SEC341 Terrorism and Society: Survey of Terrorist Groups in Modernity Study Guide (5CU) Course Development Team Head of Programme : Assoc Prof Antonio L Rappa Course Developer(s) : Assoc Prof Antonio L Rappa (updated in July 2014 – August 2015) Production : Educational Technology & Production Team © 2021 Singapore University of Social Sciences. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the Educational Technology & Production, Singapore University of Social Sciences. Educational Technology & Production Singapore University of Social Sciences 463 Clementi Road Singapore 599494 Release V1.5 CONTENTS SECTION 1: COURSE GUIDE 1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Course Description and Aims ...................................................................... 2 1.3 Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................ 2 1.4 Overall Assessment ........................................................................................ 3 1.5 Learning Materials ......................................................................................... 4 SECTION 2: STUDY UNITS STUDY UNIT 1: Pre-Historical Terrorism or Barbarism Course Description ···················································································· SU1-1 Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU1-2 Chapter 1: Introduction ············································································ SU1-3 1.1 Defining Terrorism 1.2 Four Waves of Terrorism 1.2.1 Anarchist wave 1.2.2 Anti‐colonial 1.2.3 New left 1.2.4 Religion 1.3 Terrorism versus Insurgency 1.4 State Terrorism and State Sponsored Terrorism 1.4.1 State Terrorism 1.4.2 State Sponsored Terrorism 1.5 Typologies of Terrorism 1.5.1 Nationalist 1.5.2 Ideological 1.5.3 Religio-Political 1.5.4 Single-issue 1.5.5 State sponsored and State supported 1.6 “Old” versus “New” Terrorism 1.6.1 Old Terrorism 1.6.2 New Terrorism Conclusion ································································································· SU1-13 Chapter 2: Pre-Historical Terrorism (Barbarism) ······························· SU1-15 2.1 Warfare in Ancient Egypt 2.2 The Assyrians 2.3 War in Archaic and Classical Greece 2.4 Tyrannicide in Ancient Greece 2.5 Alexander III, the Great 2.6 Terror and Political Violence in Ancient Rome 2.7 Warfare in Ancient India 2.8 Warfare in Ancient China Conclusion ································································································· SU1-21 STUDY UNIT 2: Ancient & Medieval Forms of Terrorism Course Description ···················································································· SU2-1 Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU2-2 Chapter 1: Ancient (Medieval) Terrorism in Europe and Asia ··········· SU2-3 1.1 The Pre-Modern Period 1.1.1The Zealots and the Sicarii 1.1.2 The Thugees 1.1.3 The Kharjites and the Assassins (Nizaris/ Hashhashin) Conclusion ··································································································· SU2-5 Chapter 2: Post-medieval Terrorism in Europe and Asia ···················· SU2-6 2.1 The “Early Modern Period” 2.1.1The English Civil War 2.1.2 The French Revolution 2.2 The “Late Modern Period” 2.2.1The First Wave 2.2.1.1 Anarchists 2.2.1.2 The Russian Revolution 2.2.1.3 Irish Rebellion 2.2.2 The Second Wave 2.2.2.1 End to Colonialism 2.2.2.2 The Middle East/ Cold War 2.2.2.3 The Middle East/ Islamism (Militant Islam) 2.2.3 The Third Wave 2.2.3.1 Palestine Liberation Organization 2.2.4 The Fourth Wave (The New Terrorism) 2.2.4.1 Iranian Revolution 2.2.4.2 Afghan War 2.2.4.3 The New Millennium Conclusion ································································································· SU2-15 STUDY UNIT 3: Modern Terrorist Groups Course Description ···················································································· SU3-1 Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU3-2 Chapter 1: Modern Terrorist Groups ······················································ SU3-3 1.1 Modern Terrorism Before and After 9/11 1.2 Use of Non-Conventional Weapons 1.3 Use of the Internet 1.4 State-Sponsorship Continues Conclusion ································································································· SU3-11 Chapter 2: Terrorist Activities in Southeast Asia ································ SU3-13 2.1 Terrorist Activities in Indonesia 2.2 Terrorist Activities in Philippines 2.3 Terrorist Activities in Malaysia 2.4 Terrorist Activities in Singapore Conclusion ································································································· SU3-17 Chapter 3: Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) Network in Southeast Asia ··········· SU3-18 3.1 Background of Jemaah Islamiyah 3.2 Jemaah Islamiyah in Indonesia 3.3 Jemaah Islamiyah in Philippines 3.4 Jemaah Islamiyah in Malaysia 3.5 Jemaah Islamiyah in Singapore Conclusion ································································································· SU3-21 STUDY UNIT 4: Terrorist Clusters: Principles, Tactics and Prospects Course Description ···················································································· SU4-1 Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU4-2 Chapter 1: Principles of Terrorist Clusters ············································ SU4-4 1.1 “New” Terrorist Organizations 1.2 Recruitment 1.3 Self- Sustaining Functions 1.4 Cohesion Management 1.5 Loyalty Management 1.6 Role of Leadership 1.7 Decline of Organization 1.8 Some Typologies of Terrorist Groups 1.8.1 Leftist Ideologies 1.8.2 Religion 1.8.3 Ethno Nationalist Considerations Conclusion ································································································· SU4-13 Chapter 2: Tactics of Terrorist Clusters ················································· SU4-14 2.1 Tactics of Terrorism 2.2 Force Multipliers 2.3 Philosophy of Bomb 2.3.1 Human Bombs 2.3.2 Letter Bombs 2.3.3 Portable Bombs 2.3.4 Vehicle Bombs Chapter 3: Prospects of Terrorist Clusters ············································ SU4-17 3.1 Technology 3.1.1 Cyberterrorism 3.1.2 WMD: Biological Agents 3.1.3 WMD: Chemical and Radiological Weapons 3.2 Media as a Force Multiplier 3.3 Economic targeting and transnational attack 3.3.1 Tourism 3.3.2 Energy 3.3.3 Transportation 3.4 Suicide Attacks and Religion 3.4.1 A Theory of Suicide Terrorism 3.4.2 Models for Suicide Bombing Conclusion ································································································· SU4-27 STUDY UNIT 5: Terrorism and Globalization: States of Terror and Global positions Course Description ···················································································· SU5-1 Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU5-2 Chapter 1: States of Terror and Global Position ···································· SU5-3 1.1 Terrorism and Globalization 1.2 Treaty of Westphalia – Statehood Principles 1.3 State-terrorism and Human Rights Violation Conclusion ··································································································· SU5-5 Chapter 2: Global Politics: Great Powers and Small Powers ··············· SU5-6 2.1 Great Powers and Southeast Asia during the Cold War 2.1.1 The Civil War in China 2.1.2 The Korean War 2.1.3 Decolonization 2.1.4 The Vietnam War 2.1.5 Southeast Asian Regionalism 2.2 Great Powers and Southeast Asia in the Post-Cold War World 2.2.1 Competing Visions of the Post-Cold War World 2.2.1.1 The Liberals 2.2.1.2 The Realists 2.2.1.3 The Radicals Conclusion ································································································· SU5-14 Chapter 3: Non-traditional Security Regimes and Terrorism ··········· SU5-15 3.1 Traditional Security Issues 3.2 Non-traditional Security Issues 3.2.1 Transnational Crime (Money Laundering) – Singapore's Casino Regulatory Authority 3.3 Singapore versus the Great Powers Conclusion ································································································· SU5-18 STUDY UNIT 6: Terrorism and the Law Course Description ···················································································· SU6-1 Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU6-2 Chapter 1: Terrorism and the Law enforcement ···································· SU6-3 1.1 Politics and Governance 1.2 Social and Economics 1.2.1 Poverty 1.2.2 Grievances 1.3 Psychological-Communicational-Educational measures 1.4 Military measures 1.5 Judicial and Legal measures 1.6 Police and Prison System 1.7 Intelligence and Secret Service 1.8 Other Conclusion ································································································· SU6-13 Chapter 2: Terrorism and Rehabilitation ·············································· SU6-14 2.1 The Four Modes of Rehabilitation 2.2 Rehabilitation Programmes in Various Countries 2.2.1 Singapore – Rehabilitation experience 2.2.2 Indonesia – Rehabilitation experience 2.2.3 Yemen – Rehabilitation experience 2.2.4 Saudi Arabia – Rehabilitation experience Conclusion ································································································· SU6-18 Bibliography/ Recommended Readings SEC341 Terrorism and Society: A Survey of Terrorist Groups in Modernity COURSE GUIDE SEC341 COURSE GUIDE SECTION 1: COURSE GUIDE 1.1 Introduction (Access video via iStudyGuide) Welcome to your study of SEC341 Terrorism and Society: A Survey of Terrorist Groups in Modernity, a 5 credit unit (CU) course. This Study Guide is divided into two sections – the Course Guide and Study Units. The Course Guide provides a structure for the entire course. As the phrase implies, the Course Guide aims to guide you through the learning experience. In other words, it may be seen as a roadmap through which you are introduced to the different topics within the broader subject. This Guide has been prepared to help you understand the aim[s] and learning outcomes of the course. In addition, it explains how the various materials and resources are organised and how they may be used, how your learning will be assessed, and how to get help if you need it. Course Schedule To help monitor your study progress, you should pay special attention to your Course Schedule. It contains study unit related activities including Assignment, self-evaluations, and examinations. Please refer to the Course Timetable in the Student Portal for the updated Course Schedule. NOTE: You should always make it a point to check the Student Portal for any announcements and latest updates. You need to ensure you fully understand the contents of each Study Unit listed in the Course Schedule. You are expected to complete the suggested activities either independently and/or in groups. It is imperative that you read through your Assignment questions and submission instructions before embarking on your Assignment. It is also important you comprehend the Overall Assessment Weighting of your course. This is listed in Section 1.4 of this Guide. Manage your time well so you can meet given deadlines and do regular revisions after completing each unit of study. They will help you retain the knowledge garnered and prepare you for any required formal assessment. If your course requires an end-of-semester examination, do look through the Specimen or Past Year Exam Paper which is available on Learning Management System. 1 SEC341 COURSE GUIDE Although flexible learning – learning at your own pace, space and time – is a hallmark at SUSS, you are encouraged to engage your instructor and fellow students in online discussion forums. A sharing of ideas through meaningful debates will help broaden your learning and crystallise your thinking. 