SEC341
Terrorism and Society:
Survey of Terrorist Groups in Modernity
Study Guide (5CU)
Course Development Team
Head of Programme :
Assoc Prof Antonio L Rappa
Course Developer(s) :
Assoc Prof Antonio L Rappa (updated in July 2014
– August 2015)
Production :
Educational Technology & Production Team
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Sciences.
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Release V1.5
CONTENTS
SECTION 1: COURSE GUIDE
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Course Description and Aims ...................................................................... 2
1.3 Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................ 2
1.4 Overall Assessment ........................................................................................ 3
1.5 Learning Materials ......................................................................................... 4
SECTION 2: STUDY UNITS
STUDY UNIT 1: Pre-Historical Terrorism or Barbarism
Course Description ···················································································· SU1-1
Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU1-2
Chapter 1: Introduction ············································································ SU1-3
1.1 Defining Terrorism
1.2 Four Waves of Terrorism
1.2.1 Anarchist wave
1.2.2 Anti‐colonial
1.2.3 New left
1.2.4 Religion
1.3 Terrorism versus Insurgency
1.4 State Terrorism and State Sponsored Terrorism
1.4.1 State Terrorism
1.4.2 State Sponsored Terrorism
1.5 Typologies of Terrorism
1.5.1 Nationalist
1.5.2 Ideological
1.5.3 Religio-Political
1.5.4 Single-issue
1.5.5 State sponsored and State supported
1.6 “Old” versus “New” Terrorism
1.6.1 Old Terrorism
1.6.2 New Terrorism
Conclusion ································································································· SU1-13
Chapter 2: Pre-Historical Terrorism (Barbarism) ······························· SU1-15
2.1 Warfare in Ancient Egypt
2.2 The Assyrians
2.3 War in Archaic and Classical Greece
2.4 Tyrannicide in Ancient Greece
2.5 Alexander III, the Great
2.6 Terror and Political Violence in Ancient Rome
2.7 Warfare in Ancient India
2.8 Warfare in Ancient China
Conclusion ································································································· SU1-21
STUDY UNIT 2: Ancient & Medieval Forms of Terrorism
Course Description ···················································································· SU2-1
Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU2-2
Chapter 1: Ancient (Medieval) Terrorism in Europe and Asia ··········· SU2-3
1.1 The Pre-Modern Period
1.1.1The Zealots and the Sicarii
1.1.2 The Thugees
1.1.3 The Kharjites and the Assassins (Nizaris/ Hashhashin)
Conclusion ··································································································· SU2-5
Chapter 2: Post-medieval Terrorism in Europe and Asia ···················· SU2-6
2.1 The “Early Modern Period”
2.1.1The English Civil War
2.1.2 The French Revolution
2.2 The “Late Modern Period”
2.2.1The First Wave
2.2.1.1 Anarchists
2.2.1.2 The Russian Revolution
2.2.1.3 Irish Rebellion
2.2.2 The Second Wave
2.2.2.1 End to Colonialism
2.2.2.2 The Middle East/ Cold War
2.2.2.3 The Middle East/ Islamism (Militant Islam)
2.2.3 The Third Wave
2.2.3.1 Palestine Liberation Organization
2.2.4 The Fourth Wave (The New Terrorism)
2.2.4.1 Iranian Revolution
2.2.4.2 Afghan War
2.2.4.3 The New Millennium
Conclusion ································································································· SU2-15
STUDY UNIT 3: Modern Terrorist Groups
Course Description ···················································································· SU3-1
Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU3-2
Chapter 1: Modern Terrorist Groups ······················································ SU3-3
1.1 Modern Terrorism Before and After 9/11
1.2 Use of Non-Conventional Weapons
1.3 Use of the Internet
1.4 State-Sponsorship Continues
Conclusion ································································································· SU3-11
Chapter 2: Terrorist Activities in Southeast Asia ································ SU3-13
2.1 Terrorist Activities in Indonesia
2.2 Terrorist Activities in Philippines
2.3 Terrorist Activities in Malaysia
2.4 Terrorist Activities in Singapore
Conclusion ································································································· SU3-17
Chapter 3: Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) Network in Southeast Asia ··········· SU3-18
3.1 Background of Jemaah Islamiyah
3.2 Jemaah Islamiyah in Indonesia
3.3 Jemaah Islamiyah in Philippines
3.4 Jemaah Islamiyah in Malaysia
3.5 Jemaah Islamiyah in Singapore
Conclusion ································································································· SU3-21
STUDY UNIT 4: Terrorist Clusters: Principles, Tactics and Prospects
Course Description ···················································································· SU4-1
Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU4-2
Chapter 1: Principles of Terrorist Clusters ············································ SU4-4
1.1 “New” Terrorist Organizations
1.2 Recruitment
1.3 Self- Sustaining Functions
1.4 Cohesion Management
1.5 Loyalty Management
1.6 Role of Leadership
1.7 Decline of Organization
1.8 Some Typologies of Terrorist Groups
1.8.1 Leftist Ideologies
1.8.2 Religion
1.8.3 Ethno Nationalist Considerations
Conclusion ································································································· SU4-13
Chapter 2: Tactics of Terrorist Clusters ················································· SU4-14
2.1 Tactics of Terrorism
2.2 Force Multipliers
2.3 Philosophy of Bomb
2.3.1 Human Bombs
2.3.2 Letter Bombs
2.3.3 Portable Bombs
2.3.4 Vehicle Bombs
Chapter 3: Prospects of Terrorist Clusters ············································ SU4-17
3.1 Technology
3.1.1 Cyberterrorism
3.1.2 WMD: Biological Agents
3.1.3 WMD: Chemical and Radiological Weapons
3.2 Media as a Force Multiplier
3.3 Economic targeting and transnational attack
3.3.1 Tourism
3.3.2 Energy
3.3.3 Transportation
3.4 Suicide Attacks and Religion
3.4.1 A Theory of Suicide Terrorism
3.4.2 Models for Suicide Bombing
Conclusion ································································································· SU4-27
STUDY UNIT 5: Terrorism and Globalization: States of Terror and Global
positions
Course Description ···················································································· SU5-1
Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU5-2
Chapter 1: States of Terror and Global Position ···································· SU5-3
1.1 Terrorism and Globalization
1.2 Treaty of Westphalia – Statehood Principles
1.3 State-terrorism and Human Rights Violation
Conclusion ··································································································· SU5-5
Chapter 2: Global Politics: Great Powers and Small Powers ··············· SU5-6
2.1 Great Powers and Southeast Asia during the Cold War
2.1.1 The Civil War in China
2.1.2 The Korean War
2.1.3 Decolonization
2.1.4 The Vietnam War
2.1.5 Southeast Asian Regionalism
2.2 Great Powers and Southeast Asia in the Post-Cold War World
2.2.1 Competing Visions of the Post-Cold War World
2.2.1.1 The Liberals
2.2.1.2 The Realists
2.2.1.3 The Radicals
Conclusion ································································································· SU5-14
Chapter 3: Non-traditional Security Regimes and Terrorism ··········· SU5-15
3.1 Traditional Security Issues
3.2 Non-traditional Security Issues
3.2.1 Transnational Crime (Money Laundering)
– Singapore's Casino Regulatory Authority
3.3 Singapore versus the Great Powers
Conclusion ································································································· SU5-18
STUDY UNIT 6: Terrorism and the Law
Course Description ···················································································· SU6-1
Learning Outcomes ···················································································· SU6-2
Chapter 1: Terrorism and the Law enforcement ···································· SU6-3
1.1 Politics and Governance
1.2 Social and Economics
1.2.1 Poverty
1.2.2 Grievances
1.3 Psychological-Communicational-Educational measures
1.4 Military measures
1.5 Judicial and Legal measures
1.6 Police and Prison System
1.7 Intelligence and Secret Service
1.8 Other
Conclusion ································································································· SU6-13
Chapter 2: Terrorism and Rehabilitation ·············································· SU6-14
2.1 The Four Modes of Rehabilitation
2.2 Rehabilitation Programmes in Various Countries
2.2.1 Singapore – Rehabilitation experience
2.2.2 Indonesia – Rehabilitation experience
2.2.3 Yemen – Rehabilitation experience
2.2.4 Saudi Arabia – Rehabilitation experience
Conclusion ································································································· SU6-18
Bibliography/ Recommended Readings
SEC341
Terrorism and Society: A Survey of
Terrorist Groups in Modernity
COURSE GUIDE
SEC341 COURSE GUIDE
SECTION 1: COURSE GUIDE
1.1 Introduction
(Access video via iStudyGuide)
Welcome to your study of SEC341 Terrorism and Society: A Survey of Terrorist Groups in
Modernity, a 5 credit unit (CU) course.
This Study Guide is divided into two sections – the Course Guide and Study Units.
The Course Guide provides a structure for the entire course. As the phrase implies, the
Course Guide aims to guide you through the learning experience. In other words, it may be
seen as a roadmap through which you are introduced to the different topics within the
broader subject. This Guide has been prepared to help you understand the aim[s] and
learning outcomes of the course. In addition, it explains how the various materials and
resources are organised and how they may be used, how your learning will be assessed, and
how to get help if you need it.
Course Schedule
To help monitor your study progress, you should pay special attention to your Course
Schedule. It contains study unit related activities including Assignment, self-evaluations, and
examinations. Please refer to the Course Timetable in the Student Portal for the updated
Course Schedule.
NOTE: You should always make it a point to check the Student Portal for any
announcements and latest updates.
You need to ensure you fully understand the contents of each Study Unit listed in the Course
Schedule. You are expected to complete the suggested activities either independently and/or
in groups. It is imperative that you read through your Assignment questions and submission
instructions before embarking on your Assignment. It is also important you comprehend the
Overall Assessment Weighting of your course. This is listed in Section 1.4 of this Guide.
Manage your time well so you can meet given deadlines and do regular revisions after
completing each unit of study. They will help you retain the knowledge garnered and
prepare you for any required formal assessment. If your course requires an end-of-semester
examination, do look through the Specimen or Past Year Exam Paper which is available on
Learning Management System.
