination, we have 1  0 A is row equivalent to  0  0 0  2 −2 −3 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1   2 0  2 − 2  0 0  0 0   1   0  0        2   0  0   − 2   1  0  Row ( A) = span  ,    or any 3 original L/I row vectors  − 3   3  1   0   2  2        1   0  − 2   1   − 2   − 3         0   1   3  Col ( A) = span  0 ,  0 ,  1  any 3 original L/I column vectors      0   0   0         0   0   0  For the Null (A), pay to the attention that this is X  R 6 . If we solve the equation AX = b The number survival vectors are 3. The solution space is involved 3 parameters Let Then x 2 = s, x5 = t , x 6 = w x4 = −2 x5 + 2 x6 = −2t + 2w x3 = −3x4 − 2 x5 = −3(−2t + 2w) − 2t = 4t − 6w x1 = −2 x2 + 2 x3 + 3x4 − x6 = −2s + 2(4t − 6w) + 3(−2t + 2w) − w = −2s + 2t − 7w  − 2s + 2t − 7 w   0   2  − 7         s    − 2  0   0   4t − 6w   0   4  − 7  = s  + t   + w   or Null ( A) =   − 2t + 2w   0   − 2   2         0  t    0   1       0   0   1  w          0   2   − 7         − 2   0   0   0   4   − 6  Null ( A) = Span ,  ,    0   − 2   2   0   1   0         0   0   1  CHECK: All vectors in Null(A) are orthogonal to all rows of equivalence of A or orthogonal to all the vectors of the original matrix A V) The Rank The Nullity Definition: 1) The Rank of a matrix A Rank ( A) is the number of vectors in Row(A) or in Col(A) 2) The Nullity of a matrix A is the number of vectors in Null(A) For the Example 3 above, the Rank ( A) = 3. This is also the “Dimension of A” (Some textbook denotes Rank ( A) = RA , The Null Space A =  ( A) and Nullity =  ) Note that, for matrix Amn DimA = Rank ( A) 1) 2) 3) 4) The Row(A) is a subspace in R n The Col (A) is a subspace in R m The Null (A) is a subspace in R n The Rank(A)+ Nullity = n If W is a subspace in R n then 1) W ⊥ is a subspace in R n 2) The only common vector of W and W ⊥ is 0 3) The orthogonal complement of W ⊥ is W We also see that 1) The Null (A) is the orthogonal complement of Row (A)in R n 2) The Null ( A T ) is the orthogonal complement of Col (A)in R m Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ LESSONS, CHAPTER 4 I) Real Vector Space (VS) : V In this section , we pay attention the the 10 axioms for VS. Let V be a non-empty set of objects. Let u and v a pair of object in V and a scaler k Pay very attention to the axioms (1) closure under addition (u + v)  V (6) closure under scalar multiplication kuV Examples of VS: a) Zero VS b) VS of R n c) VS{sequence of real numbers} d) VS of 2  2 matrices ( and m n matrices e) VS of {real valued functions} Examples of collectios which are VS: a) V = R 2 ; u = (u1 , u 2 ) and ku = (u1 ,0) b) V = {set of real vectors} ; u + v = uv and ku = u k 1I) Subspace (SS) W of a VS V: W is non-empty set W  V and We need to show a SS by satisfying 2 conditions (u + v)  W ( ku)  W a) b) Examples: SS a) b) c) d) e) f) g) The Zero SS Lines through origine in R 2 and R 3 SS of matrices M nn Set { continuous functions in (-∞,∞)} {Continuous derivatives functions} SS of {all polynomials} SS of {all polynomials of degrees ≤ n} Examples: Not a SS a) b) c) d) {Positive real functions} {Set vectors (a,b) such that a,b > 0 } {Invertible matrices M nn } {Set of all polynomials of degrees = n} Subspace of a homogeneous linear system AX = 0 with m