1.2 Course Description and Aims There are three reasons students need to learn about terrorist groups: (1) these groups are the basis for analyzing terrorism; (2) understanding of terrorist groups will be useful for practical and applied portfolios in the police force, immigration, customs and other security agencies; and, (3) terrorist groups have a high impact on politics and society. The course is divided into three phases: Phase I: Barbarism; Phase II: Ancient and medieval terrorism; and Phase III: Modern forms of terrorism – from globalization to modernity. The course concludes with the impact of terrorism on Non-Traditional Security (NTS) regimes. 1.3 Learning Outcomes Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Appraise the different concepts of terrorism in modernity. Distinguish legitimate and non-legitimate power in modernity. Examine causes and roots of terrorism in modernity. Propose factors responsible for the development of terrorism. Arrange the different terrorist groups in Southeast Asia in order of their political impact. 6. Judge the extent of terrorist groups since 9/11. 7. Synthesize the impact of post-war security policies on terrorist groups in Asia. 8. Assess the inter-connectedness of global terrorist networks. 9. Evaluate the measures used by counterterrorists to address terrorist groups. 10. Rate terrorist activity in Southeast Asia since the death of Osama bin Laden. 11. Compare and contrast terrorist groups in modernity. 12. Critique Jemaah Islamiyah’s networks in Southeast Asia. Key Skills (Practical Component) 1. Apply security studies concepts to seminar discussions. 2. Interpret work-based problems with concepts in security studies. 3. Demonstrate competence in academic writing (political science). 2 SEC341 COURSE GUIDE 1.4 Overall Assessment The overall assessment weighting for this course is as follows: Assessment Assignment 1 Description Weight Allocation Pre-Course Quiz 2% Pre-Class Quiz 1 2% Pre-Class Quiz 2 2% Assignment 2 Tutor-marked Assignment 18% Assignment 3 Group-based Assignment 20% Class Participation Participation 6% Examination Written examination 50% TOTAL 100% Continuous Assessment: There will be continuous assessment in the form of quizzes, one tutor-marked assignment, group-based assignment and class participation. In total, this continuous assessment will constitute 50 percent of overall student assessment for this course. The continuous assignments are compulsory and are non-substitutable. It is imperative that you read through your Assignment questions and submission instructions before embarking on your Assignment. Examination: The (2-hour) Written Examination will constitute the other 50 percent of overall student assessment. All topics covered in the course outline will be examinable. To prepare for the exam, you are advised to review Specimen or Past Year Exam Papers available on Learning Management System. 3 SEC341 COURSE GUIDE Passing Mark: To successfully pass the course, you must obtain at least a score of 40 percent in each component: that is, at least 40 percent for the Continuous Assessment (combined) and also at least 40 percent for the Examination. For detailed information on the Course grading policy, please refer to The Student Handbook (‘Award of Grades’ section under Assessment and Examination Regulations). The Student Handbook is available from the Student Portal. 1.5 Learning Materials The following learning materials are recommended: 1 Recommended Islam and Political Violence: Muslim Diaspora and Radicalism in the West (2010) National Security Intelligence Polity (2011) Allison, K. (2013). “American Occidentalism and the agential Muslim woman” Review of International Studies 39, 3 (June): 665 – 684. Forst, Brian et al. (eds.). (2011). Criminologists on Terrorism and Homeland Security Cambridge University Press). Hoffman, Bruce (2006). Inside Terrorism (Columbia University Press). Pape, Robert A. (2003). “The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism” American Political Science Review 3(August):343-361. Rappa, Antonio L. (2013) “Urban Terrorism and Political Violence in Thailand” Journal of African and Asian Local Government Studies 2,2:128-142. Tan, See Seng (2003). “After Bali: The Threat of Terrorism in Southeast Asia”, World Scientific Publishing Co. 2 Academic American Political Science Review Journals and Journal of Counterterrorism Official Reports The 9/11 Commission Report White Paper: The Jemaah Islamiyah Arrests and the Threat of Terrorism 4 SEC341 COURSE GUIDE 3 SUSS Security http://www.suss.edu.sg/microsites/securitystudies/index.html Studies Website Textbook(s): Your Associate Faculty or Instructor will advise you on the specific texts to focus on for the semester. Students are to note that there is never a single textbook in Security Studies or Political Science that can effectively capture every aspect of the academic area or sub-area. Do note that as in all Security Studies courses, the “required texts” are provided but only a supplement, not a replacement. This is because unlike other academic subjects, Security Studies and Political Science cannot be contained within a single book. 5 SEC341 Terrorism and Society: Survey of Terrorist Groups in Modernity STUDY UNIT 1 Pre-Historical Terrorism or Barbarism SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 COURSE DESCRIPTION Think on your work. Think about why you are reading this course. What you hope to get out of it. Antonio L. Rappa argues in his work on Thailand’s political violence that crimes tend to be committed in the night but these are only petty crimes; the real crimes like white collar crimes are committed neither exclusively in the day nor in the night but every day and every night. The SUSS student of Security Studies must bring with himself or herself, all these various conceptual ideas and apply them, experiment with them and test them out in daily routines. This is the only way to discover if a given event, incident or phenomenon is ‘political’. Antonio L. Rappa argues in his work on Thailand’s urban and rural terrorism that terrorism is a crime but not all crimes are acts of terrorism. This is a commonly misunderstood concept by new students to Security Studies although they will eventually understand the critical difference. In the end the student ought to realise that the most important question is “what makes this phenomenon of terrorism ‘political’?” ____________________________________________________________ This seminar examines the definition of terrorism. It draws on different historical events that affect the changing definition of terrorism and the perception of the international community’s viewpoint on whether terrorism is a “criminal act or holy duty,” and whether it is an admissible reaction to subjugation or an unpardonable abomination. Although one may rightly surmise that defining terrorism is not novel, as it had been in existence since the beginning of chronicled history, the defining of terrorism is in fact complicated due to several reasons. First, notions of terror are determined by its perspective, largely by whom who possess the powers to influence and mould the definitional dimensions; Second, the difference between “Terrorism” and “Insurgency” whereby the former is targeted mainly against non‐combatants, while the latter is targeted mainly against combatants; Third, Dictatorial states often adopt terror tactics as a means of regime. State‐sponsored terrorism, on the other hand, entails the support of the Syrian rule to Hezbollah and Hamas in Lebanon. The dichotomy of “International” and “Domestic” Terrorism; State‐Terrorism and State‐Sponsored Terrorism; “Old” and “New” Terrorism will also be discussed. When illustrating the development of terrorism and the utilization of terror in history, it is crucial to recognize the typologies of terrorism in which the diverse political and societal environments in history were considerably dissimilar as compared to now in modern nation-states. The symbiotic relationship between terrorists and the media in that the latter is often exploited by the former will be briefly explained. In addition, prehistoric presence of violence and terrorism will be explored. SU1-1 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 LEARNING OUTCOMES Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component) 1. Discuss, elaborate and evaluate the different intellectual concepts on terrorism. Key Skills (Practical Component) 2. 3. 4. Apply security studies concepts to seminar discussions. Interpret work-based problems with concepts in security studies. Demonstrate competence in academic writing (political science). SU1-2 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION What is terrorism? Why is terrorism so hard to define? Unlike prehistoric terrorists, modern terrorist groups cloak themselves in the imagery of liberation, “legitimate” combatants, “bona fide” fighters, guerrillas engaging in a struggle for selfdetermination and national liberation. Definitional paralysis arose from political debates over liberation movements, giving rise to a series of debates and eventually agreed on very specific acts of terrorism, such as assassinations of diplomatic agents and hijacking of civil aviation. This was seen in MH17 in 2014 which was shot down by either Ukraine rebels who deny it or Russian Special Forces. Putin has denied the allegations by the world and has threatened the US not to make such allegations against nuclear Russia. But it is also clear that not only have Russian advisers moved en bloc into Ukraine territory, it has also supported the Syrian case which is now in its 5th year of the civil war. Syria and Jordan are considered by the Russians and the former Soviet Empire as their backyard and hence part of their traditional sphere of influence. Therefore it has become difficult to determine whether regular troops were involved in the MH17 shooting or whether they were terrorists. Remember that in the survey of terrorist groups in late modernity, there is a category of terrorism known as State-led terrorism. Also consdier the terrorist groups closer to home such as Al-Maunah, Jemaah Ansharah Tauhid, as well as Jemaah Islamiyah, MILF and Abu Sayyaf. These are related to the so-called ISI as well as the Boku Haram / Boko Haram in Africa. Note that these groups are mere developments in the long history of terrorist groups that have dated back to the time of the writers such as Manu and Kautilya. All major civilizations have had their own documentation and historical records of terrorist activities from the Egyptians, Persians, Chinese, Hindus, and Classical Greeks. Therefore the definitional paralysis stems back to the time of pre-history and what Attenborough called the Ascent of Man in that famous 1980s BBC documentary. Differences also arose over the classification of destruction by sub-state actors as terrorism, but the proposed destruction caused by state actors (e.g. the cold war policy of targeting nuclear missiles on enemy’s civilian population centres) as justifiable. Different government agencies and the global community interpret the definitions of terrorism diversely. This illustrates their dissimilar interests, commitments, missions and priorities. Although the definition of terrorism evolves through history, there are some elements of terrorism that remain comparatively consistent. What are these elements? How is the new terrorism different from the old terrorism? What are the various typologies of terrorism and what are the examples of groups under each of this typology? 