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SEC341 COURSE GUIDE
Although flexible learning – learning at your own pace, space and time – is a hallmark at
SUSS, you are encouraged to engage your instructor and fellow students in online discussion
forums. A sharing of ideas through meaningful debates will help broaden your learning and
crystallise your thinking.
1.2 Course Description and Aims
There are three reasons students need to learn about terrorist groups: (1) these groups are
the basis for analyzing terrorism; (2) understanding of terrorist groups will be useful for
practical and applied portfolios in the police force, immigration, customs and other
security agencies; and, (3) terrorist groups have a high impact on politics and society. The
course is divided into three phases: Phase I: Barbarism; Phase II: Ancient and medieval
terrorism; and Phase III: Modern forms of terrorism – from globalization to modernity. The
course concludes with the impact of terrorism on Non-Traditional Security (NTS) regimes.
1.3 Learning Outcomes
Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Appraise the different concepts of terrorism in modernity.
Distinguish legitimate and non-legitimate power in modernity.
Examine causes and roots of terrorism in modernity.
Propose factors responsible for the development of terrorism.
Arrange the different terrorist groups in Southeast Asia in order of their political
impact.
6. Judge the extent of terrorist groups since 9/11.
7. Synthesize the impact of post-war security policies on terrorist groups in Asia.
8. Assess the inter-connectedness of global terrorist networks.
9. Evaluate the measures used by counterterrorists to address terrorist groups.
10. Rate terrorist activity in Southeast Asia since the death of Osama bin Laden.
11. Compare and contrast terrorist groups in modernity.
12. Critique Jemaah Islamiyah’s networks in Southeast Asia.
Key Skills (Practical Component)
1. Apply security studies concepts to seminar discussions.
2. Interpret work-based problems with concepts in security studies.
3. Demonstrate competence in academic writing (political science).
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SEC341 COURSE GUIDE
1.4 Overall Assessment
The overall assessment weighting for this course is as follows:
Assessment
Assignment 1
Description
Weight Allocation
Pre-Course Quiz
2%
Pre-Class Quiz 1
2%
Pre-Class Quiz 2
2%
Assignment 2
Tutor-marked Assignment
18%
Assignment 3
Group-based Assignment
20%
Class Participation
Participation
6%
Examination
Written examination
50%
TOTAL
100%
Continuous Assessment:
There will be continuous assessment in the form of quizzes, one tutor-marked
assignment, group-based assignment and class participation. In total, this continuous
assessment will constitute 50 percent of overall student assessment for this course.
The continuous assignments are compulsory and are non-substitutable. It is
imperative that you read through your Assignment questions and submission
instructions before embarking on your Assignment.
Examination:
The (2-hour) Written Examination will constitute the other 50 percent of overall
student assessment. All topics covered in the course outline will be examinable. To
prepare for the exam, you are advised to review Specimen or Past Year Exam Papers
available on Learning Management System.
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SEC341 COURSE GUIDE
Passing Mark:
To successfully pass the course, you must obtain at least a score of 40 percent in each
component: that is, at least 40 percent for the Continuous Assessment (combined)
and also at least 40 percent for the Examination. For detailed information on the
Course grading policy, please refer to The Student Handbook (‘Award of Grades’
section under Assessment and Examination Regulations). The Student Handbook is
available from the Student Portal.
1.5 Learning Materials
The following learning materials are recommended:
1 Recommended
Islam and Political Violence: Muslim Diaspora and Radicalism in the West
(2010)
National Security Intelligence Polity (2011)
Allison, K. (2013). “American Occidentalism and the agential
Muslim woman” Review of International Studies 39, 3 (June): 665 – 684.
Forst, Brian et al. (eds.). (2011). Criminologists on Terrorism and
Homeland Security Cambridge University Press).
Hoffman, Bruce (2006). Inside Terrorism (Columbia University Press).
Pape, Robert A. (2003). “The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism”
American Political Science Review 3(August):343-361.
Rappa, Antonio L. (2013) “Urban Terrorism and Political Violence in
Thailand” Journal of African and Asian Local Government Studies
2,2:128-142.
Tan, See Seng (2003). “After Bali: The Threat of Terrorism in
Southeast Asia”, World Scientific Publishing Co.
2 Academic
American Political Science Review
Journals
and Journal of Counterterrorism
Official Reports The 9/11 Commission Report
White Paper: The Jemaah Islamiyah Arrests and the Threat of Terrorism
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SEC341 COURSE GUIDE
3 SUSS Security http://www.suss.edu.sg/microsites/securitystudies/index.html
Studies
Website
Textbook(s): Your Associate Faculty or Instructor will advise you on the specific texts to
focus on for the semester. Students are to note that there is never a single textbook in
Security Studies or Political Science that can effectively capture every aspect of the academic
area or sub-area. Do note that as in all Security Studies courses, the “required texts” are
provided but only a supplement, not a replacement. This is because unlike other academic
subjects, Security Studies and Political Science cannot be contained within a single book.
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SEC341
Terrorism and Society: Survey of
Terrorist Groups in Modernity
STUDY UNIT 1
Pre-Historical Terrorism or Barbarism
SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Think on your work. Think about why you are reading this course. What you hope
to get out of it.
Antonio L. Rappa argues in his work on Thailand’s political violence that crimes
tend to be committed in the night but these are only petty crimes; the real crimes
like white collar crimes are committed neither exclusively in the day nor in the
night but every day and every night.
The SUSS student of Security Studies must bring with himself or herself, all these
various conceptual ideas and apply them, experiment with them and test them out
in daily routines. This is the only way to discover if a given event, incident or
phenomenon is ‘political’. Antonio L. Rappa argues in his work on Thailand’s
urban and rural terrorism that terrorism is a crime but not all crimes are acts of
terrorism. This is a commonly misunderstood concept by new students to Security
Studies although they will eventually understand the critical difference. In the end
the student ought to realise that the most important question is “what makes this
phenomenon of terrorism ‘political’?”
____________________________________________________________
This seminar examines the definition of terrorism. It draws on different historical
events that affect the changing definition of terrorism and the perception of the
international community’s viewpoint on whether terrorism is a “criminal act or holy
duty,” and whether it is an admissible reaction to subjugation or an unpardonable
abomination.
Although one may rightly surmise that defining terrorism is not novel, as it had
been in existence since the beginning of chronicled history, the defining of
terrorism is in fact complicated due to several reasons. First, notions of terror are
determined by its perspective, largely by whom who possess the powers to
influence and mould the definitional dimensions; Second, the difference between
“Terrorism” and “Insurgency” whereby the former is targeted mainly against
non‐combatants, while the latter is targeted mainly against combatants; Third,
Dictatorial states often adopt terror tactics as a means of regime. State‐sponsored
terrorism, on the other hand, entails the support of the Syrian rule to Hezbollah and
Hamas in Lebanon.
The dichotomy of “International” and “Domestic” Terrorism; State‐Terrorism and
State‐Sponsored Terrorism; “Old” and “New” Terrorism will also be discussed.
When illustrating the development of terrorism and the utilization of terror in
history, it is crucial to recognize the typologies of terrorism in which the diverse
political and societal environments in history were considerably dissimilar as
compared to now in modern nation-states. The symbiotic relationship between
terrorists and the media in that the latter is often exploited by the former will be
briefly explained. In addition, prehistoric presence of violence and terrorism will be
explored.
SU1-1
SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component)
1.
Discuss, elaborate and evaluate the different intellectual concepts on
terrorism.
Key Skills (Practical Component)
2.
3.
4.
Apply security studies concepts to seminar discussions.
Interpret work-based problems with concepts in security studies.
Demonstrate competence in academic writing (political science).
SU1-2
SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
What is terrorism? Why is terrorism so hard to define? Unlike prehistoric terrorists,
modern terrorist groups cloak themselves in the imagery of liberation, “legitimate”
combatants, “bona fide” fighters, guerrillas engaging in a struggle for selfdetermination and national liberation. Definitional paralysis arose from political
debates over liberation movements, giving rise to a series of debates and eventually
agreed on very specific acts of terrorism, such as assassinations of diplomatic
agents and hijacking of civil aviation. This was seen in MH17 in 2014 which was
shot down by either Ukraine rebels who deny it or Russian Special Forces. Putin
has denied the allegations by the world and has threatened the US not to make
such allegations against nuclear Russia. But it is also clear that not only have
Russian advisers moved en bloc into Ukraine territory, it has also supported the
Syrian case which is now in its 5th year of the civil war. Syria and Jordan are
considered by the Russians and the former Soviet Empire as their backyard and
hence part of their traditional sphere of influence. Therefore it has become difficult
to determine whether regular troops were involved in the MH17 shooting or
whether they were terrorists. Remember that in the survey of terrorist groups in
late modernity, there is a category of terrorism known as State-led terrorism. Also
consdier the terrorist groups closer to home such as Al-Maunah, Jemaah Ansharah
Tauhid, as well as Jemaah Islamiyah, MILF and Abu Sayyaf. These are related to
the so-called ISI as well as the Boku Haram / Boko Haram in Africa. Note that these
groups are mere developments in the long history of terrorist groups that have
dated back to the time of the writers such as Manu and Kautilya. All major
civilizations have had their own documentation and historical records of terrorist
activities from the Egyptians, Persians, Chinese, Hindus, and Classical Greeks.
Therefore the definitional paralysis stems back to the time of pre-history and what
Attenborough called the Ascent of Man in that famous 1980s BBC documentary.
Differences also arose over the classification of destruction by sub-state actors as
terrorism, but the proposed destruction caused by state actors (e.g. the cold war
policy of targeting nuclear missiles on enemy’s civilian population centres) as
justifiable. Different government agencies and the global community interpret the
definitions of terrorism diversely. This illustrates their dissimilar interests,
commitments, missions and priorities. Although the definition of terrorism evolves
through history, there are some elements of terrorism that remain comparatively
consistent. What are these elements? How is the new terrorism different from the
old terrorism? What are the various typologies of terrorism and what are the
examples of groups under each of this typology?
