SDSU Political Science Factors that Make Transition Problematic Question

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The readings in the Burnell, Randall, and Rakner volume suggest a variety of factors that can help or inhibit a country in establishing stable, democratic nation-state. Write a paper of approximately five (5) double-spaced pages in length (roughly 1,200 to 1,500 words) examining one or two factors that you believe make the transition particularly problematic. Be sure to discuss these issues theoretically, referencing at least three (3) of these articles, and give concrete illustrations of the issues from at least two (2) of the countries we are focusing upon (China, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Nigeria, and South Korea). To what extent were these countries able to overcome these problems, and why? You may incorporate additional sources, but be sure to give proper citations everything you quote or use in a substantive way and include a bibliography citing all sources used (including any on-line sources and class readings). Also, try to organize your answer well, with both introductory and concluding paragraphs indicating the overall direction of the paper, and the general argument that you are making. You may use MLA or Chicago formatting. The paper will be worth 250 points. For the book Use chegg under username rg7559454@gmail.com Pass: State0124 Let me know which countries you decide to include in the paper so I can send you the teachers notes about them. Consider the following parts of the book. Peter Burnell, Vicky Randall, and Lise Rakner, “Introduction” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 1–10 Vicky Randall, “Changing Analytical Approaches to the Study of Politics in the Developing World” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 13–28. Kathleen Staudt, “Women and Gender” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp 133–146. Tony Addison, “Development” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 245–258. James Chiriyankandrath, “Colonialism and Post-Colonial Development” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 29–43. David Taylor, “Pakistan: Regime Change and Military Power” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 291–299. Deborah Bräutigam and Yunnan Chen, “China and the Developing World” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 395–404. Robert Aheame, “The Developing World in the Global Economy” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 58–72. Stephen Hobden, “The Developing World in International Politics” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 73–86. Lise Rakner and Vicky Randall, “Institutional Perspectives” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 44–57. Anna Persson, “The Modern State: Characteristics, Capabilities, and Consequences” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 181–196. Peter Ferdinand, “South Korea: Strong State, Successful Development” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 343–351. Jenny Pearce, “Inequality” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 89–102. Michael Freeman, “Human Rights” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 274–287. Rachel Sieder, “Guatemala: Enduring Underdevelopment” in Burnell, Randall, and Rakner 2017, pp. 364–372. Political Science 361 Governments and Politics of Developing Areas Dr. James Samstad Unit 5 Marxism, Revolution, and China under Mao De ning Social Revolution More than Political Reform Movement Seeks broader institutional change More than Political Revolution Seeks profound changes at societal level Involves greater social upheaval and mobilization As with systematically