1.1 Defining Terrorism The legal definition of Terrorism has not been able to crystalize by renowned scholars around the world till date but some common characteristics have been identified and sifted out from their scholarly work. Terrorism involved calculating and SU1-3 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 deliberating an act of violence or threat of violence, through unlawful means, with the intention to, cause harm or strike fear within a population, to achieve a political aims. This definition underscores clearly the other fundamental characteristic of terrorism: it is deliberate, premeditated and a methodical deed. “… one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter …” Defining terrorism inevitably seems to depend on one’s moral perspective – the terrorist, the victim or the public. According to Brian Jenkins, if one is able to efficaciously ascribe the term “terrorist” to its adversary, at that juncture, it has incidentally convinced and influenced others in assuming its moral perspective. Therefore, the choice to term certain organization as “terrorist” befits just about inevitably idiosyncratic. Terrorism is hardly new, in contrary to the modern-day usage, the word terrorism was first coined from the French Revolutionary government’s “regime de la terreur” in the 18th century when it instituted systematic state terror against the French population to reinstate peace through the short-lived anarchical of pandemonium and cataclysm by consolidating the new government’s power to intimidate counterrevolutionaries, subversive as well as all other nonconformists who were viewed as “enemies of the people” and has been primarily used to refer to undertakings associated with the government. The term was very much linked with the exploitation of power. Therefore, in contrast to terrorism as it is generally assumed nowadays, to denote a revolutionary movement commenced by non‐state bodies, the “regime de la terreur” existed as a tool of control employed by newly established revolutionary state. Later in the late 19th century, terrorism was generally associated with revolutionary, mostly anti‐monarchical movements. In the 1930s, terrorism was used less with reference to revolutionary activities and use of violence to oppose the regime, and inclined towards describing mass oppressive implementations of dictatorial states and leaders on their own citizens. It was later used to refer to governmental exploitation of power and was reference explicitly to dictatorial rules present in Russia, Italy, and Germany. A structure of government-sanctioned dynamism and coercion was formed; deep-seated disputes and other acknowledged “enemies of state” become the ways in that subservient acquiescence ensued. In the 1940s and 1950s, the definition of terrorism transformed again, referencing rebel associations to the anti‐colonialists and nationalists. The term was mainly referred to the vehement uprisings at that time being indicted by several homegrown nationalist clusters. The emergence of these numerous groups originated from various regions such as Africa, Middle East and in opposition to the continual European rule. This era saw the advent of the constructive label of “bona-fide (freedom) fighters” as a consequence of political legitimacy which the global public (the public’s perspective – deemed to be the most unstable) whose compassionate interpretation of terrorism has developed into an essential aspect of their psychological feud – This was actively wooed by many of these movements. SU1-4 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 In the 1960s and 1970s, terrorism remains from a revolutionary viewpoint, with the term extended to embrace nationalist and anti-colonist groups who are proindependence. This viewpoint also includes deep-seated and wholly ideologically driven groups. Historical examples include the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) seeking independence state in the territory of Mandate Palestine (existed during the time of British mandate), similarity, the Basque ETA with the objectives of gaining independence for the Greater Basque Country. They adopted terrorism with the aim of drawing international community’s sympathy attention and support. During the early 1990s, the definition of the terrorism was additionally distorted by the advent of two axioms: the so‐called “gray-area phenomenon” and “narco‐terrorism”. The “gray-area phenomenon” is applied into defining “perils to the sovereignty of nation-states by non‐governmental developments and non-state actors to label violence effecting vast regions where controls have been lifted from legitimate governments to new partially governmental/ partially criminal powers.” 1 Narco‐terrorism, on the other hand, was defined as the use of drug- trafficking in service of some political parties’ motives and terrorist organizations’ objectives. Simply, it is used with reference to various international conflicts that do not longer adhere to conventionally established philosophies of war as warfare between state militaries, but as an alternative involving asymmetrical influences as at least one of the combatants. Even though the definition of terrorism is continually evolving, there are a few consistent elements:  Violence is forcefully intimidating  Political in scope  A method which not an end in itself nor something that someone normally     commits to for identity purposes, as with an ideology or belief system Intentional to inflict psychological disturbance and ordeal on people Deliberately targets non-combatants Effected by a body of distinguishable command chain or conspiratorial structure of cells Perpetrated by non‐state actors or sub-national groups Raufer, Xavier, “Gray Areas: A New Security Threat”, Political Warfare: Intelligence, Active Measure and Terrorism Report (Spring 1992) in, Hoffman, Bruce (2006), “Inside Terrorism”, New York: Columbia University Press, p. 18 1 SU1-5 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 1.2 Four Waves of Terrorism According to David C. Rapoport, the changing definition of terrorism can be associated to the four waves of terrorism: the anarchist wave; anti‐colonial; new left; and religion. 1.2.1 The First Wave Anarchism acknowledged that society had huge reservoirs of dormant ambivalence and antagonism and that the conventions society formulated to stifle and diffuse resentments, generated accountabilities as well as provided means to undertake objections and acquire individual facilities. Terror was believed to be the most effective and quickest avenues to abolish conventions. The perpetrators, through their act, mandated individuals who defended the rules to counter means which undermined the government the latter claimed to regard. According to the anarchists, repetitive dramatic action invariably would polarize the society and revolution would ensue. The first wave of international terrorist activity (better known as the Golden Age of Assassination) was intensified in the 1890s when prominent political figures (monarchs, presidents and prime ministers) were assassinated consecutively, customarily via hit-squads who relocated internationally with ease. It was the State system that arose from the Westphalian Peace accords that resulted in non-interference into states and created a powerful state-centred system which increased the legitimate power of coercion over all those within State-territories. This situation, believe the Anarchist Theorists of the American School (see Johns Hopkins University Department of Political Science), resulted in high levels of tolerance of state-led punishment and torture as well as murder of both innocent and non-innocent persons. 1.2.2 The Second Wave The advent of the “Second Wave” of anti‐colonial terrorism was simulated by the Versailles Peace Treaty which ended World War I. These war victors had upheld beliefs of national self‐determination to disintegrate empires of the overpowered states. Terrorist groups were established in all empires with the exception of the Soviet Union – did not recognised itself as a colonial power. Terrorist undertakings were fundamental in founding new countries (such as Algeria, Ireland and Israel). It was more complex to implement the new strategy than it was for the old strategy during the “First Wave”, due to the diversified objectives. The “Second Wave” strategy pursued to disregard and eradicate the police – deemed to be the regime’s eye and ear – via assassinations of police personnel as well as their families. The military entities replacement would demonstrate their incompetence and consequence favourably in the absence of generating counter‐atrocities, proliferating sympathizers’ support. SU1-6 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 1.2.3 The Third Wave The Vietnam War was the key political incident precipitating the “Third New Left Wave” that rekindled hopes amongst groups developed in the Third World as well as within the Western heartland itself – Red Army Faction (RAF) and the Red Brigades. They viewed themselves as precursors for the Third World multitudes. “Theatrical targets” similar to likes of the First Wave, substituted the Second Wave’s military targets. This hostage crisis becomes a characteristic during the Third Wave with countless hijackings occurring preceding thirty years of the Third Wave. 1.2.4 The Fourth Wave As the “Third Wave” began to recede in the 1980s, the “religious wave” gathered momentum and produced secular groups – a reaction to excessive religious zeal. Out of the religious groups, Islamic clusters have directed the utmost momentous, profoundly as well as deadly transnational outbreaks. Three noteworthy incidents in the Islamic domain delivered the optimism or histrionic political turning point which was crucial in the introduction of the “Fourth Wave”; the monumental Iranian Revolution in 1979; a modern Islamic era initiated; and the Soviets conquest of Afghanistan in 1979. Suicide bombing was the utmost inventive tactical mutiny. There exists the conservative understanding that simply a revelation of rewards in heaven could motivate such deeds; the secular Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) were so enthralled by the accomplishment in Lebanon that they imitated the act to renew their movement in Sri Lanka. The terrorist groups of the “Fourth Wave” also displayed distinctive international features. A key religious community such as Islam is considerably expansive as compared with any state cluster and the prominent Islamic group that transcends national border is Al Qaeda with its network of cell structures operating in various countries. As a result of the challenge and responses of the various religious leaders against western democratic State systms, a whole coterie of terrorist groups have emerged with variations on a single theme. These single themes include Jemaah, Muhammadiyah, Al-Qaeda, Harakat, Irish Republican Army(now defunct), the American Minutemen (against King George) (now defunct), the LTTE (now defunct), and Pan-Islamic Califates. The reason for the high rate of Islamic extremist groups and the diversity of their terrorist themes is because of the rejection of Western Christian values that these groups believe are at the heart of Western and global capitalism, neoliberalism, and democracy (Rappa, 2002; Rappa, 2006; Rappa, 2011). But there are other distinctions within terrorist categories whether they be in the Philippines, Thailand, Japan, China, Afghanistan, the Central European states, or within the US itself. SU1-7 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 1.3 Terrorism Versus Insurgency If no distinct definition of terrorism offers an explicit depiction, attempts to address the vexing question can be done by eliminating similar undertakings that are nonterrorism. Insurgencies are commonly assumed to be tantamount with terrorism as both share similar goals. Insurgency is a relatively value‐neutral concept signifying a rebellion against the ruling government or the civil authorities. Although the idea of rebelling against the government may apparently imply a large widespread movement, in reality insurgents have involved small numbers of rebels. Insurgency is commonly manifested as low‐intensity conflict instead of a large-scale conventional warfare. Insurgency has been utilized by the weak to oppose the strong, for it allows them to evade direct hostilities and confrontations. It depends on surprise and provocation. It is similar to terrorism in this regard as terrorism is likewise often a weapon of the weak against the strong. Insurgents often depend on a high mobility structure of political organization with propaganda playing an important role. The national unity has been central and the cohesiveness has being built