1.1 Defining Terrorism
The legal definition of Terrorism has not been able to crystalize by renowned
scholars around the world till date but some common characteristics have been
identified and sifted out from their scholarly work. Terrorism involved calculating and
SU1-3
SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1
deliberating an act of violence or threat of violence, through unlawful means, with the
intention to, cause harm or strike fear within a population, to achieve a political aims. This
definition underscores clearly the other fundamental characteristic of terrorism: it is
deliberate, premeditated and a methodical deed.
“… one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter …”
Defining terrorism inevitably seems to depend on one’s moral perspective – the
terrorist, the victim or the public. According to Brian Jenkins, if one is able to
efficaciously ascribe the term “terrorist” to its adversary, at that juncture, it has
incidentally convinced and influenced others in assuming its moral perspective.
Therefore, the choice to term certain organization as “terrorist” befits just about
inevitably idiosyncratic.
Terrorism is hardly new, in contrary to the modern-day usage, the word terrorism
was first coined from the French Revolutionary government’s “regime de la terreur”
in the 18th century when it instituted systematic state terror against the French
population to reinstate peace through the short-lived anarchical of pandemonium
and cataclysm by consolidating the new government’s power to intimidate counterrevolutionaries, subversive as well as all other nonconformists who were viewed as
“enemies of the people” and has been primarily used to refer to undertakings
associated with the government. The term was very much linked with the
exploitation of power. Therefore, in contrast to terrorism as it is generally assumed
nowadays, to denote a revolutionary movement commenced by non‐state bodies,
the “regime de la terreur” existed as a tool of control employed by newly established
revolutionary state. Later in the late 19th century, terrorism was generally associated
with revolutionary, mostly anti‐monarchical movements.
In the 1930s, terrorism was used less with reference to revolutionary activities and
use of violence to oppose the regime, and inclined towards describing mass
oppressive implementations of dictatorial states and leaders on their own citizens.
It was later used to refer to governmental exploitation of power and was reference
explicitly to dictatorial rules present in Russia, Italy, and Germany. A structure of
government-sanctioned dynamism and coercion was formed; deep-seated disputes
and other acknowledged “enemies of state” become the ways in that subservient
acquiescence ensued.
In the 1940s and 1950s, the definition of terrorism transformed again, referencing
rebel associations to the anti‐colonialists and nationalists. The term was mainly
referred to the vehement uprisings at that time being indicted by several homegrown nationalist clusters. The emergence of these numerous groups originated
from various regions such as Africa, Middle East and in opposition to the continual
European rule. This era saw the advent of the constructive label of “bona-fide
(freedom) fighters” as a consequence of political legitimacy which the global public
(the public’s perspective – deemed to be the most unstable) whose compassionate
interpretation of terrorism has developed into an essential aspect of their
psychological feud – This was actively wooed by many of these movements.
SU1-4
SEC341 STUDY UNIT 1
In the 1960s and 1970s, terrorism remains from a revolutionary viewpoint, with the
term extended to embrace nationalist and anti-colonist groups who are proindependence. This viewpoint also includes deep-seated and wholly ideologically
driven groups. Historical examples include the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) seeking independence state in the territory of Mandate Palestine (existed
during the time of British mandate), similarity, the Basque ETA with the objectives
of gaining independence for the Greater Basque Country. They adopted terrorism
with the aim of drawing international community’s sympathy attention and
support.
During the early 1990s, the definition of the terrorism was additionally distorted by
the advent of two axioms: the so‐called “gray-area phenomenon” and
“narco‐terrorism”. The “gray-area phenomenon” is applied into defining “perils to the
sovereignty of nation-states by non‐governmental developments and non-state actors to
label violence effecting vast regions where controls have been lifted from legitimate
governments to new partially governmental/ partially criminal powers.” 1
Narco‐terrorism, on the other hand, was defined as the use of drug- trafficking in
service of some political parties’ motives and terrorist organizations’ objectives.
Simply, it is used with reference to various international conflicts that do not longer
adhere to conventionally established philosophies of war as warfare between state
militaries, but as an alternative involving asymmetrical influences as at least one of
the combatants.
Even though the definition of terrorism is continually evolving, there are a few
consistent elements:
Violence is forcefully intimidating
Political in scope
A method which not an end in itself nor something that someone normally
commits to for identity purposes, as with an ideology or belief system
Intentional to inflict psychological disturbance and ordeal on people
Deliberately targets non-combatants
Effected by a body of distinguishable command chain or conspiratorial
structure of cells
Perpetrated by non‐state actors or sub-national groups
Raufer, Xavier, “Gray Areas: A New Security Threat”, Political Warfare: Intelligence, Active
Measure and Terrorism Report (Spring 1992) in, Hoffman, Bruce (2006), “Inside Terrorism”,
New York: Columbia University Press, p. 18
1
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1.2 Four Waves of Terrorism
According to David C. Rapoport, the changing definition of terrorism can be
associated to the four waves of terrorism: the anarchist wave; anti‐colonial; new left;
and religion.
1.2.1 The First Wave
Anarchism acknowledged that society had huge reservoirs of dormant
ambivalence and antagonism and that the conventions society formulated to stifle
and diffuse resentments, generated accountabilities as well as provided means to
undertake objections and acquire individual facilities. Terror was believed to be the
most effective and quickest avenues to abolish conventions. The perpetrators,
through their act, mandated individuals who defended the rules to counter means
which undermined the government the latter claimed to regard. According to the
anarchists, repetitive dramatic action invariably would polarize the society and
revolution would ensue. The first wave of international terrorist activity (better
known as the Golden Age of Assassination) was intensified in the 1890s when
prominent political figures (monarchs, presidents and prime ministers) were
assassinated consecutively, customarily via hit-squads who relocated
internationally with ease. It was the State system that arose from the Westphalian
Peace accords that resulted in non-interference into states and created a powerful
state-centred system which increased the legitimate power of coercion over all
those within State-territories. This situation, believe the Anarchist Theorists of the
American School (see Johns Hopkins University Department of Political Science),
resulted in high levels of tolerance of state-led punishment and torture as well as
murder of both innocent and non-innocent persons.
1.2.2 The Second Wave
The advent of the “Second Wave” of anti‐colonial terrorism was simulated by the
Versailles Peace Treaty which ended World War I. These war victors had upheld
beliefs of national self‐determination to disintegrate empires of the overpowered
states. Terrorist groups were established in all empires with the exception of the
Soviet Union – did not recognised itself as a colonial power. Terrorist undertakings
were fundamental in founding new countries (such as Algeria, Ireland and Israel).
It was more complex to implement the new strategy than it was for the old strategy
during the “First Wave”, due to the diversified objectives. The “Second Wave”
strategy pursued to disregard and eradicate the police – deemed to be the regime’s
eye and ear – via assassinations of police personnel as well as their families. The
military entities replacement would demonstrate their incompetence and
consequence favourably in the absence of generating counter‐atrocities,
proliferating sympathizers’ support.
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1.2.3 The Third Wave
The Vietnam War was the key political incident precipitating the “Third New Left
Wave” that rekindled hopes amongst groups developed in the Third World as well
as within the Western heartland itself – Red Army Faction (RAF) and the Red
Brigades. They viewed themselves as precursors for the Third World multitudes.
“Theatrical targets” similar to likes of the First Wave, substituted the Second Wave’s
military targets. This hostage crisis becomes a characteristic during the Third Wave
with countless hijackings occurring preceding thirty years of the Third Wave.
1.2.4 The Fourth Wave
As the “Third Wave” began to recede in the 1980s, the “religious wave” gathered
momentum and produced secular groups – a reaction to excessive religious zeal.
Out of the religious groups, Islamic clusters have directed the utmost momentous,
profoundly as well as deadly transnational outbreaks. Three noteworthy incidents
in the Islamic domain delivered the optimism or histrionic political turning point
which was crucial in the introduction of the “Fourth Wave”; the monumental
Iranian Revolution in 1979; a modern Islamic era initiated; and the Soviets conquest
of Afghanistan in 1979.
Suicide bombing was the utmost inventive tactical mutiny. There exists the
conservative understanding that simply a revelation of rewards in heaven could
motivate such deeds; the secular Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) were so
enthralled by the accomplishment in Lebanon that they imitated the act to renew
their movement in Sri Lanka. The terrorist groups of the “Fourth Wave” also
displayed distinctive international features. A key religious community such as
Islam is considerably expansive as compared with any state cluster and the
prominent Islamic group that transcends national border is Al Qaeda with its
network of cell structures operating in various countries.
As a result of the challenge and responses of the various religious leaders against
western democratic State systms, a whole coterie of terrorist groups have emerged
with variations on a single theme. These single themes include Jemaah,
Muhammadiyah, Al-Qaeda, Harakat, Irish Republican Army(now defunct), the
American Minutemen (against King George) (now defunct), the LTTE (now
defunct), and Pan-Islamic Califates. The reason for the high rate of Islamic extremist
groups and the diversity of their terrorist themes is because of the rejection of
Western Christian values that these groups believe are at the heart of Western and
global capitalism, neoliberalism, and democracy (Rappa, 2002; Rappa, 2006; Rappa,
2011). But there are other distinctions within terrorist categories whether they be in
the Philippines, Thailand, Japan, China, Afghanistan, the Central European states,
or within the US itself.
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1.3 Terrorism Versus Insurgency
If no distinct definition of terrorism offers an explicit depiction, attempts to address
the vexing question can be done by eliminating similar undertakings that are nonterrorism. Insurgencies are commonly assumed to be tantamount with terrorism as
both share similar goals. Insurgency is a relatively value‐neutral concept signifying
a rebellion against the ruling government or the civil authorities. Although the idea
of rebelling against the government may apparently imply a large widespread
movement, in reality insurgents have involved small numbers of rebels. Insurgency
is commonly manifested as low‐intensity conflict instead of a large-scale
conventional warfare. Insurgency has been utilized by the weak to oppose the
strong, for it allows them to evade direct hostilities and confrontations. It depends
on surprise and provocation. It is similar to terrorism in this regard as terrorism is
likewise often a weapon of the weak against the strong.