redistributing land and wealth Usually involves rival organization emerging as alternative government Revolution is usually (but perhaps not always) the result of the violent overthrow of the old state fi Old military typically defeated and replaced Types of Social Revolution Urban Revolution Putsch by small, disciplined urban cadre e.g. Russian Revolution led by Vladimir Illyich Lenin Rural Revolution Slow development of rural guerilla movement gaining control over territory e.g. Chinese Revolution led by Mao Zedong Guerilla Foco [focal point or light] Small groups carries out short-term guerrilla movement inspiring widespread revolt e.g. Cuban Revolution led by Fidel Castro Classical Marxist Theory of Revolution Communist Manifesto (1848) Karl Marx (1818-1883) Karl Marx saw class con ict driving history, through the following stages 1) Feudalism marked by con ict between lord and ser 2) Capitalism where the bourgeoisie (business owning class) was in con ict with the proletariat (blue collar workers 3) Communism where the proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie leading to a classless societ Revolution would inevitably come in the most advanced Capitalist societies where the contradictions were the sharpest between an ever richer bourgeoisie and an increasingly exploited proletaria This suggested Britain or Germany would have a revolution rst, rather than economically “backwards” places such as Russia or Chin : fl fi a f ) t fl fl y Emphasis ultimately was on a critique of capitalism and conditions for revolution, rather than providing a blueprint for a new socialist society Russian Revolution (1917) Weakened by losses during World War I, Czar Nicholas II abdicated on March 12, 1917. After a chaotic period of attempts at democratic government, the provisional regime was ousted in a Bolshevik putsch on November 7. Vladimir Illyich Lenin Communist Party ( – ) Saw underdevelopment as a product of Imperialism • Imperialism had grown in importance after the Congress of Berlin in 1885 and “Scramble for Africa” Explained theories in Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) • Imperialism allowed growth of Capitalism even after domestic markets had been saturated by overproduction • Colonized countries became something of an international version of the proletariat 4 2 9 1 7 1 9 1 • Competition between Capitalist Countries for Colonies had led to World War I Joseph Stalin Communist Party ( – ) 3 5 9 1 7 2 9 1 Instituted the first of a series of “Five Year Plans” in 1928 • Opened way for collectivization of agriculture in favor of large, state-run farms • Resistance by “Kulak” farmers led to repression and the sending of one million Kulaks to Siberia Collectivization contributed to Ukraine Famine of 1932–1933 • Between 1 and 7 million people perished Pursued forced industrialization • Used money from agriculture and threats of repression to push rapid industrial growth Command Economy Model State control of all major productive apparatus Nationalized Industry Collectivized Agriculture State-Run Markets Emphasis on domestic industrialization using Central Planning Such as through “Five Year Plans” Provided extensive social guarantees to workers Subsidized basic necessities Guaranteed housing and health care Universal employment Separated from the Capitalist world economy Especially during early days of Communism People’s Republic of China (中华⼈民共和国) Population 1.4 billion (1st) Nominal GDP $11.4 trillion (2nd) Per Capita GDP (PPP) $14,190 (83rd) Gini 0.421 (91st) HDI 0.727 (90th) GOBI a ng He) RE A Hao Ya n Luoyang gz Erlitou i R i ve r Yellow Sea Yin Anyang Ao ( Cha n g J i a ng ) Shang Dynasty (ca. 1750 to ca. 1040 BCE Developed