upon definite ideologies, either Nationalistic in nature or at times radically revolutionary. There are basically three classifications of insurgencies and each individual classification has a distinctly diverse prospect of realization;    Nationalist movements struggling for independence against a colonist rule; Revolutionary movements centred upon collective societal demands in independent nation-state; Uprisings initiated by religious, ethnic or ethnic‐religious minorities factions, often in pursue of an open secessionist objective and usually nonaggressive. The chief variance between terrorism and insurgency is that an insurgency is a movement – a struggle with a definite political ends and objectives, differentiating from terrorism which is to achieve the objectives of the political efforts. It is frequently directed at government and security officials. Seldom, it is directed at innocent civilians or (non-combatant). This is vice versa of terrorists who do not differentiate their targets, be it civilian or combatants. Often, terrorists broaden the classification of combatants to include supporters of a nation-state or ethnic group, citizens of any nation-state that backs that nation-state as combatants and conducting acts against fresh targets in the absence of warnings. Finally, the dissimilarity between Terrorism and Insurgency pinpoints to actor’s objective and motives. Insurgency movements may conform to global norms with regards to war bylaws to realize and in service of their objectives, but terrorists are by definition committing crimes within both civilian and military lawful codes. SU1-8 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 1.4 State Terrorism & State-sponsored Terrorism 1.4.1 State Terrorism Terror employed by the state and government to terrorize its own population as an instrument of control and suppression. These acts usually acknowledge government policy and leverage on authorized bodies such as government agencies, judicial courts, police and military. Amendments made to legal codes facilitated killing, torture or destruction of property in achieving government policy. Historical examples include assassination campaigns against dissidents who fled overseas, North Korean intelligence downing international civil aviation, Nazi policy directing at the calculated and intentional wiping out of “enemies of states” and the consequential terrorization and coercion of the rest of the population. Countries have piloted terror on an increasingly extensive and fatal scale than groups. They have implemented the use terror as weapons of totalitarianism. By no coincidence that those regimes which routinely engage in the use of terror as weapon of domestic policy tend to also employ it as a tool of foreign policy. 1.4.2 State-sponsorship of Terrorism State-Sponsored terrorism refers to instances where terrorist groups are provided financial and other forms of assistance (physical basing or safe haven, false documentation for personal identification and financial transactions and weapons purchases) by the state to help the latter achieve their aims. Provisions of sustenance include accessibility to training amenities and capabilities arising from their lack of resources, extension of diplomatic protections (extradition immunity, diplomatic passports, access to consulates and safe parameters, consular pouches for arms or explosive transportation). Iraq under Saddam Hussein, Cuba, Iran and Syria are some known state sponsors of terrorism. State patronage of terrorism obstructs the counter terrorism efforts of the global community. These nations offer a crucial basis for terrorist clusters. Deprived of state sponsors, terrorist clusters would greater difficulty procuring financial funding, arms, resources and securing localities they need to plot and implement acts. 1.5 Typologies of Terrorism The dichotomy of international and domestic terrorism is vital in understanding the typologies for terrorism. The prior is terrorist use of violence concerning the populations of more than one nation whereas the latter is contained by the nation borders, sometimes within a specific area in the nation. In actuality, however, it is difficult to provide an instance of any noteworthy terrorist movement that is solely internally. Any severe terrorist movement actively pursues political support, diplomatic extension, financial assistance, weapons, access to training facilities and safe haven beyond its own borders. SU1-9 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 1.5.1 Nationalist Terrorists Nationalist Terrorists endorses the welfares of a religious group and/or minorities which have been oppressed under mainstream rule (Muslim fundamentalism and Sikh radicals). They are in pursuit of autonomy and may stage their battle exclusively in the region they are in search to gain independence or they may be dynamic in homeland and globally. In certain circumstances, they may be coerced by police or military action or by threats of imprisonment, custody or implementation to function entirely from their places of banishment. Nationalist groups tend to be more adept of supporting prolonged crusades, assembling and rallying considerable support than ideological groups. Assemblies may achieve partisan significance for the reason that of their deep-rooted nationalistic ethos and culture for which they claim prerogatives. 1.5.2 Ideological Terrorists Ideological terrorists are seeking to transform the complete political, economic and social structure either to a left-extremist or right-extremist model. Between the 1970s and 1980s, research on ideological terrorism was driven on the left-extremist model due to the concerns with clusters. The activity of Red Army Faction peaked in the 1970s and 1980s and has since diminished now. The groups were victimized by their own internal differences, resolute law enforcement by their relevant jurisdictional establishments, and varying political assertiveness amidst the fledgling population during post‐Cold War period. 1.5.3 State‐sponsored and State‐supported terrorists An authoritarian regime forces its populations into complete compliance (Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti, Iraq, Peru and Sudan) and uses this kind of terrorism and violence as an instrument of domestic and foreign policy. For instance, the Iranian regime directed assassinators to assassinate prominent nonconformists and banished political influential for domestic motives to terrorize, coerce and eliminate antagonism to the rule. 1.5.4 Religio-political terrorists Aim to substitute the present rule by exposing exploitive retorts that may be unveiled as callous and brutal (Hezbollah and Hamas). Other combative fundamentalist offshoots of key religions excluding Islam have also frequently hatched their identifiable vehement extremist clusters such as religious revisionism (Aryan Nation, Posse Comitatus and the Freemen) 1.5.5 Single‐issue terrorists Single-issue terrorists are preoccupied in service of the cause and longings to transform a definite practice or policy inside the relevant societal environment SU1-10 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 instead of the objective of political motives and revolt. Instances of such groups are anti-abortion resorting to abortion clinic bombings and animal rights devoted to retarding advancement which they consider is damaging to their subjects (Animal Liberation Front). 1.6 “Old” versus “New” Terrorism 1.6.1 Old Terrorism The OBJECTIVES of the “Old” Terrorism, by disparity, are assumed to have been negotiable and restricted. Their motivations were confined domestically, not globally. The INTENTIONS of “Old” terrorists were lucid, plausible and concrete, characteristically correlated to subjects of nationalism, anti-colonist and liberation. Covenants could be negotiated. The government could compromise with the “Old” terrorists. Struggles could be determined and elucidated. 1.6.2 New Terrorism Characteristics of “New” Terrorism which generally display certain fundamental aspects: First, a key distinction of the “New” Terrorism is its sheer lethality. The terrorist attacks of the 1990s , for instance the 1993 New York World Trade Centre bombings, 1995 Tokyo Sarin gas attack and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing all point towards the trend of greater lethality. This trend escalated in the September 11 2001 attacks. Second, another imperative characteristic of the “New” Terrorism is that it undeniably has certain socio-political, ideologies centred or religious dimension portraying an individual’s or a group’s notion of impartiality, either secular or celestial, progressively entangled with a recognizable, tangible political objective. An explicit example is Osama Bin Laden of Al Qaeda manipulating Islam as a means of mass mobilization. Apparently, he appears to believe in the inherent irreconcilability of Islam with other, particularly Western doctrines, and sees the conflict with the West and America in apocalyptic terms. The relationship between religious impetus and violence is revealed in the circumstance that while preceding profane, pro-autonomy terrorist groups assumed that indiscriminate use of violence could backfired; the circumstance is not likewise for the religiously motivated terrorists. The latter’s apocalyptic world views hinder their articulation of a plausible political agenda and encourages the use of indiscriminate violence without restraint. The new religiously motivated terrorists are not only prepared to take the lives of their targets but to also die in pursuit of their religious aims, viewing their death as martyrdom in Islam and will be remunerated in their life after death. This results in the deliberate targets of innocent civilian. SU1-11 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 A third feature of “New” Terrorism is it has a predominantly network organization. The new terrorists are structured more horizontally in contrast to large centric hierarchy of traditional militants. They have a tendency to be disseminated in loosely run cells, operating with substantial self-sufficiency. This form of loose organization facilitates and permits terrorist organizations, for example, Al Qaeda to plan and coordinate undertakings globally. Notwithstanding this form of horizontal organization, Osama Bin Laden set definite explicit objectives, dictates and examined their execution. It is also this structure which plays a crucial role in their security operationally. Since it is dispersed and small, the compartmentalized cells are less vulnerable to subversion and members’ identities are more securely clandestine. The abovementioned third characteristic has helped shaped the fourth characteristic, which is their significantly enhanced attacks, displayed in particular with their proficient usage of the cyberspace and their ability to execute cyberterrorism. The Internet furthermore facilitates and advances timely control organizationally over the extensively disseminated cells; by gaining access to extensive online information, terrorists can generate innovative designs for developing actions. With the accessibility of online methodical data and resources for fabricating Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), there exists an increase in the threat of terrorism concerning WMD. Conversely, the threat of WMD terrorism may be reserved in appropriate outlook since it is not stress-free to fabricate a WMD. Hence, conservative types of arms will most likely persist on as tools for terrorism motives on instigating mass annihilation. The definitive representative of the “New” Terrorism suggests a degree of permanence with preceding secular and nationalist dimensions: it is essentially an asymmetric means in which a feebler actor pursues to achieve its aims by contravening the stronger power’s determination. For instance, Osama Bin Laden aims to fight America not by targeting its military might but by targeting what he perceives as the precarious weakness that is the American public. The group resolve to propagate terror, insecurity and fear amidst the public. SU1-12 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 CONCLUSION Terrorism involved formulating and deliberating an act of violence or threat of violence, through unlawful means, with the intention to, cause harm or strike fear within a population, to achieve a political aims. This is the just one of the many widely used working definition of terrorism. Definition of terrorism has evolved through history. There are four waves of terrorism: 1. 