Insurgents often depend on a high mobility structure of political organization with
propaganda playing an important role. The national unity has been central and the
cohesiveness has being built upon definite ideologies, either Nationalistic in nature
or at times radically revolutionary.
There are basically three classifications of insurgencies and each individual
classification has a distinctly diverse prospect of realization;
Nationalist movements struggling for independence against a colonist rule;
Revolutionary movements centred upon collective societal demands in
independent nation-state;
Uprisings initiated by religious, ethnic or ethnic‐religious minorities
factions, often in pursue of an open secessionist objective and usually nonaggressive.
The chief variance between terrorism and insurgency is that an insurgency is a
movement – a struggle with a definite political ends and objectives, differentiating
from terrorism which is to achieve the objectives of the political efforts. It is
frequently directed at government and security officials. Seldom, it is directed at
innocent civilians or (non-combatant). This is vice versa of terrorists who do not
differentiate their targets, be it civilian or combatants. Often, terrorists broaden the
classification of combatants to include supporters of a nation-state or ethnic group,
citizens of any nation-state that backs that nation-state as combatants and
conducting acts against fresh targets in the absence of warnings.
Finally, the dissimilarity between Terrorism and Insurgency pinpoints to actor’s
objective and motives. Insurgency movements may conform to global norms with
regards to war bylaws to realize and in service of their objectives, but terrorists are
by definition committing crimes within both civilian and military lawful codes.
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1.4 State Terrorism & State-sponsored Terrorism
1.4.1 State Terrorism
Terror employed by the state and government to terrorize its own population as an
instrument of control and suppression. These acts usually acknowledge
government policy and leverage on authorized bodies such as government
agencies, judicial courts, police and military. Amendments made to legal codes
facilitated killing, torture or destruction of property in achieving government
policy. Historical examples include assassination campaigns against dissidents who
fled overseas, North Korean intelligence downing international civil aviation, Nazi
policy directing at the calculated and intentional wiping out of “enemies of states”
and the consequential terrorization and coercion of the rest of the population.
Countries have piloted terror on an increasingly extensive and fatal scale than
groups. They have implemented the use terror as weapons of totalitarianism. By no
coincidence that those regimes which routinely engage in the use of terror as
weapon of domestic policy tend to also employ it as a tool of foreign policy.
1.4.2 State-sponsorship of Terrorism
State-Sponsored terrorism refers to instances where terrorist groups are provided
financial and other forms of assistance (physical basing or safe haven, false
documentation for personal identification and financial transactions and weapons
purchases) by the state to help the latter achieve their aims. Provisions of
sustenance include accessibility to training amenities and capabilities arising from
their lack of resources, extension of diplomatic protections (extradition immunity,
diplomatic passports, access to consulates and safe parameters, consular pouches
for arms or explosive transportation).
Iraq under Saddam Hussein, Cuba, Iran and Syria are some known state sponsors
of terrorism. State patronage of terrorism obstructs the counter terrorism efforts of
the global community. These nations offer a crucial basis for terrorist clusters.
Deprived of state sponsors, terrorist clusters would greater difficulty procuring
financial funding, arms, resources and securing localities they need to plot and
implement acts.
1.5 Typologies of Terrorism
The dichotomy of international and domestic terrorism is vital in understanding the
typologies for terrorism. The prior is terrorist use of violence concerning the
populations of more than one nation whereas the latter is contained by the nation
borders, sometimes within a specific area in the nation. In actuality, however, it is
difficult to provide an instance of any noteworthy terrorist movement that is solely
internally. Any severe terrorist movement actively pursues political support,
diplomatic extension, financial assistance, weapons, access to training facilities and
safe haven beyond its own borders.
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1.5.1 Nationalist Terrorists
Nationalist Terrorists endorses the welfares of a religious group and/or minorities
which have been oppressed under mainstream rule (Muslim fundamentalism and
Sikh radicals). They are in pursuit of autonomy and may stage their battle
exclusively in the region they are in search to gain independence or they may be
dynamic in homeland and globally. In certain circumstances, they may be coerced
by police or military action or by threats of imprisonment, custody or
implementation to function entirely from their places of banishment. Nationalist
groups tend to be more adept of supporting prolonged crusades, assembling and
rallying considerable support than ideological groups. Assemblies may achieve
partisan significance for the reason that of their deep-rooted nationalistic ethos and
culture for which they claim prerogatives.
1.5.2 Ideological Terrorists
Ideological terrorists are seeking to transform the complete political, economic and
social structure either to a left-extremist or right-extremist model. Between the
1970s and 1980s, research on ideological terrorism was driven on the left-extremist
model due to the concerns with clusters. The activity of Red Army Faction peaked in
the 1970s and 1980s and has since diminished now. The groups were victimized by
their own internal differences, resolute law enforcement by their relevant
jurisdictional establishments, and varying political assertiveness amidst the
fledgling population during post‐Cold War period.
1.5.3 State‐sponsored and State‐supported terrorists
An authoritarian regime forces its populations into complete compliance (Brazil,
Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti, Iraq, Peru and Sudan) and uses this kind of
terrorism and violence as an instrument of domestic and foreign policy. For
instance, the Iranian regime directed assassinators to assassinate prominent
nonconformists and banished political influential for domestic motives to terrorize,
coerce and eliminate antagonism to the rule.
1.5.4 Religio-political terrorists
Aim to substitute the present rule by exposing exploitive retorts that may be
unveiled as callous and brutal (Hezbollah and Hamas). Other combative
fundamentalist offshoots of key religions excluding Islam have also frequently
hatched their identifiable vehement extremist clusters such as religious revisionism
(Aryan Nation, Posse Comitatus and the Freemen)
1.5.5 Single‐issue terrorists
Single-issue terrorists are preoccupied in service of the cause and longings to
transform a definite practice or policy inside the relevant societal environment
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instead of the objective of political motives and revolt. Instances of such groups are
anti-abortion resorting to abortion clinic bombings and animal rights devoted to
retarding advancement which they consider is damaging to their subjects (Animal
Liberation Front).
1.6 “Old” versus “New” Terrorism
1.6.1 Old Terrorism
The OBJECTIVES of the “Old” Terrorism, by disparity, are assumed to have been
negotiable and restricted. Their motivations were confined domestically, not
globally.
The INTENTIONS of “Old” terrorists were lucid, plausible and concrete,
characteristically correlated to subjects of nationalism, anti-colonist and liberation.
Covenants could be negotiated. The government could compromise with the “Old”
terrorists. Struggles could be determined and elucidated.
1.6.2 New Terrorism
Characteristics of “New” Terrorism which generally display certain fundamental
aspects:
First, a key distinction of the “New” Terrorism is its sheer lethality. The terrorist
attacks of the 1990s , for instance the 1993 New York World Trade Centre
bombings, 1995 Tokyo Sarin gas attack and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing all
point towards the trend of greater lethality. This trend escalated in the September
11 2001 attacks.
Second, another imperative characteristic of the “New” Terrorism is that it
undeniably has certain socio-political, ideologies centred or religious dimension
portraying an individual’s or a group’s notion of impartiality, either secular or
celestial, progressively entangled with a recognizable, tangible political objective.
An explicit example is Osama Bin Laden of Al Qaeda manipulating Islam as a
means of mass mobilization. Apparently, he appears to believe in the inherent
irreconcilability of Islam with other, particularly Western doctrines, and sees the
conflict with the West and America in apocalyptic terms. The relationship between
religious impetus and violence is revealed in the circumstance that while preceding
profane, pro-autonomy terrorist groups assumed that indiscriminate use of
violence could backfired; the circumstance is not likewise for the religiously
motivated terrorists. The latter’s apocalyptic world views hinder their articulation
of a plausible political agenda and encourages the use of indiscriminate violence
without restraint. The new religiously motivated terrorists are not only prepared to
take the lives of their targets but to also die in pursuit of their religious aims,
viewing their death as martyrdom in Islam and will be remunerated in their life
after death. This results in the deliberate targets of innocent civilian.
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A third feature of “New” Terrorism is it has a predominantly network organization.
The new terrorists are structured more horizontally in contrast to large centric
hierarchy of traditional militants. They have a tendency to be disseminated in
loosely run cells, operating with substantial self-sufficiency. This form of loose
organization facilitates and permits terrorist organizations, for example, Al Qaeda
to plan and coordinate undertakings globally. Notwithstanding this form of
horizontal organization, Osama Bin Laden set definite explicit objectives, dictates
and examined their execution. It is also this structure which plays a crucial role in
their security operationally. Since it is dispersed and small, the compartmentalized
cells are less vulnerable to subversion and members’ identities are more securely
clandestine.
The abovementioned third characteristic has helped shaped the fourth
characteristic, which is their significantly enhanced attacks, displayed in particular
with their proficient usage of the cyberspace and their ability to execute
cyberterrorism. The Internet furthermore facilitates and advances timely control
organizationally over the extensively disseminated cells; by gaining access to
extensive online information, terrorists can generate innovative designs for
developing actions. With the accessibility of online methodical data and resources
for fabricating Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), there exists an increase in the
threat of terrorism concerning WMD. Conversely, the threat of WMD terrorism
may be reserved in appropriate outlook since it is not stress-free to fabricate a
WMD. Hence, conservative types of arms will most likely persist on as tools for
terrorism motives on instigating mass annihilation.
The definitive representative of the “New” Terrorism suggests a degree of
permanence with preceding secular and nationalist dimensions: it is essentially an
asymmetric means in which a feebler actor pursues to achieve its aims by
contravening the stronger power’s determination. For instance, Osama Bin Laden
aims to fight America not by targeting its military might but by targeting what he
perceives as the precarious weakness that is the American public. The group
resolve to propagate terror, insecurity and fear amidst the public.