equations and n unknowns is a SS of R n Here A is a m  n matrix and X is a m 1 vector III) Spanning sets: Let V be a VS (You will be familiarize the following notations: v j and w  V and k j = constants, j = 1,2....r w =  k j v j j = 1,2....r We say j=1 Is the linear combination with coefficients Further more, if S = (w1 , w2 ,..., wr ) V Then the set W of all possible linear combination vectors in V is a SP of V We say the SS W of V spanned by S Thus, W = span{w1 , w2 ,..., wr } or W = span{ S} Example 1: 1) Standard unit vectors in R n e1 = (1,0....), e2 = (0,1,....),.....en = (0,0,...n) span 2) 3) Rn The vector v = k ( a, b) , k = scalar, span the line passing through (0.0) The vectors u = (a, b), v = (c, d ) span the plane containing u and v I.e: The plane = span u, v 4) The polynomials 1, x, x 2 ....x n span the VS Pn Say : 5) 6) Example 2:  Pn = span 1, x, x 2 ....x n  Vectors u, v and w in R 2 we can find scalars C1 ,C 2 such that The linear combination satisfied: w = C1u + C2 v as long as u is not in span v ( or reverse) Vectors u, v and w in R 3 some time, we can’t find scalars C1 , C2 such that The linear combination satisfied: w = C1u + C2 v since w is not in spanu, v ( or reverse) Express w = (6,11,6) as the linear combination of u1 = (2,1,4) , u2 = (1,−1,3) , u 3 = (3,2,5) We set to solve the system:  2 1 4  c1   6   2 1 4  c1  6             1 − 1 3  c2  = 11  AC = b . Where A =  1 − 1 3 ; C =  c2  and b = 11  3 2 5  c   6   3 2 5 c  6    3      3   1 We have C = A −1b = adj( A) . A 7   − 11 3   We find that the det(A) = 2 and adj( A) =  4 − 2 − 2   5 − 1 − 3   7  6   − 11 3  9  9 / 2         1 1 1 C = A −1b = adj( A)  b  C =  4 − 2 − 2 11 =  − 10  =  − 5  A 2 2    − 1 − 3  6   5  1   1/ 2  That means : 6  2  1   3   9    1  11 =  1  − 5 − 1 +  2   6  2  4  3  2  5          1 12   as a linear combination of Express C =  8 − 2 1 4  2 0 ; B =   A =  3 0  1 2 Example3: We have to find x, y such that 1 4  2 0   1 12   + y  =   x 3 0  1 2 8 − 2 Or solve ( by equating all elements of both sides) x + 2 y = 1 (1) 4 x + 0 y = 12 (2) 3x + y = 8 (3) 0 x + 2 y = −2 (4) x = 3; y = −1 The equation (2) and (4) give These values also satisfy the eq (1) and (3). Thus we have  1 12   1 4   2 0   = 3  − 1  C = 3 A − B or  8 − 2 3 0  1 2 IV) Linear Independent: r Let v j 1  V a VS ; j = 1,2....r Form a vector equations for a linear combination as follows c v j j =0 j Conclusion: v j 1r is said to be Linearly Independent if all a) cj = 0  j  stands for for all b) Otherwise, if ck  0 for some k the set v j 1 is Linear Dependent r Note: r a) The set v j 1 in which vk = 0 for some k , is Linear Dependeny (L/D) b) In R n , any 2 vectors u and v such that u  kv are Linearly Independent (L/I) To show the v j 1 in R n or M ij or set of polynomials Pn always solve the equation r c v j j =0 j c M j j = 0 or j c j fj =0 j Usefull facts: The unit vector in Pn is (1,0,0....0), (0,1,0.....0),....