2. 3. 4. Anarchy Anti‐colonial New left Religion There are several typologies of terrorism which includes the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Nationalist Ideological Religiopolitical Single issue State sponsored and state supported To summarize the characteristics of “New” Terrorism,       Become bloodier Developed new financial sources Evolved new organizational models Effectively exploited new communication technologies Wage global campaigns Moved beyond tactics to strategy Significance of Terrorism Definition As the terrorism transcend from prehistoric to modern day, nations seek to define terrorism for several purposes such as         Outlawing Identification of accessible investigative tools Intelligence gathering Identification of perpetrators and supporters Military response sanction ( depending on state of affairs and situation) Resources distribution Prerogative and jurisdiction determination International and interagency collaboration SU1-13 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 To undertake these tasks, individuals must outline the boundaries of the scope where nations and the international community may set those parameters and definitional boundaries for the assessment of the actions. If the conceptions, perceptions and characteristics of terrorism are evolving then conceivably too its definition and the strategies employed to counter it. It may not be suffice to just depend on the assumptions, tactics and conventional definitions without amending them to accommodate to contemporary challenges and latest developments. SU1-14 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 CHAPTER 2: PRE-HISTORICAL TERRORISM (BARBARISM) From his reading of Western civilization, and the lack thereof, Antonio L Rappa concludes that the idea of barbarism is relative like so many other concepts in Security Studies. Barbarism comes from the Greek way of describing foreigners…many of whose languages sounded like “bar-bar-bar” to the Greeks. Hence the use of the word barbarism today. Antonio L. Rappa argues in his work on Thailand that terrorism is itself an act of barbarism. But it is not a foreign act, although there appear to be some possibilities of foreign state intervention in Thailand’s restive Southern violence. Rather, the barbarism arises out of the military’s conviction of the need to persecute the so-called perpetrators of the violence in Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat. The SUSS Security Studies’ student ought to realise that the barbaric phenomenon of terrorism is ‘political’ because it distorts the balance of power against the innocent and in favour of the guilty. When did terrorism begin? Specific dates are hard to be derived as academics consider and propose the use of terror as an instrument dated way before written language could document it. However, orientations in prehistoric records do suggest that terror against several parts of the population was commonplace backdated a few thousand years ago. The most communal forms of prehistoric forms of terrorism were arson, torture, maiming and destruction of agriculture goods. Such terror tactics were deliberated as terrorism back then, especially in Babylon, Judea, Persia and various developments in the Fertile Crescent. However, such tactics were non-exclusive to the Middle East, but have been known to be implemented various parts of the world, from ancient civilizations in China, India, Rome and Greece. “Civility after Barbarism” Source: Antonio L Rappa Photography, 2008 taken at Singapore's Kranji War Memorial for those who died in the Pacific War in Singapore and Malaya SU1-15 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 2.1 Warfare in Ancient Egypt Period Objective : Dated as far back as 12th millennium B.C.E. : War was fought for political and economic reason. Evidence of battle in ancient Egypt stretches back possibly with evidence of warfare at Jebel Sahaba (present-day southern Egypt), a burial site near the Nile in Sudan. Archaeologists’ unearthed 58 skeletons, 24 associated with stone artefacts interpreted as parts of projectiles. They are interpreted as barbs or points of spears because a few are embedded in bones. Some multiple burials and cut marks on bones reinforce a military interpretation. The evidence of battles uncovered were found on carved reliefs on ceremonial palettes; mace-heads and knife handles of the Protodynastic period (c3100–2900 B.C.E.) are characterized on repeated motifs: of the king smiting foreigners, the siege and capture of fortified settlements, the binding and execution of prisoners and the offering of the spoils of war to gods. War was fought for political and economic reason: the defence of borders, the acquisition of valuable land, livestock, natural resources and slaves. Egyptian warfare was a combination of internal conflict and campaigns against enemies beyond the traditional borders. The people and regions with which Egyptians came into conflict were three groups: the Nubians and Libyans (Africa), the inhabitants of Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia and Anatolia (western Asia), and the Sea Peoples (northern and eastern Mediterranean). 2.2 The Assyrians Period Objective : 9th–7th Centuries B.C.E. : The conquered lands were ruled through systematic terror. The Assyrians had been described as the world’s fiercest and most violent people from the observation on how their empire was conquered and ruled. Their empire, the ancient kingdom of Mesopotamia, centred on the municipality of Ashur (Assur) on the River Tigris, close to the contemporary Mosul in Iraq, lasted from the 9th to 7th centuries B.C.E. The Assyrians had targeted and conquered those with material assets and large populations and had ruled over the conquered lands through systematic terror. The Assyrian kings ordered what can be termed today as terrorist acts as part of their policy. Assyria’s King Assurnasirpal II saw nothing wrong with committing cruel acts during his conquests. He was reported to have cut off the captives’ hands, fingers, noses, ears, and put out their eyes. He even bragged of how he skinned alive, burned, mutilated, blinded and decapitated the leaders and many of the SU1-16 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 citizens of the rebellious city of Susa. Disloyal government agents were executed, when their enemies and leaders revolted, they were tortured and killed. Eventually the Assyrians fall when its auxiliary troops revolted and its neighbours toppled the empire. 2.3 War in Archaic period Period Objective : Archaic Period c700–480 B.C.E. and Classical Greece Period: 480– 338 B.C.E : Wars fought for pleonexia (to the Greek which signify honour and wealth). At least 19 wars and conflicts were fought during this period. Cities pursued to gain larger honour amongst neighbouring countries and retort back for acts of contempt, and open-minded contention created perpetual strains, conflict and numerous wars. Wealth, in the form of booty, slaves and territory, not only by cities that had shortages, but also by cities with abundance of resources which they could mobilize to acquire even more, was the primary motivation. Honour and greed might be satisfied by burning and plundering enemy country for a few days, but in the course of long rivalry, the fiercest rivalry had intensified to complete annihilation of the enemy. These causes of war and objectives were constant in Greek history. 2.4 Tyrannicide in Ancient Greece Period Objective : 8th–6th Centuries B.C.E : To assassinate leaders who were considered tyrants. A tyrant, according to the Greeks, is a leader who came to power by force, typically by overthrowing a polis’ traditional form of government, which in the 8 th to 6th centuries B.C.E. was monarchy or oligarchy. The typical Greek tyrant courted popular favour by persecuting aristocrats, cancelling the debts of the poor and putting commoners to work on public works projects. Ironically, they were regarded as kind and impartial. In time, the term “tyrant” acquired negative implications. The growth of Athenian democracy led citizens to look upon tyrants as usurpers of not only the people’s political power, but also of their property and honour. Hence the killing of a tyrant was the natural response to the tyrant’s transgression. In fact, according to Aristotle, “high honours are awarded to one who kills a tyrant.” SU1-17 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 2.5 Alexander III, the Great Period Objective : 356–323 B.C.E. : To ensure the loyalty of his troops, he became ruthless in his conquests by resorting to authoritarian measures. When Alexander’s father was killed by his body guard, Alexander became ruler of the vast Greek Empire at the age of twenty. This was not surprising as when he was eighteen, he was given command of 2,000 men and had emerged victorious against the Athenians. Alexander wanted to realize his father’s dream of conquering Asia and the Persian King Darius and massed up to 40,000 troops, leading them to victory. He even wanted to conquer the island fortress of Tyre. His troops penetrated the wall and killed 8,000 people. The rest were sold to slavery. When Theban revolted, in 335 B.C.E., he sold nearly all citizens into slavery and razed the city sparing only the priests, their temples and the descendants of the poet Pindar. When a historian refused to kiss Alexander’s hand, prostrate himself to him or kneel before him (in Greece this was reserved for gods), he killed the historian. Alexander’s desire for conquest had also led his troops to India and was almost defeated when he was shot through the lung with an arrow. He eventually recovered and left India. He was called the great as he conquered vast lands from Athens to Tyre, captured Egypt, and found city of Alexandria, occupied Babylon and Susa, Persia and the whole of Central Asia, among others. He resorted to authoritarian measures to ensure loyalty of his troops and became ruthless in his conquests. 