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CONCLUSION
Terrorism involved formulating and deliberating an act of violence or threat of
violence, through unlawful means, with the intention to, cause harm or strike fear
within a population, to achieve a political aims. This is the just one of the many
widely used working definition of terrorism. Definition of terrorism has evolved
through history.
There are four waves of terrorism:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Anarchy
Anti‐colonial
New left
Religion
There are several typologies of terrorism which includes the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nationalist
Ideological
Religiopolitical
Single issue
State sponsored and state supported
To summarize the characteristics of “New” Terrorism,
Become bloodier
Developed new financial sources
Evolved new organizational models
Effectively exploited new communication technologies
Wage global campaigns
Moved beyond tactics to strategy
Significance of Terrorism Definition
As the terrorism transcend from prehistoric to modern day, nations seek to define
terrorism for several purposes such as
Outlawing
Identification of accessible investigative tools
Intelligence gathering
Identification of perpetrators and supporters
Military response sanction ( depending on state of affairs and situation)
Resources distribution
Prerogative and jurisdiction determination
International and interagency collaboration
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To undertake these tasks, individuals must outline the boundaries of the scope
where nations and the international community may set those parameters and
definitional boundaries for the assessment of the actions. If the conceptions,
perceptions and characteristics of terrorism are evolving then conceivably too its
definition and the strategies employed to counter it. It may not be suffice to just
depend on the assumptions, tactics and conventional definitions without amending
them to accommodate to contemporary challenges and latest developments.
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CHAPTER 2: PRE-HISTORICAL TERRORISM
(BARBARISM)
From his reading of Western civilization, and the lack thereof, Antonio L Rappa
concludes that the idea of barbarism is relative like so many other concepts in
Security Studies. Barbarism comes from the Greek way of describing
foreigners…many of whose languages sounded like “bar-bar-bar” to the Greeks.
Hence the use of the word barbarism today. Antonio L. Rappa argues in his work
on Thailand that terrorism is itself an act of barbarism. But it is not a foreign act,
although there appear to be some possibilities of foreign state intervention in
Thailand’s restive Southern violence. Rather, the barbarism arises out of the
military’s conviction of the need to persecute the so-called perpetrators of the
violence in Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat. The SUSS Security Studies’ student ought
to realise that the barbaric phenomenon of terrorism is ‘political’ because it distorts
the balance of power against the innocent and in favour of the guilty.
When did terrorism begin? Specific dates are hard to be derived as academics
consider and propose the use of terror as an instrument dated way before written
language could document it. However, orientations in prehistoric records do
suggest that terror against several parts of the population was commonplace
backdated a few thousand years ago.
The most communal forms of prehistoric forms of terrorism were arson, torture,
maiming and destruction of agriculture goods. Such terror tactics were deliberated
as terrorism back then, especially in Babylon, Judea, Persia and various
developments in the Fertile Crescent. However, such tactics were non-exclusive to
the Middle East, but have been known to be implemented various parts of the
world, from ancient civilizations in China, India, Rome and Greece.
“Civility after Barbarism” Source: Antonio L Rappa Photography, 2008 taken at Singapore's Kranji War
Memorial for those who died in the Pacific War in Singapore and Malaya
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2.1 Warfare in Ancient Egypt
Period
Objective
: Dated as far back as 12th millennium B.C.E.
: War was fought for political and economic reason.
Evidence of battle in ancient Egypt stretches back possibly with evidence of warfare
at Jebel Sahaba (present-day southern Egypt), a burial site near the Nile in Sudan.
Archaeologists’ unearthed 58 skeletons, 24 associated with stone artefacts
interpreted as parts of projectiles. They are interpreted as barbs or points of spears
because a few are embedded in bones. Some multiple burials and cut marks on
bones reinforce a military interpretation.
The evidence of battles uncovered were found on carved reliefs on ceremonial
palettes; mace-heads and knife handles of the Protodynastic period (c3100–2900
B.C.E.) are characterized on repeated motifs: of the king smiting foreigners, the
siege and capture of fortified settlements, the binding and execution of prisoners
and the offering of the spoils of war to gods.
War was fought for political and economic reason: the defence of borders, the
acquisition of valuable land, livestock, natural resources and slaves. Egyptian
warfare was a combination of internal conflict and campaigns against enemies
beyond the traditional borders. The people and regions with which Egyptians came
into conflict were three groups: the Nubians and Libyans (Africa), the inhabitants
of Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia and Anatolia (western Asia), and the Sea Peoples
(northern and eastern Mediterranean).
2.2 The Assyrians
Period
Objective
: 9th–7th Centuries B.C.E.
: The conquered lands were ruled through systematic terror.
The Assyrians had been described as the world’s fiercest and most violent people
from the observation on how their empire was conquered and ruled. Their empire,
the ancient kingdom of Mesopotamia, centred on the municipality of Ashur (Assur)
on the River Tigris, close to the contemporary Mosul in Iraq, lasted from the 9th to
7th centuries B.C.E.
The Assyrians had targeted and conquered those with material assets and large
populations and had ruled over the conquered lands through systematic terror. The
Assyrian kings ordered what can be termed today as terrorist acts as part of their
policy. Assyria’s King Assurnasirpal II saw nothing wrong with committing cruel
acts during his conquests. He was reported to have cut off the captives’ hands,
fingers, noses, ears, and put out their eyes. He even bragged of how he skinned
alive, burned, mutilated, blinded and decapitated the leaders and many of the
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citizens of the rebellious city of Susa. Disloyal government agents were executed,
when their enemies and leaders revolted, they were tortured and killed.
Eventually the Assyrians fall when its auxiliary troops revolted and its neighbours
toppled the empire.
2.3 War in Archaic period
Period
Objective
: Archaic Period c700–480 B.C.E. and Classical Greece Period: 480–
338 B.C.E
: Wars fought for pleonexia (to the Greek which signify honour and
wealth).
At least 19 wars and conflicts were fought during this period. Cities pursued to
gain larger honour amongst neighbouring countries and retort back for acts of
contempt, and open-minded contention created perpetual strains, conflict and
numerous wars.
Wealth, in the form of booty, slaves and territory, not only by cities that had
shortages, but also by cities with abundance of resources which they could mobilize
to acquire even more, was the primary motivation.
Honour and greed might be satisfied by burning and plundering enemy country
for a few days, but in the course of long rivalry, the fiercest rivalry had intensified
to complete annihilation of the enemy. These causes of war and objectives were
constant in Greek history.
2.4 Tyrannicide in Ancient Greece
Period
Objective
: 8th–6th Centuries B.C.E
: To assassinate leaders who were considered tyrants.
A tyrant, according to the Greeks, is a leader who came to power by force, typically
by overthrowing a polis’ traditional form of government, which in the 8 th to 6th
centuries B.C.E. was monarchy or oligarchy.
The typical Greek tyrant courted popular favour by persecuting aristocrats,
cancelling the debts of the poor and putting commoners to work on public works
projects. Ironically, they were regarded as kind and impartial. In time, the term
“tyrant” acquired negative implications. The growth of Athenian democracy led
citizens to look upon tyrants as usurpers of not only the people’s political power,
but also of their property and honour. Hence the killing of a tyrant was the natural
response to the tyrant’s transgression. In fact, according to Aristotle, “high honours
are awarded to one who kills a tyrant.”
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2.5 Alexander III, the Great
Period
Objective
: 356–323 B.C.E.
: To ensure the loyalty of his troops, he became ruthless in his
conquests by resorting to authoritarian measures.
When Alexander’s father was killed by his body guard, Alexander became ruler of
the vast Greek Empire at the age of twenty. This was not surprising as when he
was eighteen, he was given command of 2,000 men and had emerged victorious
against the Athenians.
Alexander wanted to realize his father’s dream of conquering Asia and the Persian
King Darius and massed up to 40,000 troops, leading them to victory. He even
wanted to conquer the island fortress of Tyre. His troops penetrated the wall and
killed 8,000 people. The rest were sold to slavery. When Theban revolted, in 335
B.C.E., he sold nearly all citizens into slavery and razed the city sparing only the
priests, their temples and the descendants of the poet Pindar. When a historian
refused to kiss Alexander’s hand, prostrate himself to him or kneel before him (in
Greece this was reserved for gods), he killed the historian.
Alexander’s desire for conquest had also led his troops to India and was almost
defeated when he was shot through the lung with an arrow. He eventually
recovered and left India. He was called the great as he conquered vast lands from
Athens to Tyre, captured Egypt, and found city of Alexandria, occupied Babylon
and Susa, Persia and the whole of Central Asia, among others. He resorted to
authoritarian measures to ensure loyalty of his troops and became ruthless in his
conquests.
2.6 Terror and Political Violence in Ancient Rome
Period
Objective
: 6th Century B.C.E.
: Political murder for Monarchical power and achieving political
ends.
Political murder was common during this period. Rome’s 8th century founders, the
twins Romulus and Remus had a falling out with Remus murder and Romulus
becoming the first of “seven kings of Rome.” Romulus became a tyrant and later was
murdered by the Senate. The 6th Roman king was also murdered by his daughter
and husband, who ran him down in a chariot on an avenue that came to be called
the “Wicked Lane.”
At the end of 6th century B.C.E., the Senate expelled the last Roman king and
established the Republic, whereby then the duties of the monarch were already
separated among two consuls.
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According to Roman historian Livy, the first Consul was Lucius Junius Brutus, and
his first deed was to require Romans “to swear a solemn oath never to allow any
man to be king in Rome.” Brutus second consular colleague was Publicola who
introduced a law stating that the public was authorized to kill anyone who
professed himself a king of Rome. There were three recorded cases of politicians
who allegedly pursued monarchical power by using bribery to court favour with
the plebeians, and were murdered by the citizens and not the state. Later on, during
Sulla’s reign of violence, (a precursor to modern-day state terror), an estimated 500
to 1,500 senators and equestrians who had opposed him died.