(0,0,0,0,0..1) So the function f ( x) = 2 + 2 x + x 3 can be written as  x0   1 x  f ( x) = (2 2 0 3) 2  = 2 + 2 x + 0 x 2 + 3x 3 x   x3    So the vector (2 2 0 3) represents the function f ( x) = 2 + 2 x + x 4 Definition: If the set of function f j 1 ( x) is continuous up to (n-1) th derivative Then the determinamt n f1 f1 ' • • • W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n ) = f1 ( n −1) f2 f2 ' • • • f2 ( n −1) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • fn • • • • fn ( n −1) is called the Wronskian of f1 , f 2 ,...., f n If W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n )  0 on (−,) then f j 1 ( x) are L/I n Conclusion: a) Example 4: b) If W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n ) = 0 on (−,) then f j 1 ( x) are L/D a) Whether sin x and cos x are L/I? n W ( x, cos( x)) = sin x cos x =1 cos x − sin x L/I on on (−,) b) Whether functions f1 ( x) = −1 + 2 x − x 2 f 2 ( x) = x + x 2 f 3 ( x) = 2 + 2 x 2 are L/I − 1 + 2x − x 2 W ( f1 , f 2 , f 3 ) = 2 − 2x −2 x + x2 1 + 2x 2 2 + 2x 2 4x 4 (− 1 + 2x − x )(4(1 + 2 x) − 2(4x)) − ( x + x )(4(2 − 2x) + 8x) = 2 2 + (2 + 2 x 2 )(2(2 − 2 x) + 2(1 + 2 x) ) =8 So we conclude that the set  f j 1 ( x) are linearly independent 3 Another way to do this problem is now, we consider these functions in P2 as vectors And find the Wronskian accordingly  − 1  0  2       2 2 f1 ( x) = −1 + 2 x − x =  2  f 2 ( x) = x + x =  1  , f 3 ( x) = 2 + 2 x =  0   − 1 1  2       −1 0 2 W (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = 2 1 0 = (−2 + 0 + 4) − (−2 + 0 + 0) = 4  0  L / I −1 1 2 2 Note that the Wronskian are not the same. Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ Distance The distance problem is general can be found without using formula. Because, the formula is derived the similar way. Similar problems are treated the same way. In 2 dimension, we can use a cross product or the dot product ( projection) Example 1 Find the distance from the point (1,3,6) to the line P(1,3,6) x − 2 y +1 z −1 = = =t 2 2 5  D H u α Q(2,−1,1) (L) v = (2,2,5)  n In 3-D the point H of intersection of the line passing P and orthogonal to the line L is hard to find ( if we can say that it is hard). Now assume the point H is found. Let u = PQ = (−1,4,1) and α is the angle between u an v We want to find the distance from P to H: D = PH The vector parallel to line L is v = (2,2,5) and we choose a point on it say Q(2,−1,1) Use a cross product u  v = u v sin  . So that sin  = uv u v We also have sin  = Thus D u D uv = u u v sin  =  D= uv v Now i j k u  v = − 1 4 1 = (20 − 2,2 + 5,−2 − 8) = (18,7,−10) 2 2 5 D= uv v = (18,7,−10) = (2,2,5) 473 33 473 33 = *** In 2-D H can be found and D is the projection of the vector u onto n Example 2 Find the distance from P (5,1) to the line y − 2 x = −2 The line in parametric form is x −1 y = 2x − 2 = =t 1 2 The vector v // to the line is v = (1,2) . The vector n is orthogonal to v is n = (−2,1) Choose a random point Q on the line i,e P (5,1) P(5,1)  D (L) v = (1,2) u Q(0,−2) H  n = (−2,1) u = PQ = (5,3) We have D = Proj n u = In the example 1: D = un n uv v = = (5,3) • (−2,1) (−2,1) (5,3)  (1,2) (1,2) = = −7 5 = 7 5 5 (0,0,10 − 3) 5 = 7 5 = 7 5 5 Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ Distance The distance problem is general can be found without using formula. Because, the formula is derived the similar way. Similar problems are treated the same way. In 2 dimension, we can use a cross product or the dot product ( projection) Example 3: Find the distance from P(4,1,−2) to the plane 3x − 2 y + 5 z = 6 P u n QQ Q The distance from P to