advanced bronze working. O (H u River K Ye l l o DESERT w © maps.com Xia Dynasty (ca. 2200 to ca. 1750 BCE Developed an early writing system. East China Sea Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1100 to 256 BCE Developed philosophies of Taoism, Confucianism, and Legalism. Ended in a period of waring states. Xia Shang Zhou S o ut h C h i n a Sea ) ) 0 ) 150 0 150 300 miles 300 kilometers © maps.com Qin Dynasty (221 to 206 BCE ROMAN Qin Shihuangdi became the rstAral emperor Sea EMPIRE a B l a c k S ethough of China, later faced a revolution. MONGOLIA TURKESTAN Ca is Sea tes Palmyra Tyre Ri ver P Pe MAN EMP RO IRE PARTHIAN EMPIRE ER rsi n SIA In Gulf Berenice du dS ea KINGDOM OF MEROE KINGDOM OF AXUM HIMY AR QAT AB AN Re le T AW M A DR A H Riv Y Khotan Taxila HI s Ga Barbarikon ARABIA R iv e r Ni Dunhuang Chang’an a EGYPT BACTRIA R. ranean hra er diter Riv up E ng MA es L AY ng Ya i zi R ve r( Chan River Barygaza ANDHRA Bay of Bengal Han Dynasties INDIA Arabian Sea (ca. 206 BCE to 220 CE Arikamedu (Pondicherry) After overthrow of Qin, developedIsthmus a PIHITI Muziris of Kra modern state administrative model ruling the world’s ROHUNA largest empire. Straits of South China Sea YA LA MA INDIAN OCEAN SUMATRA JAVA ) Eurasia and the Silk Roads, 100BCE ) g Ji ng) a Guangzhou Land route Sea route Luoyang CHINA AS Melaka fi Me Merv KUSHAN EMPIRE Kashgar er ( Huan g H e) Sea Ti g r Antioch AN MAK T A L TAK DESER l ow ian ARMENIA Bukhara el sp Byzantium HAN EMPIRE OF CHINA Turpan Ta l 120° 100° 80° 60° as sp v er Ca Ri Ili River K le er u iv e n R 140° r Lia iver oR GOBI DESERT Gr Yal u Samarkand e a t Wa l l Rive Ellora Godava ri Riv er a Krishn R. Vijayanagar Cochin Bay of Bengal Tanjore Madurai SINHALA R. dus In GUPTA EMPIRE an g es Sanchi Narma da Girinagara Ellora R. Pataliputra Nalanda R. . gR 20° KHMER Ayutthaya Angkor South Ocean China S e a Dynasty Tang (618 to 907 After period of instability, helped SRIVIJAYA EMPIRE reestablish empire of the Han. Faced BORNEO rebellions and decline after 755. Indian Ocean 0° RA AT M G Pacific Guangzhou SU Gupta, India C. 413 CE Xi Rive r PA AM CH RASHTRAKUTA Nalanda M BURMA r Rive Sea Narmada River ang Sea Edo Nagoya Nara TANG Hangzhou DYNASTY r ve Ri an . dy R Irawad Arabian Pataliputra hm Ch . ra R ap u t e k ong Cambay DESERT Bra Indu n ia THAR PA L A Ga nges Rive r Agra r Tsangpo River PRATIHARA PUNJAB Rive Kyoto Osaka er rs Pe s Salween Pusan Yangzhou Han R Chang'an (Xi'an) Yellow Kwangu iv KASHMIR r Rive Loyang We i Ri v e r i Kabul Gu lf Hu TAKLAMAKAN DESERT Hs A B B A S I D C A L I P H AT E r 40° JAPAN Pyongyang an g Dunhuang KOREA Ka R n . ea n S Ri ia r ve JAVA AREA UNDER GUPTA INFLUENCE G oda va r i R. Bay of Bengal Arabian Sea Asia, C. C. 750 750 CE Asia, ) ©1997 MAGELLAN GeographixSM 500 0 0 500 1000 Mi. 1000 Km. Black Sea Caspian Sea is gr Ti R. Alexandria Cairo PERSIA Baghdad R. Chang’an le R. Gu lf B rah m aputra R . . Yan an Hormuz sR du nge Ga s R . Cambay Luoyang Re Surat e d S INDIA a Hangzhou Nanha Quanzhou (Guangzhou) Me South China Sea Tra Kieu R. Bay of Bengal ko n g Masulipatam Arabian Sea . Ir r Tamralipti Mecca gtze dy Ni ARABIA si In Siraf P er Yellow R . CHINA Basra R te s R. ra a w ad Eup h Aden PA C I F I C OCEAN PHILIPPINE ISLANDS Calicut Quilon AFRICA CEYLON Strait of Melaka Melaka Mogadishu Song Dynasties (960 to 1279 Army reuni ed China ushering in period to social and technological advance. I N D I A N O C E A N Malinda Mombasa Zanzibar Kilwa Mozambique 500 0 Sofala MADAGASCAR 0 500 1,000 miles 1,000 kilometers ) fi Trade Routes in the Indian Ocean, c. 500-1000 CE SUMATRA BORNEO MALUKU ISLANDS Palembang JAVA TIMOR K H A N AT E O F K I P C H A K a MONGOLIA (GOLDEN