2.6 Terror and Political Violence in Ancient Rome Period Objective : 6th Century B.C.E. : Political murder for Monarchical power and achieving political ends. Political murder was common during this period. Rome’s 8th century founders, the twins Romulus and Remus had a falling out with Remus murder and Romulus becoming the first of “seven kings of Rome.” Romulus became a tyrant and later was murdered by the Senate. The 6th Roman king was also murdered by his daughter and husband, who ran him down in a chariot on an avenue that came to be called the “Wicked Lane.” At the end of 6th century B.C.E., the Senate expelled the last Roman king and established the Republic, whereby then the duties of the monarch were already separated among two consuls. SU1-18 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 According to Roman historian Livy, the first Consul was Lucius Junius Brutus, and his first deed was to require Romans “to swear a solemn oath never to allow any man to be king in Rome.” Brutus second consular colleague was Publicola who introduced a law stating that the public was authorized to kill anyone who professed himself a king of Rome. There were three recorded cases of politicians who allegedly pursued monarchical power by using bribery to court favour with the plebeians, and were murdered by the citizens and not the state. Later on, during Sulla’s reign of violence, (a precursor to modern-day state terror), an estimated 500 to 1,500 senators and equestrians who had opposed him died. During the next two decades, it was common to have occurrences of violence and rumours of war and conspiracy. There was a campaign of terror consisting of arson, hostage-taking, and assassination which culminated in an armed coup. This was ceased with the head of the patrician, Catiline, exhibited in Rome. The last decades of the Republic also saw a new kind violence in Rome, which was partly political and partly criminal. The closest parallel to this was Hitler’s SA. The Roman practice of clientage; patricians had a pool of eager partisans willing to agitate on their behalf became rampant in Roman’s political life especially by those who had the means to hire them. The famous political assassinations following the extended seething strains between the joint rulers of Julius Caesar and Pompey Magnus led to a civil war in 50 B.C.E. Pompei was murdered three years later and his forces defeated. Caesar returned to Rome and launched the task on debt cancellation and public housing to gain widespread support and relief the urban poor. He was appointed dictator for life in 44 B.C.E., partly because he had many supporters in the Senate. Some senators resented him and a group of conspirators (60 of the Senators), calling themselves the Liberators, plotted to assassinate him. Their objective was to reinstate the power of the optimates, the conservative senatorial “constitutionalists”. Caesar met his fate on March 15 – the Ides of March – he was lured to the Senate and attacked. Following Caesar’s death, Octavian and Antony moved to destroy the assassins of Caesar. Under Augustus (Octavian) Casear, there was stability in Rome. However when there was concentration of power in the Emperor’s court, new opportunities for murder were created among the elite. 2.7 Warfare in Ancient India Period Objective : 4th Century B.C.E : Conflict resolution During the reign of Chandragupta in the 4th century BCE, Kautilya, counsellor to Chandragupta described three categories of conflict resolution: open war, SU1-19 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 conventional combat similar to the Greek Phalanxes, concealed war (similar to modern guerrilla war) and clandestine war or silent war. Kautilya favoured clandestine war and described the assassination of rulers and high officials but also mentioned in the Arthashastra (The Science of Wealth), scenarios involving terror on the broader population. One script instructed secret agents to assassinate community leader and rob wealthy citizens while spreading rumours that these were punishments by a regent or an ambitious viceroy. Another instructed agents to set fire to palaces, city gates, and granaries and kill guards, rousing the people against the ruler’s underlings. 2.8 Warfare in Ancient China Period Objective : Middle 3rd millennium B.C.E : Terror used in conflicts between states. The success of cereal agriculture had led to the emergence of settled communities which began surrounding themselves with defensive walls. There was conflict probably in the form of raiding, and defensive measures and counterattacks, though how such fighting was actually conducted, archaeological record has not yet revealed. Warfare began during the period of the Shang dynasty c1600–1045 B.CE. Royal forces, by several thousand in number, permitted systematic attacks against enemies on all sides. One goal of these wars was to obtain captives for sacrifice in Shang’s religious rites. The Shang kingdom was extinguished in 1045 B.C.E by a neighbour, and one time vassal of the state, the Zhou, which had long established itself in the fertile Wei River valley. The Zhou extended their conquest far beyond the former’s borders to include most of north China. The Zhou is related to Shang linguistically and culturally, with the expansion, this led to the spread of a common culture which was later identified as Han. Zhou dynasty (c1045–256 B.C.E) was characterized politically by disunity, even though influential figures like Confucius lived during this period. After 770 B.C.E, there were over a hundred independent or autonomous territories. Throughout the aggressive warring states era (403–221 B.C.E.), conflicts among states become larger in scale, more deadly and longer in duration. The period of the warring state was brought to an end by the best organized, most autocratic, most militaristic and most ruthless state the Qin. Qin achieved effective dominance over the six large states remaining in 260 B.C.E. Within the decade 23–221 B.C.E Qin successfully destroyed its rivals and unified the country under its rule and a new era was born, the first empire, the Qin and Han dynasties came into being (221 B.C.E – C.E. 220). SU1-20 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1 CONCLUSION Underlying pre-historic terrorism revealed that reason and morality were distorted in justifying and serving primitive desire and power urges, leading to the selfdestruction of civilization. Violence and the pursuit of power were sanctioned as necessary means to wealth and noble end, and the people were deceived and deceiving themselves when they allowed their primal energies to be unleashed for destructive purposes. Introduction to Terrorism the state the typologies the changes Prehistorical terrorism and warfare (Access video via iStudyGuide) SU1-21 SEC341 Terrorism and Society: Survey of Terrorist Groups in Modernity STUDY UNIT 2 Ancient & Medieval Forms of Terrorism SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 COURSE DESCRIPTION This seminar provides an overview of prehistoric terrorism (barbarism) and medieval (ancient) terrorism dated back since the Jewish resistance groups (63–72 C.E.) known as Zealots who opposed the Roman rule and their faction – The Sicarii, an extreme terror group who slayed adversaries and traitors in their crusade in Judea. The Assassins (Nizari Isma'ilis) were an enigmatic Islamic sect dynamic in Iran and the Thugees, an Indian religious cult group will also be briefly discussed. The activities of the abovementioned groups are widely labelled as religious terrorism at that time as terror was widely used and resulting in fear instilled. Historical events in modernity (post-medieval history) – early and late modern period will also be discussed. The significance of the four waves of terrorism with reference to historical examples will be further discussed to understand the larger phenomenon of terror and terrorism. Take note that Antonio L. Rappa argues in his work on Thailand’s urban and rural terrorism that terrorism is a crime but not all crimes are acts of terrorism. This is a commonly misunderstood concept by new students to Security Studies although they will eventually understand the critical difference. In the end the student ought to realise that the most important question is “what makes this phenomenon of terrorism ‘political’?” SU2-1 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 LEARNING OUTCOMES Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component) 1. Compare and contrast terrorist groups in modernity Key Skills (Practical Component) 1. 2. 3. Apply security studies concepts to seminar discussions. Interpret work-based problems with concepts in security studies. Demonstrate competence in academic writing (political science). SU2-2 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 CHAPTER 1: ANCIENT (MEDIEVAL) TERRORISM IN EUROPE AND ASIA 1.1 Pre-modern Period (500–1500 C.E.) 1.1.1 The Zealots and the Sicarii This section provides a brief overview of the group of “bona fide” fighters for the self-determination and autonomy of Israel known as the "Zealots" from Judea (a province of the Roman Empire) and one of their factions – the “Sicarii” in their pursuit of Jewish liberation. They were amongst the most primitive instances of acts of terrorism for political motives originated and directed by learned ideologues who involved openly in the use of terror. Period Objectives : During the 1st Century since 63 C.E. : (1) Sought to impose a certain degree of rigour in religious practice (religious) (2) Intensely in opposition of external control of Judea and wanted independence from Roman rule. (political) The Zealots were rather similar to the Pharisees, but their beliefs, principles and creeds had a heavy emphasis on the use of violent in opposition to the adversaries of Judaism. The Jews were the “Chosen People” as mentioned in their doctrine instead of subjecting themselves to the decree of an idolatrous Roman realm which bestowed celestial honours to its monarchs. From the beginning of the defeat by the Roman, the history of Judea was an extreme bitter struggle complemented with uprisings and revolutions against the regal authority. One of the effects of these revolts was that it was legitimate to take up arms to revolt by improvished peasants (use of violence). The intensity of these social disparities and these spiritual yearnings for the redemption of Israel augmented with time as the realm was entirely an anti-thesis of the divine beliefs of the Jews, and the strains and conflicts establish its determination in the year 66 C.E. when the myriad of masses embraced favourably the “Great Jewish Revolt.” Tension came to a climax when a rebel called Menahem ben Jair who led the Zealots and drove the Romans out of Jerusalem. The Sicarii was a faction of the Zealots. In the year 74 C.E, under the leadership of Menahem, the Sicarii collaborated and retort against individuals who submitted to the Rome rule by treating them as enemies (use of terror); pillage their property, rounding up their livestock, and committing acts of arsons, dissenting that such individuals were nonentities but traitors who so dishonourably forgone the hardwon Jewish rights and acknowledged their inclination for the rival rule. SU2-3 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus refers to the Sicarii as an extremist ideology and examples exemplified include instances that daggers were used to murder bureaucrats (Roman and Jewish) who failed to amenably pursue a liberated Judea. The killings were often carried out in communal and at times resulting in gory carnage as they Sicarii assumed a novel tactic of kidnapping hostages to secure the discharge of their comrades held in custodial. After the downfall of Menahem, the Sicarii made the choice to commit mass suicide in fear of being held captivity and at the mercy of their victors as they faced the danger of contravening their religious beliefs, since in their convictions the recognition of Roman rule was synonymous to idolatry. 