the plane can be understood as the length of the projection vector of vector u ( connecting P to ANY point Q on the plane) onto the normal vector n of the plane n = (2,−3,5) We can choose any point on the plane, (satisfying the plane equation) i,e Q = (1,1,1) and v = (2,−3,5) So that u = PQ = (3,0,−3) Here Proj n u = un un  Dis tan ce = Proj n u = = n n 6 − 15 4 + 9 + 25 = 9 38 Math 410: Chapter 3 and 4 Use the Dot product and the cross product to find the distance from a point to a line (l) Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ LESSONS, CHAPTER 4 CONTINUE I) Coordinates and Basis and Change of Basis: To make it easy, say the vector  a  a  u =   =   is a vector in standard base  b  b  S 1 0   0 1  a  a   1 0  a    Ie   =   =   b  b  S  0 1  b  Now, it is the same vector, but in different base, say B1 or in any base B j , then we can express u as  a  a   1 0  a     =   =    = B j u j =   b  b  B j  0 1  b     C1    C 2  B (1) j Now, we have to determine C1 , C2 .  1 0  a      = B j u j =   0 1  b     C1  C    = Bk u k = Bk  3  and so on.....  C 2  B C 4  B j j And we are abe to determine C3 ,C 4 too. we want to transform u S uS to u B1 we say: to u B1  ( S )  ( B1 ) , then B1−1 To make it easy u S  u S is to transfor m ( Su S ) = ( B1u B1 ) then the transition matrix is TS 1 = B1−1 NOTES Basically we have the transition matrix from base −1 B j to Bk is T jk = Bk B j (3) (2)  2  2 1 − 1 3 1   and B2 =  Example 1: Given u =   =   . Write u in B1 =   1  1  S 1 3   4 2 We have to find C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 such that  2 1 − 1  C1   1 3  C 3  1 = 1 3  C  =  − 1 5  C   S    2  B1    4  B2 (a) (b) (4) For (a) in (4) We have −1 u B1 = B1 Su S −1  C1   2 1 − 1  C1  1 − 1 2 −1  2       =  = B = 1 C  1  1       S 1 3  C 2  B1   S 1 3  1 S  2  B1  C1  1  3 1 2 1  7   7/4  C  = 4  − 1 1 1  = 4 − 1 = − 1 / 4    S      2  B1 So ve have C1 = 7 / 4 and C2 = −1/ 4 For part (b) in (4), we have two options, we either i) transform from S  B2 ii) transform from B1  B2 If we choose option i), the transition matrix TS 2 is B2−1 S = B2−1 If we choose option ii), the transition matrix T12 = B2−1 B1 Now: i) If we choose option i), The the transition matrix T2 S is B2−1 S = B2−1 TS 2 = B −1 2 3 1  =   4 2 −1 = 1  2 − 1   2  − 4 3  therefore C 3   2  3 1  C 3   2 1  2 − 1 2 1 3  1 =  4 2  C   C  = TS 2 1 = 2  − 4 3  1 = 2 − 5  S    4  B2  S    S   B2  4  B2 ii) If we choose option ii), The the transition matrix T12 is B2−1 B1 T12 = B2−1 B1 = 1  2 − 11 − 1 1  1 − 5    =   2  − 4 3 1 3  2  − 1 13  Thus C 3  1  1 − 5  7 / 4  1  1 − 5  7  1  12  1  3  C  = T12u B1 = 2  − 1 13  − 1 / 4  = 8  − 1 13  − 1 = 8  − 20  = 2 − 5 =           B2  4  B2 II) Dimension: To make it easy, dimension of a set vectors in R n of a finite dimension spacet is the numbers of vectors which are linearly independent Example 2: a)  2   4  1        1 ,  1  2  has Dim =3 ( they are L/I) cgeck it by find the det ≠0  1   2  3       b)  2   4  1        1 ,  2  5  has Dim =2, since v2 = 2v1 L / D  1   2  3       c)  2   4  − 2        1 ,  2  − 1  has Dim =1, since v2 = 2v1 L / D  1   2  − 1       c) d) e) This Spannig set spnans a line. So the basis for example a) is Span{v1 , v2 , v3 } the basis for example a) is Span{v1 , v3 } the basis for example a) is Span{v1} Base on examples above Let W be subspace of a finite dimensional vector space V, then i) W is finite dimensional ii) DimW ≤ Dim V iii) Dim W = Dim V  W = V Example 2: a)  2   2  1   3   1  − 1           B1 =  1 ,  − 1 2 , B2 =  1 ,  1  0   1   1  1   − 5   − 3  2            Find the transition matrix from B1 to B2 . As discussed above 5   2  3  2  1 − 1  2 2 1    3     1 = B2−1 B1 =  1 1 0  1 −1 2 =  − 2 − 3 −   2 − 5 − 3 2  1 1 1  5 1 6          −1 T1→2 −1 b)  2 2 1   − 5  9   − 5         −1 If W =  8  , then W B1 = B1 W =  1 − 1 2   8  =  − 9   1 1 1   − 5  − 5  − 5         c) Thn we can compute WB1 as d) 5    7 2  3  −  2  9   2   1   23  WB1 = T1→2W1 =  − 2 − 3 −  − 9  =   2    2   5 1 6  − 5   6          By direct computing WB2 IV 1 − 1  3   =B W = 1 1 0 − 5 − 3 2    −1 2 −1  1  − 5      8  = −1  − 5  1     1 2 1 2 2 1   7  −  2  − 5   2  1   23  −  8  =  2    2  1  − 5   6        Row space, Column space and Null space To be short: For finte dimentional space. Let Amn be a matrix containing m vectors in R n 1) The Row Space ( Row ( A) ) is the space spanned by the remaining horizontal vectors v j after elementary ro elementary operation. We say Row ( A) = Span{v j } 2) The Column Space ( Col ( A) ) is the space spanned by the remaining Vertical vector vk after elementary ro elementary operation. We say Col ( A) = Span{vk } 3) The Null Space ( Null ( A) ) is the solution of AX = 0 For further easy thought 1) The Row Space ( Row ( A) ) is space of independent horizontal vectors 2) The Column Space ( Col ( A) ) is the space independent vertical vectors 3) The Null Space ( Null ( A) ) is the solution of AX = 0 , X  R n Null space of A is spanned by independent vectors in X Theorem: The vector b is said to be in the col(A) if there is asolution x such that Ax = b Or we can say that Ax = b is consistent if b  Col ( A) Example 3: Assume A be a 4 by 6 matrix. After row elimination, we have 1  0 A is row equivalent to  0  0 0  2 −2 −3 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1   2 0  2 − 2  0 0  0 0   1   0  0        2   0  0   − 2   1  0  Row ( A) = span  ,    or any 3 original L/I row vectors  − 3   3  1   0   2  2        1   0  − 2   1   − 2   − 3         0   1   3  Col ( A) = span  0 ,  0 ,  1  any 3 original L/I column vectors      0   0   0         0   0   0  For the Null (A), pay to the attention that this is X  R 6 . If we solve the equation AX = b The number survival vectors are 3. The solution space is involved 3 parameters Let Then x 2 = s, x5 = t , x 6 = w x4 = −2 x5 + 2 x6 = −2t + 2w x3 = −3x4 − 2 x5 = −3(−2t + 2w) − 2t = 4t − 6w x1 = −2 x2 + 2 x3 + 3x4 − x6 = −2s + 2(4t − 6w) + 3(−2t + 2w) − w = −2s + 2t − 7w  − 2s + 2t − 7 w   0   2  − 7         s    − 2  0   0   4t − 6w   0   4  − 7  = s  + t   + w   or Null ( A) =   − 2t + 2w   0   − 2   2         0  t    0   1       0   0   1  w          0   2   − 7         − 2   0   0   0   4   − 6  Null ( A) = Span ,  ,    0   − 2   2   0   1   0         0   0   1  CHECK: All vectors in Null(A) are orthogonal to all rows of equivalence of A or orthogonal to all the vectors of the original matrix A V) The Rank The Nullity Definition: 1) The Rank of a matrix A Rank ( A) is the number of vectors in Row(A) or in