HORDE) R. Karakorum Syr u R. Sea Samarkand GOBI DESERT T igr K H A N AT E O F P E R S I A R. (IL-KHANS) Ye l l o w Indus g es R. Fuzhou Thang Long (Hanoi) C HA MP Ayutthaya Angkor KHMER EMPIRE South China A Sea MA YuanPANDYA (Mongol) Dynasty (1279 to 1368 Khubilai Khan conquered China, Malacca S R I V I J AYA E M P I R E but emulated rather than trying toPalembang BORNEO R A M ATA R A M Makassar destroy the civilization. EMPIRE LA YA SU M AT INDIAN OCEAN 500 0 0 500 1,000 miles 1,000 kilometers ) Mongol Empires, 13th Century PA C I F I C OCEAN M Tanjore SIAM Nara SHIKOKU KYUSHU PAEKCHE East China Sea R. NA Bay of Bengal R. CHOLA Calicut A g Aden BURMA X i R. Dali on Ellora PALLAVA Arabian Sea a ze Sea of Hangzhou N Mecca Nalanda putr ngt Ya Mek H YA M T N S . S AT P U R A M T NS. h ma R. VIND an R. een G Lhasa lw Delhi AL AYAS HOKKAIDO . Pyongyang Japan SILLA Heian-kyo HONSHU Yellow Pusan (Kyoto) Edo Sea Chengdu Sa THAR DESERT T I B E TA N P L AT E A U IM Medina S U LTA N AT E OF DELHI H R. ARABIA R. R. H a n R. Br a Baghdad M A R O E K G A N A R tes TA K L A M A K A N DESERT R . ra Beijing Xingqing KA is R Eu ph HINDU KUSH Liaoyang LIAO R K H A N AT E O F C H A G H A D A I R Liao . u K H A N AT E O F T H E G R E AT K H A N lo w Am ian UC A MO UN SUS TA IN S sp CA Ya l Ca Black Sea R . Aral Sea Ye l Vo l g Borobodur JAVA MONGOLIA as Black Sea pi Am K H A N AT E O F O I R AT GOBI Sea Samarkand THAR DESERT IM Delhi . SIAM Mekon Macao Hue KHMER Manila A TR A N PHILIPPINES YA ) OCEAN CELEBES Palembang Makassar Batavia 500 0 Asia, c. 1500 PA C I F I C BORNEO M A J A PA H I T EMPIRE Mozambique South China Sea R. Bangkok M EA J A PA N East China Sea LA OC LAOS U AN Heian-Kyo (Kyoto) Edo Osaka Nagasaki MA Mombasa Sea of Japan X i R . Guangzhou BURMA Bay GoaDynasty Ming of Madras Bengal (1368 to 1644 Reestablished Han control. After sponsoring nautical expeditions in Colombo 1400s by Zheng He, decided to turn inward and isolate China. INDI ow ASSAM S Mogadishu ri R Fuzhou g Aden Calcutta R. Godava ALA Y A S map utra h g es R. DYNASTY R. t ze AM Sea an ng Ya ANN Arabian Sea Red Surat Bombay G Agra N armada Mecca Lhasa R. R. Bra Indu Medina s Nanjing MING H Hormuz Ye l l LODI S U LTA N AT E OF DELHI R. EMPIRE OF THE MAMELUKS R. ow TIBET Baghdad tes Ye l l o w Pusan Sea Ye ll R. E S A FAV I D E M P I R E hra KOREA R. TAKLAMAKAN DESERT . Pyongyang Beijing Ti g r is up R Liao . T ER DES M O N G O L I S TA N u R. an OTTOMAN EMPIRE R. R C u Syr Aral Sea Ya l R Vo l ga . 0 500 J AVA 1,000 miles 1,000 kilometers Qing Dynasty, China 1644–1912 Qing homeland SIBERIA Qing expansion to 1644 Qing expansion, 1644–90 Qing expansion, 1690–1750 Lake Baikal RUSSIA MANCHURIA Great Wall Lake Balkhash MONGOLIA rt se e D G o b i Aral Sea Caspian Sea Beijing er Riv w Ye l l o e) gH (Huan TIBET KOREA Yellow Sea J A PA N Nanjing H Lhasa I Hangzhou i v er g) zi R Qing (Manchurian) Dynasty A ian J g L an A N E P A L Y (1644 to 1912 AS Guangzhou Manchus seized Beijing and B U R M A MUGHAL Macao E Mrulers. PIRE VIETNAM overthrew ethnic Han LAOS South Beginning in 1839 they faced a seriesBay China SIAM Sea of Arabian of rebellions and humiliations. Ya n ) China in the Qing Dynasty, 1644–1911 Bengal (Ch g M Sea Taiwan Strait TA I WA N PHILIPPINES © maps.com Opium War (1839-42) With its demand for tea, silk, and porcelain causing a trade deficit, the British try to convince China to allow the sale of opium produced in colonial India. After three years of war, the British force China to legalize opium, open itself up to foreign missionaries, cede Hong Kong and other treaty-ports, and pay large war reparations. RU Boxer Rebellion S S I A N E MP (1898-1901 IR E After economic downturn led to a movement