During the next two decades, it was common to have occurrences of violence and
rumours of war and conspiracy. There was a campaign of terror consisting of arson,
hostage-taking, and assassination which culminated in an armed coup. This was
ceased with the head of the patrician, Catiline, exhibited in Rome.
The last decades of the Republic also saw a new kind violence in Rome, which was
partly political and partly criminal. The closest parallel to this was Hitler’s SA. The
Roman practice of clientage; patricians had a pool of eager partisans willing to
agitate on their behalf became rampant in Roman’s political life especially by those
who had the means to hire them.
The famous political assassinations following the extended seething strains
between the joint rulers of Julius Caesar and Pompey Magnus led to a civil war in
50 B.C.E. Pompei was murdered three years later and his forces defeated. Caesar
returned to Rome and launched the task on debt cancellation and public housing to
gain widespread support and relief the urban poor. He was appointed dictator for
life in 44 B.C.E., partly because he had many supporters in the Senate. Some
senators resented him and a group of conspirators (60 of the Senators), calling
themselves the Liberators, plotted to assassinate him. Their objective was to
reinstate the power of the optimates, the conservative senatorial “constitutionalists”.
Caesar met his fate on March 15 – the Ides of March – he was lured to the Senate
and attacked.
Following Caesar’s death, Octavian and Antony moved to destroy the assassins of
Caesar. Under Augustus (Octavian) Casear, there was stability in Rome. However
when there was concentration of power in the Emperor’s court, new opportunities
for murder were created among the elite.
2.7 Warfare in Ancient India
Period
Objective
: 4th Century B.C.E
: Conflict resolution
During the reign of Chandragupta in the 4th century BCE, Kautilya, counsellor to
Chandragupta described three categories of conflict resolution: open war,
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conventional combat similar to the Greek Phalanxes, concealed war (similar to
modern guerrilla war) and clandestine war or silent war. Kautilya favoured
clandestine war and described the assassination of rulers and high officials but also
mentioned in the Arthashastra (The Science of Wealth), scenarios involving terror on
the broader population. One script instructed secret agents to assassinate
community leader and rob wealthy citizens while spreading rumours that these
were punishments by a regent or an ambitious viceroy. Another instructed agents
to set fire to palaces, city gates, and granaries and kill guards, rousing the people
against the ruler’s underlings.
2.8 Warfare in Ancient China
Period
Objective
: Middle 3rd millennium B.C.E
: Terror used in conflicts between states.
The success of cereal agriculture had led to the emergence of settled communities
which began surrounding themselves with defensive walls. There was conflict
probably in the form of raiding, and defensive measures and counterattacks,
though how such fighting was actually conducted, archaeological record has not
yet revealed.
Warfare began during the period of the Shang dynasty c1600–1045 B.CE. Royal
forces, by several thousand in number, permitted systematic attacks against
enemies on all sides. One goal of these wars was to obtain captives for sacrifice in
Shang’s religious rites. The Shang kingdom was extinguished in 1045 B.C.E by a
neighbour, and one time vassal of the state, the Zhou, which had long established
itself in the fertile Wei River valley. The Zhou extended their conquest far beyond
the former’s borders to include most of north China. The Zhou is related to Shang
linguistically and culturally, with the expansion, this led to the spread of a common
culture which was later identified as Han. Zhou dynasty (c1045–256 B.C.E) was
characterized politically by disunity, even though influential figures like Confucius
lived during this period. After 770 B.C.E, there were over a hundred independent
or autonomous territories.
Throughout the aggressive warring states era (403–221 B.C.E.), conflicts among
states become larger in scale, more deadly and longer in duration. The period of the
warring state was brought to an end by the best organized, most autocratic, most
militaristic and most ruthless state the Qin. Qin achieved effective dominance over
the six large states remaining in 260 B.C.E. Within the decade 23–221 B.C.E Qin
successfully destroyed its rivals and unified the country under its rule and a new
era was born, the first empire, the Qin and Han dynasties came into being (221
B.C.E – C.E. 220).
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CONCLUSION
Underlying pre-historic terrorism revealed that reason and morality were distorted
in justifying and serving primitive desire and power urges, leading to the selfdestruction of civilization. Violence and the pursuit of power were sanctioned as
necessary means to wealth and noble end, and the people were deceived and
deceiving themselves when they allowed their primal energies to be unleashed for
destructive purposes.
Introduction to Terrorism
the state the typologies the changes
Prehistorical terrorism and warfare
(Access video via iStudyGuide)
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Terrorism and Society: Survey of
Terrorist Groups in Modernity
STUDY UNIT 2
Ancient & Medieval Forms of Terrorism
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COURSE DESCRIPTION
This seminar provides an overview of prehistoric terrorism (barbarism) and
medieval (ancient) terrorism dated back since the Jewish resistance groups (63–72
C.E.) known as Zealots who opposed the Roman rule and their faction – The Sicarii,
an extreme terror group who slayed adversaries and traitors in their crusade in
Judea. The Assassins (Nizari Isma'ilis) were an enigmatic Islamic sect dynamic in
Iran and the Thugees, an Indian religious cult group will also be briefly discussed.
The activities of the abovementioned groups are widely labelled as religious
terrorism at that time as terror was widely used and resulting in fear instilled.
Historical events in modernity (post-medieval history) – early and late modern
period will also be discussed. The significance of the four waves of terrorism with
reference to historical examples will be further discussed to understand the larger
phenomenon of terror and terrorism. Take note that Antonio L. Rappa argues in his
work on Thailand’s urban and rural terrorism that terrorism is a crime but not all
crimes are acts of terrorism. This is a commonly misunderstood concept by new
students to Security Studies although they will eventually understand the critical
difference. In the end the student ought to realise that the most important question
is “what makes this phenomenon of terrorism ‘political’?”
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component)
1.
Compare and contrast terrorist groups in modernity
Key Skills (Practical Component)
1.
2.
3.
Apply security studies concepts to seminar discussions.
Interpret work-based problems with concepts in security studies.
Demonstrate competence in academic writing (political science).
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CHAPTER 1: ANCIENT (MEDIEVAL) TERRORISM IN
EUROPE AND ASIA
1.1
Pre-modern Period (500–1500 C.E.)
1.1.1 The Zealots and the Sicarii
This section provides a brief overview of the group of “bona fide” fighters for the
self-determination and autonomy of Israel known as the "Zealots" from Judea (a
province of the Roman Empire) and one of their factions – the “Sicarii” in their
pursuit of Jewish liberation. They were amongst the most primitive instances of
acts of terrorism for political motives originated and directed by learned ideologues
who involved openly in the use of terror.
Period
Objectives
: During the 1st Century since 63 C.E.
: (1) Sought to impose a certain degree of rigour in religious practice
(religious)
(2) Intensely in opposition of external control of Judea and wanted
independence from Roman rule. (political)
The Zealots were rather similar to the Pharisees, but their beliefs, principles and
creeds had a heavy emphasis on the use of violent in opposition to the adversaries
of Judaism. The Jews were the “Chosen People” as mentioned in their doctrine
instead of subjecting themselves to the decree of an idolatrous Roman realm which
bestowed celestial honours to its monarchs.
From the beginning of the defeat by the Roman, the history of Judea was an
extreme bitter struggle complemented with uprisings and revolutions against the
regal authority. One of the effects of these revolts was that it was legitimate to take
up arms to revolt by improvished peasants (use of violence).
The intensity of these social disparities and these spiritual yearnings for the
redemption of Israel augmented with time as the realm was entirely an anti-thesis
of the divine beliefs of the Jews, and the strains and conflicts establish its
determination in the year 66 C.E. when the myriad of masses embraced favourably
the “Great Jewish Revolt.” Tension came to a climax when a rebel called Menahem
ben Jair who led the Zealots and drove the Romans out of Jerusalem.
The Sicarii was a faction of the Zealots. In the year 74 C.E, under the leadership of
Menahem, the Sicarii collaborated and retort against individuals who submitted to
the Rome rule by treating them as enemies (use of terror); pillage their property,
rounding up their livestock, and committing acts of arsons, dissenting that such
individuals were nonentities but traitors who so dishonourably forgone the hardwon Jewish rights and acknowledged their inclination for the rival rule.
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Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus refers to the Sicarii as an extremist ideology and
examples exemplified include instances that daggers were used to murder
bureaucrats (Roman and Jewish) who failed to amenably pursue a liberated Judea.
The killings were often carried out in communal and at times resulting in gory
carnage as they Sicarii assumed a novel tactic of kidnapping hostages to secure the
discharge of their comrades held in custodial.
After the downfall of Menahem, the Sicarii made the choice to commit mass suicide
in fear of being held captivity and at the mercy of their victors as they faced the
danger of contravening their religious beliefs, since in their convictions the
recognition of Roman rule was synonymous to idolatry.
1.1.2 The Thugees
This section uncovers an Indian religious cult which ceremonially choked their
fatalities as a ceremonial endowment and sacrificial offerings to their Hindu
goddess of terror and demolition. The Thugees are reputed to be accountable for
approximately a million killings.
Period
Objectives
: 6th until the Mid-19th Centuries
: To take lives of mainly travellers for the sacrificial worship of their
Hindu Goddess of death and destruction. (religious)
Sacrificial offerings were also a dominant constituent of the murders executed by
the Thugees. To petrify the target, this was a crucial contemplation for the Thugee
ritual instead of the impact on some peripheral audience.
The Thugees would masquerade as monks and targeted wealthy travellers with the
intention to rob and strangle them to death. Often, the loot would be shared with
the poor. They were protected by the villagers out of fear and local rulers in favour
of bribes. They would take sugar symbolising the body of Kali before committing
murders. Their activities challenged the British rule in India which resulted in the
appointment of Captain William Sleeman to deal with them in 1828. By 1848, they
were possibly the most recent surviving instance of religiously-motivated terrorism
up to the occurrence re-emerged again in the 1990s.