Col(A) 2) The Nullity of a matrix A is the number of vectors in Null(A) For the Example 3 above, the Rank ( A) = 3. This is also the “Dimension of A” (Some textbook denotes Rank ( A) = RA , The Null Space A =  ( A) and Nullity =  ) Note that, for matrix Amn DimA = Rank ( A) 1) 2) 3) 4) The Row(A) is a subspace in R n The Col (A) is a subspace in R m The Null (A) is a subspace in R n The Rank(A)+ Nullity = n If W is a subspace in R n then 1) W ⊥ is a subspace in R n 2) The only common vector of W and W ⊥ is 0 3) The orthogonal complement of W ⊥ is W We also see that 1) The Null (A) is the orthogonal complement of Row (A)in R n 2) The Null ( A T ) is the orthogonal complement of Col (A)in R m Math 410, Linear Algebra Dr. B Truong Name: _______________________ LESSONS, CHAPTER 4 I) Real Vector Space (VS) : V In this section , we pay attention the the 10 axioms for VS. Let V be a non-empty set of objects. Let u and v a pair of object in V and a scaler k Pay very attention to the axioms (1) closure under addition (u + v)  V (6) closure under scalar multiplication kuV Examples of VS: a) Zero VS b) VS of R n c) VS{sequence of real numbers} d) VS of 2  2 matrices ( and m n matrices e) VS of {real valued functions} Examples of collectios which are VS: a) V = R 2 ; u = (u1 , u 2 ) and ku = (u1 ,0) b) V = {set of real vectors} ; u + v = uv and ku = u k 1I) Subspace (SS) W of a VS V: W is non-empty set W  V and We need to show a SS by satisfying 2 conditions (u + v)  W ( ku)  W a) b) Examples: SS a) b) c) d) e) f) g) The Zero SS Lines through origine in R 2 and R 3 SS of matrices M nn Set { continuous functions in (-∞,∞)} {Continuous derivatives functions} SS of {all polynomials} SS of {all polynomials of degrees ≤ n} Examples: Not a SS a) b) c) d) {Positive real functions} {Set vectors (a,b) such that a,b > 0 } {Invertible matrices M nn } {Set of all polynomials of degrees = n} Subspace of a homogeneous linear system AX = 0 with m equations and n unknowns is a SS of R n Here A is a m  n matrix and X is a m 1 vector III) Spanning sets: Let V be a VS (You will be familiarize the following notations: v j and w  V and k j = constants, j = 1,2....r w =  k j v j j = 1,2....r We say j=1 Is the linear combination with coefficients Further more, if S = (w1 , w2 ,..., wr ) V Then the set W of all possible linear combination vectors in V is a SP of V We say the SS W of V spanned by S Thus, W = span{w1 , w2 ,..., wr } or W = span{ S} Example 1: 1) Standard unit vectors in R n e1 = (1,0....), e2 = (0,1,....),.....en = (0,0,...n) span 2) 3) Rn The vector v = k ( a, b) , k = scalar, span the line passing through (0.0) The vectors u = (a, b), v = (c, d ) span the plane containing u and v I.e: The plane = span u, v 4) The polynomials 1, x, x 2 ....x n span the VS Pn Say : 5) 6) Example 2:  Pn = span 1, x, x 2 ....x n  Vectors u, v and w in R 2 we can find scalars C1 ,C 2 such that The linear combination satisfied: w = C1u + C2 v as long as u is not in span v ( or reverse) Vectors u, v and w in R 3 some time, we can’t find scalars C1 , C2 such that The linear combination satisfied: w = C1u + C2 v since w is not in spanu, v ( or reverse) Express w = (6,11,6) as the linear combination of u1 = (2,1,4) , u2 = (1,−1,3) , u 3 = (3,2,5) We set