attacking foreigners, six European countries captured Hand looted Beijing and force theU R I payment of substantial reparations.A Boxer Rebellion, 1898–1901 Lake Baikal Taiping areas 1853–57 1857–63 Am ur R. M A Nian Rebellion, 1853–68 N C Muslim revolts, 1855–73 G O B I R T D E S E Hua ng He (Ye llow R .) Port Arthur Nian Rebellion (Russia, 1898; Japan, 1905) (1853-1868 Beijing Northern rebellion by 40,000 Tianjin (Br., 1860) in aftermath of regional ooding A N D O N G P E N . SH Yellow Qingdao put down by government using (Ger., Sea 1898) Nanjing scorched earth C Htactics. INA (Fr., 1858) H Delhi I M TIBET (autonomous after 1912) Lhasa A Chongqing (Br., 1890) Ch ang Jiang ngzi R (Ya .) Suzhou (Japan, 1895) Shanghai (Br., 1842) Pyongyang Sea of Japan Seoul Edo (Tokyo) KOREA Kyoto (Japan, 1895) C H O S H U Nagasaki East China Sea L Taiping Rebellion A Y A S Fuzhou Xiamen (Amoy) (1853-1863 (Br., 1842) (Br., 1842) Longzhou A Christian cult leader took control (Fr.,of Guangzhou TAIWAN 1886) (Br., 1842) Hong Kong BRITISH Calcutta (Br., 1842) Iarea N D I A he declared the Taiping Heavenly Macao BURMA Hanoi Kingdom. Eventually crushed with the (Port., 1555) South help of British and French forces, with China Sea Bay of SIAM someBengal 20 million killed. Manila FRENCH J A PA N S AT S U M A PACIFIC OCEAN RYUKYU IS. (Japan, 1872) Colonial Spheres of Railway possessions influence Russia Britain Japan PH France ILI fl ) ) ) Saigon Chinese S E (1884) IN East Asia, 1850–1900 INDOCHINA PP Bangkok Germany Former states tributary to China Treaty ports Cixi Empress Dowager (1861-1908) Originally a concubine of the ninth Qing Emperor, Xianfeng (1850-1861), her son became the tenth emperor at just ve years old upon Xianfeng's deat • Cixi became regent (Empress Dowager) due to son’s young age, and then continued in the position after her son died in 187 Rejected internal and external pressure to modernize China along Western lines, often violently repressing advocates of reform • Pressure increased after China’s defeat and loss of Taiwan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95 • A new defeat by a coalition of six European powers during the Boxer Rebellion led her to reluctantly implement some reforms after 190 h 1 ) 5 s fi fi Cixi died in 1908 shortly after installing the twelfth and nal Qing Emperor, Puyi (1908-1912; 1917) Republic of China 1912–1949 (on mainland China) Sun Yatsen [Sun Yixian] Kuomintang (1912) l 2 5 1 n Believing that the Qing dynasty needed to adopt a Western-style constitutional monarchy and import Western technology, Sun launches an unsuccessful coup in 189 While in exile, a military uprising begins on October 10, 191 • He quickly returns to China and is selected the provisional president after Republic is established on January 1, 191 Agrees to back northern general Yuan Shih-kai for president in order to get Yuan to back the revolutio • Act forced Emperor Puyi to abdicate on February 12, 1912, ending 266 years of Qing Dynasty and Manchu contro • Sun steps down after 15 days and recognized Yuan in order to prevent Civil War Yuan Shih-kai [Yuan Shikai] Military (1912-1916) fl 4 c 6 e e fi y Sun’s KMT nds itself increasingly in con ict with Yuan as he attempts to consolidate presidential power rather than allowing a parliamentary republi • Sun founds the Kuomintang [Guomindang] (KMT) as a reformist part • Yuan bans KMT in 191 Yuan declares himself Emperor of China as of January 1, 191 • Move leads to widespread revolts against his rul • Soon after, on June 6, 1916, Yuan dies of kidney failur Country fragments into a series of regions dominated by warlords after his death Age of the Warlords (1916-1928) With Tibet and Mongolia having