1.1.2 The Thugees This section uncovers an Indian religious cult which ceremonially choked their fatalities as a ceremonial endowment and sacrificial offerings to their Hindu goddess of terror and demolition. The Thugees are reputed to be accountable for approximately a million killings. Period Objectives : 6th until the Mid-19th Centuries : To take lives of mainly travellers for the sacrificial worship of their Hindu Goddess of death and destruction. (religious) Sacrificial offerings were also a dominant constituent of the murders executed by the Thugees. To petrify the target, this was a crucial contemplation for the Thugee ritual instead of the impact on some peripheral audience. The Thugees would masquerade as monks and targeted wealthy travellers with the intention to rob and strangle them to death. Often, the loot would be shared with the poor. They were protected by the villagers out of fear and local rulers in favour of bribes. They would take sugar symbolising the body of Kali before committing murders. Their activities challenged the British rule in India which resulted in the appointment of Captain William Sleeman to deal with them in 1828. By 1848, they were possibly the most recent surviving instance of religiously-motivated terrorism up to the occurrence re-emerged again in the 1990s. 1.1.3 The Kharjites and the Assassins (Nizaris/ Hashhashin) Understanding the political background and the causal emergence of the Kharijites (also known as Khawarji) and Assassins (a name given by the Europeans with reference to the Nizaris) would contribute a better understanding on how they had substantially influenced radical and extremist groups in the Muslim world in modern-day. SU2-4 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 Period Objectives : Since 632 C.E. (Kharijites)/ Since 1090s during 11th to 13th Century (Assassins) : To take the lives of individuals who committed serious sins and justified these acts as a mission of purifying Islam through violence. (religious) Distinguished from the other Muslims is that they did not hesitate to commit murder to rid those who threatened their missionary zeal. In the process instilling fear in others which is forefather of terrorism. The Kharijites were known to denounce any believer of the faith who committed the serious sin as apostate. They believed that the assassinations of these deserters of religion were permissible and the duties of believers. The “Assassins”, founded by Hassan I Sabah, were the predecessor of Kharijites, adopts similar tactics of the Sicarri (knifed their targets and eyewitnesses). They usually concentrated on officials or priests who repudiated to embrace the “refined version of Islam” which the Assassins were proliferating by coercion. They deliberately chose timely periods and favourable location to execute their acts of assassinations; their activities were executed at sacred location on divine days; an approach intentionally to make public their basis and spur others likewise. Similar to religiously-motivated terrorists in modern-day, they also regarded their deaths on such operations as a means to martyrdom. CONCLUSION Use of terror during prehistoric period was mainly for territorial and barbaric purposes, whereas during the medieval (pre-modern) period it was utilized to murder religious adversaries. Since the start of chronicled history, terrorism and religion were in synch. Since the primitive times, terrorism incorporated the notion of fading in the name of God (Suicide Martyrdom) as a holy onus that was guarantor for them to enter paradise. Terrorism against an adversary was religiously-inspired and was reflected honourable and commendable. In actuality, the Zealots, Thugees and Assassins were not terrorists in the contemporary stance. Terrorism is best approached in as a modern approach. Its features transcend from the transnational organization of states, and its accomplishments are determined by the presence of a mass media to construct an environment of terror among populations. SU2-5 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 CHAPTER 2: POST-MEDIEVAL TERRORISM IN EUROPE AND ASIA Please note that the idea of what is medieval, post-medieval, modern or premodern, ancient or late modern, or classical, neoclassical, Romantic, post-Romantic etc are terms of control that vary according to academic discipline and within these disciplines themselves. There are some degrees of overlap and different definitions of these concepts. One has therefore to be rather careful about these eras and ought to be guided by the fact that clarity of thought is the best form of education. 2.1. The “Early Modern Period” (1500 – 1800 C.E.) 2.1.1 The English Civil War Period Objective : 17th Century : A civil war is a battle contravened between populations within the nation. In this incident, the two flanks that opposed each other in England were the Ruler’s side and Government’s side. The core motives for entering into war were based on the following issues: money, religion, power, and personality. It is part of a wider struggle for supremacy between Catholics and Protestants across the continent. The English Civil War was a succession of armed struggles and political conspiracies flanked by Royalists as well as Parliamentarians from the period between 1642–1646, 1648–1649 (the former known as the First Civil War and the latter Second Civil War) and during the period of the Third Civil War (1649–1651), the Parliamentary factions secured victory at the Battle of Worcester. 2.1.2 The French Revolution Period Objective : Late 18th Century : To eliminate governmental opposition and consolidate power – State-sponsored terrorism. Nationalist Terrorism During the French Revolution, the use of terror was considered to be a tool to facilitate the ruling power to amalgamate their authority to effect political changes and defending against fundamentals deliberated as dissident. Continuously valueladen, terrorism here is deemed as a positive term. SU2-6 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 Modern terrorism originated from the “regime de la terreur” by French revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre who illustrated the concept of terrorism as an asset: an instrument to result in "legitimate" legislative objectives. He used trepidation methodically to subdue state rivals as well as introducing state-sponsored terrorism. Historical records reveal that approximately 40,000 people were executed using the guillotine under Robespierre’s reign of terror. 2.2 The “Late Modern Period” 2.2.1 The First Wave The first prominent usage of terror for societal and political reform in the West arose simultaneously as the Industrial Revolution. The Italian revolutionist, Carlo Pisacane’s philosophy of the “propaganda of the deed” documented the efficacy of terrorism, conveying their cause directing at the intended recipient as well as the population and in addition, appealing for consideration and sustenance to a cause – exemplified this new practice of acts of terror. 2.2.1.1 Anarchists Period Objective : Late 19th to Early 20th Century : To use terror to overthrow a government – “Propaganda by deeds” – Individual Terrorism. A group of revolutionaries known as the “Anarchists” was embraced by the European and American anarchists in the 19th century. According to leading anarchism, Russian theorists, Michael Bakunin, Pyotor Kropotkin, and Serge Nechaev, the Anarchists believed they had discovered a new a more scientific way of making a revolution. A series of assassination were executed by the Anarchists, for instance late United States President William McKinley in 1901 and former Idaho governor Frank Steunenberg in 1905. Anarchists also set off bombs in front of the Los Angeles Times building and at a patriotic parade in San Francisco in 1910. These unforeseen strikes of terror instilled widespread fear in the people of US and Europe. There was a widespread belief that a vast conspiracy was at work disrupting public order and leading to a state of anarchy. In effect, criminal codes were often amended in these counties to make the practice of anarchism a punishable crime. SU2-7 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 2.2.1.2 The Russian Revolution Period Objective : Early 20th Century : To use terror to sustain supremacy, power and control to dictate the whole population – State-sponsored Terrorism. The initial period of the 20th Century witnessed a fusion of anarchist and statesponsored terrorism. The Soviet Revolution (1917) Lenin, shadowing Stalin, built upon the notion of state-sponsored terrorism as an instrument to preserve dictatorship. Both instances applied terror to a whole class of individuals within the social order (as hypothetically to practise alongside one's adversaries), methodically. Terror was utilized to control the whole society in order to shape the societal environment. Fear was as a motivational aspect for state processes and community submission. Terror was also used as a method to shape and dictate the public. Terrorism as a Tool of the State Examples of terrorism as a tool of the state include South American numerous military dictatorships to foil political antagonists. Zimbabwe is another nation in Africa which uses state-sponsored terrorism on its own populations to repress revolt amongst enemy ethnic groups or political groups. This type of movement has facilitated the distinguishable means in the use of terror from that of authentic terrorism. Terror or Terrorism Terrorist expert Bruce Hoffman contends that state-sponsored terror tactics are not identical as terrorism by non-state entities, and hence should be handled contrarily. On the other hand, Jessica Stern debates that the use of assassination, pandemonium, or wide-ranging tactics intended to nurture fear (whether by state or non-state actors) establishes the definition of terrorism. 2.2.1.3 Irish Rebellion Period Objective : Early 20th Century : To use terror to gain Irish liberation from England. Three notions leading to the expansion of terrorism was identified during the Irish War in 1919, (1) selective terrorism, (2) sustained terror over protracted periods and (3) cell operations. Selective Terrorism Terrorism was meted out on legislatures of the municipal institutions of England, in a bid to elevate costs of unrelenting occupation. For this instance, the notion of SU2-8 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 selective terrorism; terrorism applied on legislatures of regime to coerce their exodus from a region is utilized. In modern-day terrorism, terrorism involves attacks on non-combatants. Sustained Terrorism In addition, the developmental use of terrorism is the theory to create a societal reform; the terrorism needed to be sustainable and unrelenting through a prolonged timeframe. This continued terror will lead to the cessation of the determination of the besieged government over time, in a bid of a compromise and negotiation. Cell Structures and its Operations The Irish war similarly introduced the model of cell structures and its operation to terrorist acts. Cell operation disperses the operational organization of terrorist spasms and forestalls the detection and annihilation of the terrorist cluster. Every single cell works on a definite functional/ operational aim and they merely identified its followers and its defined undertaking. Hence, the apprehension of one cell will not lead to provision of possibilities to others. 2.2.2 The Second Wave The “Second Wave” of terrorism began after World War II. It was related to fighting for national liberation against the colonial rule to pursue independence. This is reflected in the colonies opposing against the colonial rules especially Britain and France. In 1949, the post-war period also staged the revolutionary uprisings in China under the Communist leader, Mao Tse‐tung, and the withdrawal of his Nationalist adversaries to the island of Taiwan, where they lingered till this day. 2.2.2.1 End to Colonialism Period Objective : Middle 20th Century : Usage of selective terrorism gaining sympathizers and supporters After World War II, the British and French colonies centred on their focus internal issues. Colonial nationalist groups started to use terror as an instrument against the colonial rule. Nationalistic struggles and movements arose across the Middle East Asia and Africa resisting and opposing the colonists’ determinations and efforts to recommence colonial occupation after the defeat of the Axis powers. Guerrilla Warfare and Colonial Strife Nationalist and anti-colonialist groups engaged in guerrilla warfare, which contrasted from terrorism largely in their tactics, intents and objectives. Guerrilla warfare inclined towards greater bodies of asymmetric of operatives along more militarization than that of terrorist organizations. They frequently openly opposed SU2-9 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 from a defined geographic region over where they had a wide influence. They have the tendency adopt conventional militarization tactics of objective, employ, and retreat. The British and French Defeats In some occurrences, the colonial governments decided on vehemently resisting the demands of nationalist’s movements of independence. For instance, the Dutch pursued to preserve reins over their resource‐rich tenure in Southeast Asia such as in Indonesia. In 1949, Indonesia gained its independence. Relatively, the French also endeavoured to restate their rein over Indo‐China (currently known as Cambodia, Lao