to solve the system:  2 1 4  c1   6   2 1 4  c1  6             1 − 1 3  c2  = 11  AC = b . Where A =  1 − 1 3 ; C =  c2  and b = 11  3 2 5  c   6   3 2 5 c  6    3      3   1 We have C = A −1b = adj( A) . A 7   − 11 3   We find that the det(A) = 2 and adj( A) =  4 − 2 − 2   5 − 1 − 3   7  6   − 11 3  9  9 / 2         1 1 1 C = A −1b = adj( A)  b  C =  4 − 2 − 2 11 =  − 10  =  − 5  A 2 2    − 1 − 3  6   5  1   1/ 2  That means : 6  2  1   3   9    1  11 =  1  − 5 − 1 +  2   6  2  4  3  2  5          1 12   as a linear combination of Express C =  8 − 2 1 4  2 0 ; B =   A =  3 0  1 2 Example3: We have to find x, y such that 1 4  2 0   1 12   + y  =   x 3 0  1 2 8 − 2 Or solve ( by equating all elements of both sides) x + 2 y = 1 (1) 4 x + 0 y = 12 (2) 3x + y = 8 (3) 0 x + 2 y = −2 (4) x = 3; y = −1 The equation (2) and (4) give These values also satisfy the eq (1) and (3). Thus we have  1 12   1 4   2 0   = 3  − 1  C = 3 A − B or  8 − 2 3 0  1 2 IV) Linear Independent: r Let v j 1  V a VS ; j = 1,2....r Form a vector equations for a linear combination as follows c v j j =0 j Conclusion: v j 1r is said to be Linearly Independent if all a) cj = 0  j  stands for for all b) Otherwise, if ck  0 for some k the set v j 1 is Linear Dependent r Note: r a) The set v j 1 in which vk = 0 for some k , is Linear Dependeny (L/D) b) In R n , any 2 vectors u and v such that u  kv are Linearly Independent (L/I) To show the v j 1 in R n or M ij or set of polynomials Pn always solve the equation r c v j j =0 j c M j j = 0 or j c j fj =0 j Usefull facts: The unit vector in Pn is (1,0,0....0), (0,1,0.....0),....(0,0,0,0,0..1) So the function f ( x) = 2 + 2 x + x 3 can be written as  x0   1 x  f ( x) = (2 2 0 3) 2  = 2 + 2 x + 0 x 2 + 3x 3 x   x3    So the vector (2 2 0 3) represents the function f ( x) = 2 + 2 x + x 4 Definition: If the set of function f j 1 ( x) is continuous up to (n-1) th derivative Then the determinamt n f1 f1 ' • • • W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n ) = f1 ( n −1) f2 f2 ' • • • f2 ( n −1) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • fn • • • • fn ( n −1) is called the Wronskian of f1 , f 2 ,...., f n If W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n )  0 on (−,) then f j 1 ( x) are L/I n Conclusion: a) Example 4: b) If W ( f1 , f 2 ,...., f n ) = 0 on (−,) then f j 1 ( x) are L/D a) Whether sin x and cos x are L/I? n W ( x, cos( x)) = sin x cos x =1 cos x − sin x L/I on on (−,) b) Whether functions f1 ( x) = −1 + 2 x − x 2 f 2 ( x) = x + x 2 f 3 ( x) = 2 + 2 x 2 are L/I − 1 + 2x − x 2 W ( f1 , f 2 , f 3 ) = 2 − 2x −2 x + x2 1 + 2x 2 2 + 2x 2 4x 4 (− 1 + 2x − x )(4(1 + 2 x) − 2(4x)) − ( x + x )(4(2 − 2x) + 8x) = 2 2 + (2 + 2 x 2 )(2(2 − 2 x) + 2(1 + 2 x) ) =8 So we conclude that the set  f j 1 ( x) are linearly independent 3 Another way to do this problem is now, we consider these functions in P2 as vectors And find the Wronskian accordingly  − 1  0  2       2 2 f1 ( x) = −1 + 2 x − x =  2  f 2 ( x) = x + x =  1  , f 3 ( x) = 2 + 2 x =  0   − 1 1  2       −1 0 2 W (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = 2 1 0 = (−2 + 0 + 4) − (−2 + 0 + 0) = 4  0  L / I −1 1 2 2 Note that the Wronskian are not the same.
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