already declared independence in 1912, China further fragments into regional fighting and a growing civil war in the decade after Yuan’s death. Chiang Kaishek [Jiang Jieshi] Kuomintang (1925-1948) 5 ) fl s s y 1 fi 8 Became head of the KMT after Sun’s death in 192 • Launched attacks against warlord Succeeded in defeating the warlords and reunifying China by 192 Moved KMT to the right politicall • In his last years, Sun had beem in uenced by Leninism and shifted to the left, even making an alliance with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) • Chiang pushed KMT to split with the CCP, leading to the Chinese Civil War (1927-48 Faced war with imperial Japan after it invaded Manchuria in September 193 • By 1937, further Japanese expansion in China pushed the KMT and CCP to form a “United Front” to ght the invader • But after clashes between the KMT and CCP, the alliance broke down by 1941 U.S.S.R. Japan and possessions to 1910 SAKHALIN (KARAFUTO) Japanese conquests to 1932 MANCHUKUO (MANCHURIA) MONGOLIA Japanese conquests, 1933-1941 (1931–1932) INNER MONGOLIA (1936) KOREA OCCUPIED CHINA (1937–1938) Ye l l o w Sea J A PA N CHINA East China Sea INDIA PA C I F I C BONIN ISLANDS Hong Kong (Brit.) BURMA FORMOSA Hawaii OCEAN (U.S.) MACAO South China Sea THAILAND (SIAM) (1941) FRENCH INDOCHINA PHILIPPINES GUAM (U.S.) (1941) Leyte Gulf MARSHALL IS. PALAU I. M A L A Y A BRUNEI (Brit.) SARAWAK CAROLINE IS. BORNEO CELEBES SUMATRA DUTCH EAST INDIES NEW GUINEA JAVA SOLOMON IS. 750 0 AUSTRALIA Japanese Expansion in Asia, 1895-1941 0 750 1,500 miles 1,500 kilometers World War II, Pacific Theater, 1941-1945 MONGOLIA Areas under Japanese control MANCHUKUO (Manchuria) Allies Vladivostok R. Neutral nations Peking (Beijing) o CHINA M H g uan Lüshun H Seoul Pusan Hiroshima Nagasaki Shanghai e ko ng n R. Ya INDIA g t z e R. Canton (Guangzhou) BURMA Tokyo Allied forces Iwo Jima Feb. 1945 Okinawa Apr.–June 1945 Midway June 1942 Hong Kong (Brit.) Mandalay F R E N C H MACAO INDOCHINA Rangoon Bay of Bengal Battles Yellow Sea TIBET Calcutta J A PA N South China Sea THAILAND Bangkok Pearl Harbor Dec. 1941 (U.S.) Saigon M A L AYA (Brit.) Singapore BRUNEI (Brit.) Saipan, Tinian, & Guam June-Aug. 1944 Manila PHILIPPINES PACIFIC OCEAN Leyte Gulf N. BORNEO Tarawa Nov. 1943 (Brit.) SARAWAK (Brit.) BORNEO S U M AT R A DUTCH EAST INDIES NEW GUINEA Guadalcanal Aug. 1942–Feb. 1943 Port Moresby 0 0 Coral Sea May 1942 750 mi 750 km Chinese Revolution of 1949 After two decades of fighting both the Nationalist government and Japanese occupying forces, the People’s Liberation Army led by Mao Zedong claimed victory on October 1, 1949. Two million Nationalists fled to the Island of Formosa (Taiwan) to establish an exile government. Mao’s Revolution (1949) People’s Republic of China 1949– (on mainland China) Mao Zedong CCP (1949–1976) Led successful revolution by emphasizing tactic of guerrilla war based in the Chinese countryside Began extensive rural land redistribution in 1950 Sent forces to “liberate” Tibet, absorbing it into China in 1950 • The Dalai Lama, the Tibetan Buddhist’s spiritual leader, forced into exile in India • Mao suppressed a major independence revolt in 1959 Sent an estimated 3 million troops to defend North Korea during Korean War (1950–1953) • Leading to more than 100,000 Chinese combat deaths, but turning the course of the war so as to allow the survival of North Korea THE KOREAN WAR, 1950–1953 November 1950–July 1953 SOVIET UNION June–November 1950 North Korean attack forces Line of farthest advance, Sept. 1950 SOVIET UNION CHINA Chinese and North Korean offensive Line of advance, Jan. 1951 CHINA Final U.N. offensive Armistice line U.N. offensive Seaof Japan alu Y Chosin Reser Reservoirvoir Sept.