1.1.3 The Kharjites and the Assassins (Nizaris/ Hashhashin)
Understanding the political background and the causal emergence of the Kharijites
(also known as Khawarji) and Assassins (a name given by the Europeans with
reference to the Nizaris) would contribute a better understanding on how they had
substantially influenced radical and extremist groups in the Muslim world in
modern-day.
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Period
Objectives
: Since 632 C.E. (Kharijites)/ Since 1090s during 11th to 13th Century
(Assassins)
: To take the lives of individuals who committed serious sins and
justified these acts as a mission of purifying Islam through violence.
(religious)
Distinguished from the other Muslims is that they did not hesitate to commit
murder to rid those who threatened their missionary zeal. In the process instilling
fear in others which is forefather of terrorism.
The Kharijites were known to denounce any believer of the faith who committed
the serious sin as apostate. They believed that the assassinations of these deserters
of religion were permissible and the duties of believers.
The “Assassins”, founded by Hassan I Sabah, were the predecessor of Kharijites,
adopts similar tactics of the Sicarri (knifed their targets and eyewitnesses). They
usually concentrated on officials or priests who repudiated to embrace the “refined
version of Islam” which the Assassins were proliferating by coercion. They
deliberately chose timely periods and favourable location to execute their acts of
assassinations; their activities were executed at sacred location on divine days; an
approach intentionally to make public their basis and spur others likewise. Similar
to religiously-motivated terrorists in modern-day, they also regarded their deaths
on such operations as a means to martyrdom.
CONCLUSION
Use of terror during prehistoric period was mainly for territorial and barbaric
purposes, whereas during the medieval (pre-modern) period it was utilized to
murder religious adversaries. Since the start of chronicled history, terrorism and
religion were in synch. Since the primitive times, terrorism incorporated the notion
of fading in the name of God (Suicide Martyrdom) as a holy onus that was
guarantor for them to enter paradise. Terrorism against an adversary was
religiously-inspired and was reflected honourable and commendable.
In actuality, the Zealots, Thugees and Assassins were not terrorists in the
contemporary stance. Terrorism is best approached in as a modern approach. Its
features transcend from the transnational organization of states, and its
accomplishments are determined by the presence of a mass media to construct an
environment of terror among populations.
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CHAPTER 2: POST-MEDIEVAL TERRORISM
IN EUROPE AND ASIA
Please note that the idea of what is medieval, post-medieval, modern or premodern, ancient or late modern, or classical, neoclassical, Romantic, post-Romantic
etc are terms of control that vary according to academic discipline and within these
disciplines themselves.
There are some degrees of overlap and different definitions of these concepts. One
has therefore to be rather careful about these eras and ought to be guided by the
fact that clarity of thought is the best form of education.
2.1.
The “Early Modern Period” (1500 – 1800 C.E.)
2.1.1 The English Civil War
Period
Objective
: 17th Century
: A civil war is a battle contravened between populations within the
nation. In this incident, the two flanks that opposed each other in
England were the Ruler’s side and Government’s side. The core
motives for entering into war were based on the following issues:
money, religion, power, and personality. It is part of a wider
struggle for supremacy between Catholics and Protestants across
the continent.
The English Civil War was a succession of armed struggles and political
conspiracies flanked by Royalists as well as Parliamentarians from the period
between 1642–1646, 1648–1649 (the former known as the First Civil War and the
latter Second Civil War) and during the period of the Third Civil War (1649–1651),
the Parliamentary factions secured victory at the Battle of Worcester.
2.1.2 The French Revolution
Period
Objective
: Late 18th Century
: To eliminate governmental opposition and consolidate power –
State-sponsored terrorism.
Nationalist Terrorism
During the French Revolution, the use of terror was considered to be a tool to
facilitate the ruling power to amalgamate their authority to effect political changes
and defending against fundamentals deliberated as dissident. Continuously valueladen, terrorism here is deemed as a positive term.
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Modern terrorism originated from the “regime de la terreur” by French revolutionary
leader Maximilien Robespierre who illustrated the concept of terrorism as an asset:
an instrument to result in "legitimate" legislative objectives. He used trepidation
methodically to subdue state rivals as well as introducing state-sponsored
terrorism. Historical records reveal that approximately 40,000 people were executed
using the guillotine under Robespierre’s reign of terror.
2.2
The “Late Modern Period”
2.2.1 The First Wave
The first prominent usage of terror for societal and political reform in the West
arose simultaneously as the Industrial Revolution. The Italian revolutionist, Carlo
Pisacane’s philosophy of the “propaganda of the deed” documented the efficacy of
terrorism, conveying their cause directing at the intended recipient as well as the
population and in addition, appealing for consideration and sustenance to a cause –
exemplified this new practice of acts of terror.
2.2.1.1 Anarchists
Period
Objective
: Late 19th to Early 20th Century
: To use terror to overthrow a government – “Propaganda by deeds” –
Individual Terrorism.
A group of revolutionaries known as the “Anarchists” was embraced by the
European and American anarchists in the 19th century. According to leading
anarchism, Russian theorists, Michael Bakunin, Pyotor Kropotkin, and Serge Nechaev,
the Anarchists believed they had discovered a new a more scientific way of making
a revolution.
A series of assassination were executed by the Anarchists, for instance late United
States President William McKinley in 1901 and former Idaho governor Frank
Steunenberg in 1905. Anarchists also set off bombs in front of the Los Angeles
Times building and at a patriotic parade in San Francisco in 1910.
These unforeseen strikes of terror instilled widespread fear in the people of US and
Europe. There was a widespread belief that a vast conspiracy was at work
disrupting public order and leading to a state of anarchy. In effect, criminal codes
were often amended in these counties to make the practice of anarchism a
punishable crime.
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2.2.1.2 The Russian Revolution
Period
Objective
: Early 20th Century
: To use terror to sustain supremacy, power and control to dictate
the whole population – State-sponsored Terrorism.
The initial period of the 20th Century witnessed a fusion of anarchist and statesponsored terrorism. The Soviet Revolution (1917) Lenin, shadowing Stalin, built
upon the notion of state-sponsored terrorism as an instrument to preserve
dictatorship. Both instances applied terror to a whole class of individuals within the
social order (as hypothetically to practise alongside one's adversaries),
methodically. Terror was utilized to control the whole society in order to shape the
societal environment. Fear was as a motivational aspect for state processes and
community submission. Terror was also used as a method to shape and dictate the
public.
Terrorism as a Tool of the State
Examples of terrorism as a tool of the state include South American numerous
military dictatorships to foil political antagonists. Zimbabwe is another nation in
Africa which uses state-sponsored terrorism on its own populations to repress
revolt amongst enemy ethnic groups or political groups. This type of movement
has facilitated the distinguishable means in the use of terror from that of authentic
terrorism.
Terror or Terrorism
Terrorist expert Bruce Hoffman contends that state-sponsored terror tactics are not
identical as terrorism by non-state entities, and hence should be handled contrarily.
On the other hand, Jessica Stern debates that the use of assassination,
pandemonium, or wide-ranging tactics intended to nurture fear (whether by state
or non-state actors) establishes the definition of terrorism.
2.2.1.3 Irish Rebellion
Period
Objective
: Early 20th Century
: To use terror to gain Irish liberation from England.
Three notions leading to the expansion of terrorism was identified during the Irish
War in 1919, (1) selective terrorism, (2) sustained terror over protracted periods and
(3) cell operations.
Selective Terrorism
Terrorism was meted out on legislatures of the municipal institutions of England,
in a bid to elevate costs of unrelenting occupation. For this instance, the notion of
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selective terrorism; terrorism applied on legislatures of regime to coerce their
exodus from a region is utilized. In modern-day terrorism, terrorism involves
attacks on non-combatants.
Sustained Terrorism
In addition, the developmental use of terrorism is the theory to create a societal
reform; the terrorism needed to be sustainable and unrelenting through a
prolonged timeframe. This continued terror will lead to the cessation of the
determination of the besieged government over time, in a bid of a compromise and
negotiation.
Cell Structures and its Operations
The Irish war similarly introduced the model of cell structures and its operation to
terrorist acts. Cell operation disperses the operational organization of terrorist
spasms and forestalls the detection and annihilation of the terrorist cluster. Every
single cell works on a definite functional/ operational aim and they merely
identified its followers and its defined undertaking. Hence, the apprehension of one
cell will not lead to provision of possibilities to others.
2.2.2 The Second Wave
The “Second Wave” of terrorism began after World War II. It was related to
fighting for national liberation against the colonial rule to pursue independence.
This is reflected in the colonies opposing against the colonial rules especially Britain
and France. In 1949, the post-war period also staged the revolutionary uprisings in
China under the Communist leader, Mao Tse‐tung, and the withdrawal of his
Nationalist adversaries to the island of Taiwan, where they lingered till this day.
2.2.2.1 End to Colonialism
Period
Objective
: Middle 20th Century
: Usage of selective terrorism gaining sympathizers and supporters
After World War II, the British and French colonies centred on their focus internal
issues. Colonial nationalist groups started to use terror as an instrument against the
colonial rule. Nationalistic struggles and movements arose across the Middle East
Asia and Africa resisting and opposing the colonists’ determinations and efforts to
recommence colonial occupation after the defeat of the Axis powers.
Guerrilla Warfare and Colonial Strife
Nationalist and anti-colonialist groups engaged in guerrilla warfare, which
contrasted from terrorism largely in their tactics, intents and objectives. Guerrilla
warfare inclined towards greater bodies of asymmetric of operatives along more
militarization than that of terrorist organizations. They frequently openly opposed
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from a defined geographic region over where they had a wide influence. They
have the tendency adopt conventional militarization tactics of objective, employ,
and retreat.
The British and French Defeats
In some occurrences, the colonial governments decided on vehemently resisting the
demands of nationalist’s movements of independence. For instance, the Dutch
pursued to preserve reins over their resource‐rich tenure in Southeast Asia such as
in Indonesia. In 1949, Indonesia gained its independence. Relatively, the French
also endeavoured to restate their rein over Indo‐China (currently known as
Cambodia, Lao and Vietnam) even though the armed conflict of the Viet Minh
under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh. Similarly, it was also happening in Malaya
under the British rule. Within the abovementioned states, the prevailing practice of
armed tussle was not terrorism but rural guerrilla warfare, setting Mao Tseu‐Tung
as their model, whom their key principle derived.