and Vietnam) even though the armed conflict of the Viet Minh under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh. Similarly, it was also happening in Malaya under the British rule. Within the abovementioned states, the prevailing practice of armed tussle was not terrorism but rural guerrilla warfare, setting Mao Tseu‐Tung as their model, whom their key principle derived. On the contrary, there were some places where political terrorism played a central role in gaining independence from the hands of the colonial power. In 1964, the Yemen insurgents used urban terrorism extensively against the British because their leaders realized that little attention was gained when the opposition was restricted to the hinterlands. The two most significant cases where terrorism was employed to achieve national independence in this period were in Palestine and Algeria. In Palestine, the British government’s decision to maintain its 1939 white paper policy of severely restricting Jewish immigration had started the revolt. This severe restriction was reacted by two terrorist organizations namely the Irgun and the LEHI (a Hebrew acronym for ‘Fighters for the Freedom of Israel’) or “Stern Gang” by launching a series of terrorist attacks against British targets throughout Palestine till 1947. The most notorious of the Irgun and LEHI attacks was the bombing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which killed over 90 people. The main goal was to make the British government withdraw from Palestine which would then give the Zionist movement the opportunity to establish a Jewish state. Subsequently, in 1948 the goal of establishing a Jewish state was realized. In Algeria, terrorism was still of greater implications. In 1953, the French government regarded Algeria as part of the French territory. As a result, the National Liberation Front (FLN) resisted by starting an insurgency aimed to abolish the French rule. Subsequent years later, the French forces were able to overcome the FLN’s guerrilla warfare tactics in the Algerian rural areas. The army had learnt some lessons from the struggle against the Viet Minh in Southeast Asia. SU2-10 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 2.2.2.2 The Middle East / Cold War Period Objective : Late 1960s : Internationalizing terrorism by various states’ support with the purpose of destabilizing rival states (State-sponsorship terrorism). An amalgamation of diverse terrorist organizations enhanced the interconnectedness of global terror network. Furthermore, owing to the Cold War, various states supported diverse terrorist groups appropriate to subvert the rival states. These terrorist groups formed alliances and collaborated in a bid to achieve greater responsiveness to the Arab-Israeli dispute. The Middle East is another region where terrorist violence became commonplace late-1960s. In 1967, the Arab‐Israeli war had triggered terrorism. For several years, the strategy of Palestinian groups such as Egyptian‐backed Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Yassir Arafat’s organization was to instigate war between Israel and the nearby Arab states. The assumption when this war arose was that it would lead to Israel’s defeat and the Jewish state would be replaced with a secular Palestinian one. 2.2.2.3 The Middle East / Islamism (Militant Islam) Period Objective : 1979 : Religious-motivated terrorism The rationalization for terrorism self-governing the Arab-Israeli discord roots from the enlargement of fundamentalist Islamic and the defence of Islamic beliefs alongside the West, Jewish and Christianity beliefs. 2.2.3 The Third Wave Political scientist David C. Rapoport labels the terrorist campaigns of the 1970s and early 1980 the “third wave” of modern terrorism. Examples include of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay whereby all experienced urban guerrilla campaigns from the late 1960s through the mid-1970s. In these three instances, the problems were resolved by combatant (military or police) suppression, often with the use of ‘death squads’ which comprised of an off‐duty military or police personnel dressed in civilian clothes to execute the act. In all these instances, these urban guerrilla groups believed that terrorist attacks (assassinations, kidnapping and bank robberies) could be used to incite the authorities into extreme retaliation. SU2-11 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 2.2.3.1 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Period Objective : 1964 – 1980s : To radicalize the political situation globally. A governmental and revolutionary organization acknowledged by the United Nations since 1974 as the only authentic representative of the Palestinian population. Within the period of 1968 to 1969, the PLO has made a tactical choice in the Middle East, to change from a guerrilla‐style insurgency on the West Bank to the tribunal of a terrorist campaign against Israel and the state’s supporters in various parts of the world typically in Western Europe. Initially, these operations were executed from the group’s bases in Jordan. In 1970, PFLP commandos skyjacked four commercial airliners in the skies of Europe and flew them to Dawson’s Field, a former British air base near Amman. After prolonged negotiations, the PFLP freed its hostages but later blew up the airliners. This terrorist act has indeed attracted the world’s attention. On “Black September” (September 1970), Jordan started a campaign to disarm the PLO groups on its soil leading to the defeat of the PLO, removal of the PLO’s headquarters including the headquarters of the various groups under its umbrella, to Lebanon. In 1982, the PLO was expelled from Lebanon as the result of an Israeli invasion, then re‐established its headquarters in Tunisia. Apparently, the location was geographically and politically relegated till the first Palestinian Intifada occurred in 1987. As this revolt continued, the PLO decided to give up its bomb and ammunition in exchange for negotiations with Israel. The flagging of revolutionary violence in Latin America, the industrialized democracies and the commitment of the PLO to avoid the use of terrorism in favour of diplomatic solutions to its problems may have concluded the third wave of terrorism in the 1980s. However, the decade of the 1980s did not conclude terrorism, instead the decade saw the advent of a ‘fourth wave’ of modern terrorism, known as the “New” terrorism. 2.2.4 The Fourth Wave The New Terrorism Early 21st century unveils terrorist violence which is far more intimidating and alarming than it has been throughout the past. It comprises the record of unforgettable and lethal events in the account of terrorism. A classic example of the destructive “fourth wave” of terrorism is the 9/11 (11 September 2001) attacks on SU2-12 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 United States or the advent of “New” terrorism. There exist three significant advances to recognize the advent of this “Fourth Wave” of terrorism from the 1980s to current. 2.2.4.1 Iranian Revolution Period Objective : 1979 – 1980 : Transformed Iran from an autonomous state into an Islamic Republic. The religious leaders overtly acknowledged and stimulated the use of terrorism as a method of proliferation in its principles. The Iranian Revolution has been of great impact and was a result of considerable repercussion against the Shah’s efforts at modernization during 1970s. The opposition was led by the country’s mullahs called the Shiite clergy. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the political leader of the Islamic Revolution of Iran, openly voiced out popular resentments and grievances against the Shah, for example, being corrupted and a puppet of the United States. He condemned the influence of the West such as the use of drugs and popular music. He also denounced the Iran’s secret police force’s (SAVAK) brutalities. His speeches fuelled antipathies which was widespread by 1977. The consequence was several violent mass protests in the major cities throughout 1978 – 1979. The accomplishment of the Iranian events rapidly endorsed a spread of the belief system all over Islam. 2.2.4.2 Afghan War Period Objective : 1979 –1989 : The launch of a “holy” war aimed to oust the Czarist Russia from Afghanistan. The second factor to the onset of the new terrorism was the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan during end-1979. Local communist military officers seized power and took over the rule in Kabul. In 1978, this rule embarked a policy of mandatory economic and social modernization on the basis of Marxist‐Leninist lines. Their reforms included the imposition of socialism through mass arrests and executions, compulsory literacy and radical agrarian reform. The endeavour to enforce communism in Afghanistan launched a general rebellion in April 1979, led by Afghanistan’s religious tribal leaders. They perceived that the Marxists in Kabul are promoting atheism in a Muslim country. Muslim leaders throughout Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and various parts of the Islamic world called for jihad which aimed at ousting the Czarist Russia from Afghanistan. Basically, the US as well as the Saudis delivered financial funding, weapons and training for the “mujahideens”. Thousands of young men in the Arab world as well as young Muslim immigrants from other continents of the world SU2-13 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 (America, Europe, etc.) congregated in Afghanistan and Peshawarto to stage a guerrilla‐style “holy war” opposing the Soviets. The fight put up by the Afghan “coalition force” defeated the USSR and withdrew in 1989 conceding defeat. These “war veterans” went back to their respective countries, instilled with the mission of undertaking as well as determination on enduring their jihad on behalf of Muslims anguished after subjugation all over the globe. Saudi millionaire Osama Bin Laden was known to be one of Afghans. 2.2.4.3 The New Millennium Period Objective : 2000 – present : Withdrawal from society (“Fundamentalist” Christians) and committing mass suicide to redeem their souls by religious cults. The New Millennium contributed to the fourth wave of terrorism during the advent of the third millennium in year 2000 in particularly for Christians (denominations labelled ‘fundamentalist’) whose symbolism was adapted from the Christian faith that the year 2000 was significant. They believed that the beginning of the new millennium signified the beginning of the “End Times” (a thousand‐year period that would culminate with the Second Coming of Christ; the “end of the world” in many Christian countries). Among the believers who ardently approach the “doom-day” issue, the most common response was a withdrawal process from society. Extreme instances include the followers of the Heaven’s Gate cult who were led to believe that the approach of the Hale‐Bopp comet heralded the beginnings of the end of life on earth. However, their leader convinced them that they would be “redeemed” by committing mass suicide. The belief was that their spirits would reappear aboard a spaceship hidden behind the comet as it made its way around the Solar System. In Southern California, 10 over Heaven’s Gate believers killed themselves in this belief. In addition, some believers such as members of the Supreme Truth apparently executed severe acts of extremism and terror appropriate to hasten the “battle of Armageddon” (final conflict between good and bad). They hoped to save humanity by massacre its believers. SU2-14 SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2 CONCLUSION Terrorism is a deliberate calibrated tool of pursuing specific objectives and it has being continually changing. It has been utilized in lieu of a diversity of intents, motives and capabilities to achieve various objectives by both legitimate and nonlegitimate ends. Some significant historical events in terrorism were believed to have influenced the ...
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