–Nov. 1950 950 v. 1 No alu Wonsan Pyongyang Chosin Reser Reservoirvoir 9 –Jan. 1 Nov. 1950 Y Line of farthest U.N. advance, Nov. 1950 Sea of Japan Hungnam Wonsan Pyongyang NORTH KOREA NORTH KOREA July 1953 CHINA NORTH KOREA 38°N SOUTH KOREA 38°N JAPAN Panmunjom SOUTH KOREA Yellow Sea Masan Pusan Tsushima © 3 Pohang-dong Kunsan 195 100 kilometers July 51– Yellow Sea 100 miles 130°E Pohang-dong Kunsan Backed by the U.S.S.R. and China, the communist government of North Korea SOUTH abandoned its strategy of trying to take over South Korea through subversion and KOREA launched an attack on South Korea in the predawn hours of June 25, 1950. The United States saw the invasion as an act of communist aggression that could not go unchallenged without encouraging similar takeovers worldwide. Determined to keep South Korea from falling, the U.S. asked for help from the United Nations. The U.N. Security Council convened in an emergency session to determine whether the U.N. wouldHonshu commit troops to the Korean conflict. The Soviets stormed out of the meeting. With swift action the U.S., the U.N. and 16 of its member nations ANSouth Korea. came to the aidPof JA 126°E Seoul n Ha 0 Inchon . 19 Jan 0 n Ha Inchon landing Sept. 15, 1950 Seoul 0 pt. 195 e–Se Jun Inchon 126°E Masan Pusan Tsushima i Stra 130°E ts hi m s us T of a Honshu N PA JA Mao Zedong CCP (1949–1976) Began the Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-1957) promoting public criticisms of intellectuals under to slogan “Let a hundred flowers bloom, let the hundred schools of thought contend” • But soon after cracked down on dissidents when criticisms started to get out of hand • Mao also feared losing power after seeing what was happening in the USSR after Nikita Khrushchev’s secret speech denouncing Stalin’s crimes Launched Anti-Rightest Campaign (1957-1959) • Worked to purge “Rightists,” such as those advocating market reforms, from the CCP Great Leap Forward (1958-1960) Attempted to break with the Stalinist industrialization model • Mao promised: “We will get ahead of Great Britain in fteen years” Tried to decentralize industry and move it to the countryside • “Fully socialist cooperatives” of about 160 households each, to produce their own iron Experiment ended in disaster • Famine killed as many as 20 million • Iron ultimately proved too brittle and unusable Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered a cutoff of aid in 1960 • Beginning a twenty-year long “Sino-Soviet” split fi • Successful 1964 test of a Chinese nuclear bomb furthered the country’s political independence Cultural Revolution (1966-1968) Mao decided it was necessary to avoid the creation of a new elit • Argued for theory of the “reemergence of capitalist traits Began “Cultural Revolution” initially against the party elite • Encouraged intellectuals to attack “bourgeoisie culture • Ousted “capitalist roaders” such as CCP chairman Liu Shaoqi (1959-1968) and future leader Deng Xiaopin Promoted a new revolutionary consciousness among the peopl • Students encouraged to organize “Red Guards Some 700,000-800,000 lost their occupational position As part of the “Down to the Countryside Movement,” many urban, educated youths forcibly sent to rural areas to become agricultural worker Movement soon spun out of contro s e fl e s ” s ” ” g 0 l ffi • Violent clashes killed as many as 400,00 • By 1968 Mao called in the People’s Liberation Army to end con icts, though o cially the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution did not end until Mao’s death in 1976 Cultural Revolution (1966-68) Nixon’s Visit to China (1972) A year after allowing the PRC to replace Taiwan on the UN