On the contrary, there were some places where political terrorism played a central
role in gaining independence from the hands of the colonial power. In 1964, the
Yemen insurgents used urban terrorism extensively against the British because
their leaders realized that little attention was gained when the opposition was
restricted to the hinterlands.
The two most significant cases where terrorism was employed to achieve national
independence in this period were in Palestine and Algeria. In Palestine, the British
government’s decision to maintain its 1939 white paper policy of severely
restricting Jewish immigration had started the revolt. This severe restriction was
reacted by two terrorist organizations namely the Irgun and the LEHI (a Hebrew
acronym for ‘Fighters for the Freedom of Israel’) or “Stern Gang” by launching a series
of terrorist attacks against British targets throughout Palestine till 1947.
The most notorious of the Irgun and LEHI attacks was the bombing of the King
David Hotel in Jerusalem, which killed over 90 people. The main goal was to make
the British government withdraw from Palestine which would then give the Zionist
movement the opportunity to establish a Jewish state. Subsequently, in 1948 the
goal of establishing a Jewish state was realized.
In Algeria, terrorism was still of greater implications. In 1953, the French
government regarded Algeria as part of the French territory. As a result, the
National Liberation Front (FLN) resisted by starting an insurgency aimed to abolish
the French rule. Subsequent years later, the French forces were able to overcome the
FLN’s guerrilla warfare tactics in the Algerian rural areas. The army had learnt
some lessons from the struggle against the Viet Minh in Southeast Asia.
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2.2.2.2 The Middle East / Cold War
Period
Objective
: Late 1960s
: Internationalizing terrorism by various states’ support with the
purpose of destabilizing rival states (State-sponsorship terrorism).
An amalgamation of diverse terrorist organizations enhanced the interconnectedness of global terror network. Furthermore, owing to the Cold War, various states
supported diverse terrorist groups appropriate to subvert the rival states. These
terrorist groups formed alliances and collaborated in a bid to achieve greater
responsiveness to the Arab-Israeli dispute.
The Middle East is another region where terrorist violence became commonplace
late-1960s. In 1967, the Arab‐Israeli war had triggered terrorism. For several years,
the strategy of Palestinian groups such as Egyptian‐backed Palestine Liberation
Organization (PLO), the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)
and Yassir Arafat’s organization was to instigate war between Israel and the nearby
Arab states. The assumption when this war arose was that it would lead to Israel’s
defeat and the Jewish state would be replaced with a secular Palestinian one.
2.2.2.3 The Middle East / Islamism (Militant Islam)
Period
Objective
: 1979
: Religious-motivated terrorism
The rationalization for terrorism self-governing the Arab-Israeli discord roots from
the enlargement of fundamentalist Islamic and the defence of Islamic beliefs
alongside the West, Jewish and Christianity beliefs.
2.2.3 The Third Wave
Political scientist David C. Rapoport labels the terrorist campaigns of the 1970s and
early 1980 the “third wave” of modern terrorism. Examples include of Argentina,
Brazil, and Uruguay whereby all experienced urban guerrilla campaigns from the
late 1960s through the mid-1970s. In these three instances, the problems were
resolved by combatant (military or police) suppression, often with the use of ‘death
squads’ which comprised of an off‐duty military or police personnel dressed in
civilian clothes to execute the act.
In all these instances, these urban guerrilla groups believed that terrorist attacks
(assassinations, kidnapping and bank robberies) could be used to incite the
authorities into extreme retaliation.
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2.2.3.1 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
Period
Objective
: 1964 – 1980s
: To radicalize the political situation globally.
A governmental and revolutionary organization acknowledged by the United
Nations since 1974 as the only authentic representative of the Palestinian
population.
Within the period of 1968 to 1969, the PLO has made a tactical choice in the Middle
East, to change from a guerrilla‐style insurgency on the West Bank to the tribunal of
a terrorist campaign against Israel and the state’s supporters in various parts of the
world typically in Western Europe.
Initially, these operations were executed from the group’s bases in Jordan. In 1970,
PFLP commandos skyjacked four commercial airliners in the skies of Europe and
flew them to Dawson’s Field, a former British air base near Amman. After
prolonged negotiations, the PFLP freed its hostages but later blew up the airliners.
This terrorist act has indeed attracted the world’s attention.
On “Black September” (September 1970), Jordan started a campaign to disarm the
PLO groups on its soil leading to the defeat of the PLO, removal of the PLO’s
headquarters including the headquarters of the various groups under its umbrella,
to Lebanon.
In 1982, the PLO was expelled from Lebanon as the result of an Israeli invasion,
then re‐established its headquarters in Tunisia. Apparently, the location was
geographically and politically relegated till the first Palestinian Intifada occurred in
1987. As this revolt continued, the PLO decided to give up its bomb and
ammunition in exchange for negotiations with Israel.
The flagging of revolutionary violence in Latin America, the industrialized
democracies and the commitment of the PLO to avoid the use of terrorism in favour
of diplomatic solutions to its problems may have concluded the third wave of
terrorism in the 1980s. However, the decade of the 1980s did not conclude
terrorism, instead the decade saw the advent of a ‘fourth wave’ of modern terrorism,
known as the “New” terrorism.
2.2.4 The Fourth Wave
The New Terrorism
Early 21st century unveils terrorist violence which is far more intimidating and
alarming than it has been throughout the past. It comprises the record of
unforgettable and lethal events in the account of terrorism. A classic example of the
destructive “fourth wave” of terrorism is the 9/11 (11 September 2001) attacks on
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United States or the advent of “New” terrorism. There exist three significant
advances to recognize the advent of this “Fourth Wave” of terrorism from the 1980s
to current.
2.2.4.1 Iranian Revolution
Period
Objective
: 1979 – 1980
: Transformed Iran from an autonomous state into an Islamic
Republic. The religious leaders overtly acknowledged and
stimulated the use of terrorism as a method of proliferation in its
principles.
The Iranian Revolution has been of great impact and was a result of considerable
repercussion against the Shah’s efforts at modernization during 1970s. The
opposition was led by the country’s mullahs called the Shiite clergy. Ayatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini, the political leader of the Islamic Revolution of Iran, openly
voiced out popular resentments and grievances against the Shah, for example,
being corrupted and a puppet of the United States. He condemned the influence of
the West such as the use of drugs and popular music. He also denounced the Iran’s
secret police force’s (SAVAK) brutalities. His speeches fuelled antipathies which
was widespread by 1977. The consequence was several violent mass protests in the
major cities throughout 1978 – 1979. The accomplishment of the Iranian events
rapidly endorsed a spread of the belief system all over Islam.
2.2.4.2 Afghan War
Period
Objective
: 1979 –1989
: The launch of a “holy” war aimed to oust the Czarist Russia from
Afghanistan.
The second factor to the onset of the new terrorism was the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan during end-1979. Local communist military officers seized power and
took over the rule in Kabul. In 1978, this rule embarked a policy of mandatory
economic and social modernization on the basis of Marxist‐Leninist lines. Their
reforms included the imposition of socialism through mass arrests and executions,
compulsory literacy and radical agrarian reform.
The endeavour to enforce communism in Afghanistan launched a general rebellion
in April 1979, led by Afghanistan’s religious tribal leaders. They perceived that the
Marxists in Kabul are promoting atheism in a Muslim country.
Muslim leaders throughout Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and various parts
of the Islamic world called for jihad which aimed at ousting the Czarist Russia from
Afghanistan. Basically, the US as well as the Saudis delivered financial funding,
weapons and training for the “mujahideens”. Thousands of young men in the Arab
world as well as young Muslim immigrants from other continents of the world
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(America, Europe, etc.) congregated in Afghanistan and Peshawarto to stage a
guerrilla‐style “holy war” opposing the Soviets.
The fight put up by the Afghan “coalition force” defeated the USSR and withdrew in
1989 conceding defeat. These “war veterans” went back to their respective countries,
instilled with the mission of undertaking as well as determination on enduring
their jihad on behalf of Muslims anguished after subjugation all over the globe.
Saudi millionaire Osama Bin Laden was known to be one of Afghans.
2.2.4.3 The New Millennium
Period
Objective
: 2000 – present
: Withdrawal from society (“Fundamentalist” Christians) and
committing mass suicide to redeem their souls by religious cults.
The New Millennium contributed to the fourth wave of terrorism during the
advent of the third millennium in year 2000 in particularly for Christians
(denominations labelled ‘fundamentalist’) whose symbolism was adapted from the
Christian faith that the year 2000 was significant. They believed that the beginning
of the new millennium signified the beginning of the “End Times” (a thousand‐year
period that would culminate with the Second Coming of Christ; the “end of the
world” in many Christian countries). Among the believers who ardently approach
the “doom-day” issue, the most common response was a withdrawal process from
society. Extreme instances include the followers of the Heaven’s Gate cult who
were led to believe that the approach of the Hale‐Bopp comet heralded the
beginnings of the end of life on earth. However, their leader convinced them that
they would be “redeemed” by committing mass suicide. The belief was that their
spirits would reappear aboard a spaceship hidden behind the comet as it made its
way around the Solar System. In Southern California, 10 over Heaven’s Gate
believers killed themselves in this belief.
In addition, some believers such as members of the Supreme Truth apparently
executed severe acts of extremism and terror appropriate to hasten the “battle of
Armageddon” (final conflict between good and bad). They hoped to save humanity
by massacre its believers.
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SEC341 STUDY UNIT 2
CONCLUSION
Terrorism is a deliberate calibrated tool of pursuing specific objectives and it has
being continually changing. It has been utilized in lieu of a diversity of intents,
motives and capabilities to achieve various objectives by both legitimate and nonlegitimate ends. Some significant historical events in terrorism were believed to
have influenced the ...
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