Security Council, US President Richard Nixon’s visited mainland China in February 1972 to begin the process of normalizing relations between the two countries. Under a “One China” protocol the US officially recognizes Taiwan as an integral part of China, while the mainland allows de facto Taiwanese autonomy. Hua Guofeng CCP (1976–1981) Took power after Mao’s death, ordering the arrest of the “Gang of Four,” a group of prominent leftist leaders, on charges of “counter-revolution” and fomenting civil war • Among the Gang of Four was Mao’s widow, Jiang Qing, who was initially sentenced to death, but later served life in prison (dying in 1991) Characterizing the cultural revolution as “70% is result, 30% is mistake,” Hua attempted to reach a compromise between Maoist and right factions of CCP • Supported more Soviet-style than market-style reforms to the economy Launched the “Beijing Spring” (1977-78) where excesses of the Cultural Revolution were allowed to be denounced publicly • Included a tolerance for the “Democracy Wall,” where dissident posters were permitted By December 1978 pragmatists, led by Deng Xiaoping, gained clear control of party leadership • Though in a sign of increasing stability, rather than face jail Hua was allowed to retire gradually, not officially leaving office until 1981 Deng Xiaoping CCP (1978–1997) Key Terms & Names ❖ Chiang Kaishe ❖ Kuomintang (KMT ❖ Chinese Communist Party (CCP ❖ Mao Zedon ❖ Opium Wa ❖ Qing Dynast ❖ Tibetans ❖ ❖ Command Econom Cultural Revolutio y ) d n k ] y Han [ethnicity g ❖ ) Great Leap Forwar r ❖
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Factors that make transition problematic
Introduction
Various factors can inhibit countries' transition to democracy, good governance, and
peaceful coexistence. Iraq gained independence in 1958 and remained relatively calm for
considerable duration; however, it was slapped with international sanctions in the 1990s. Its
population was highly educated, had a well-developed infrastructure, had adequate revenue from
oil sales, welfare services, and a well-equipped army (Burnell, Rakner, and Randall, 2017,
p.325). However, all its achievements were affected by protracted conflicts and political
violence. Saddam Hussein’s presidency was characterized by dictatorship and suppression of
political opposition. Iraq has a young population since nearly half of its inhabitants are below 19
years. It falls under a hard and fierce state and not a strong state. Saddam Hussein utilized similar
strategies used by the previous regimes, such as rivals' exclusion, societal mistrust, and violence.
Therefore, this essay focuses on factors that make transition problematic in Iraq and China.
Iraqi background
Iraq is a fierce state since Saddam Hussein utilized the same leadership strategies used by
the previous regimes. Thus, he exercised favoritism by prioritizing his extended clan and forging
tribal networks as a patronage mechanism for violence. Hussein’s party was criticized by
different groups, such as liberals, democrats, Arab nationalists, and the Islamic movement
(Burnell et al., 2017, p.326). The 2003 invasion spearheaded by the United States triggered

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multiple processes in the country; some were planned while others were not. This invasion made
some countries to label Iraq a failed state. It was also regarded as a failed state since it could not
offer essential services and security to its citizens. A country’s failure to perform crucial
functions makes it a fragile state since it cannot address the basic needs of its citizens, such as
the provision of essential ...


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