CUNY John Jay College Covid19 on The African American Community Discussion

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Please finish the research proposal. The sections missing are methodology, goals of study, discussion section, identified themes and conclusion.

The bibliography needs to be put in alphabet order. Please correct all mistakes the professor gave feed back on.

Please see work attached. Follow the powerpoint and rubric, when finishing the paper.

Please use peer reviewed articles. you can find them on google scholar.

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THE IMPACT OF COVID19 ON THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY Ayana Salaam John Jay College Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Senior Seminar April 16, 2021 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -1 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem This research examines the influence of the COVID-19 virus on exacerbating existing health and economic disparities for the African American population. The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a new strain of corona viruses. It presents a contagious respiratory disease whose outbreak was reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 (WHO, 2020). Since it is relatively new, the knowledge about its impact on human health is still ongoing, but no cure has been developed yet. The health conditions identified and associated symptoms include sore throat, muscle and body aches, shortness of breath, fever or chills, cough, diarrhea, nausea, and congestion in the breathing system. However, people could be asymptomatic after contracting the virus. This proposal's problem is that the COVID-19 pandemic came with various implications for health and economic inequalities in New York City. There is historical and contemporary evidence of disparities in pandemics, particularly in the United States. Based on the international research on the impact of the Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918 and the H1N1 outbreak of 2009, there is evidence of socio-economic, ethnic, and geographical disparities in every pandemic (Abrams & Szefler, 2020; Ahmed et al. 2020). The COVID-19 is no different from the former pandemics considering the rate of infections and mortality. According to Turner-Musa et Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -2 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) al. (2020), the inequalities in COVID-19 conditions reflect the underlying economic disparities and the existing disparities in health and chronic disease's social determinants. The COVID-19 is closely related to the Spanish Influenza and H1N1 pandemics. All three Comment [Office1]: pandemic occurred against the backdrop of social and economic disparities in non-communicable diseases. The severity and prevalence of the COVID-19 pandemic are tremendous because of past chronic illnesses (Khan et al. 2020). Those pre-existing diseases are strongly correlated with the social determinants of health. Singer Merrill came up with a syndemic concept in his work to broaden the understanding of the relationship between HIV/AIDs and drug abuse and violence in the United States (Bambra et al., 2020; Lemke et al., 2020). According to Bambra et al. (2020), a syndemic occurs when risk factors entwine and interactively exacerbate the disease by exponentially exaggerating its adverse effects on a particular population. For this reason, people of color (particularly the African Americans) in New York City experienced COVID-19 as a syndemic. When COVID-19 broke out the New York City, many African Americans, especially the elderly, succumbed to the disease's fatality because they had pre-existing NonCommunicable Diseases (NCDs) and unfavorable social conditions. The unemployment rate for the minority community in 2020 was 11.4%, compared to the national average of 8.1% (Statista Research Department, 2021). What are the current socio-economic disparities increasing the risk of illness and mortality rates of African American communities to the COVID-19 virus? Statement of Purpose The purpose of this research proposal is to examine the relationship between the COVID19 as a public health issue and the underlying disparities impacting minority Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -3 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Comment [Office2]: This research proposal will examine the current …. communities. The case study to inform the research question is the African American community inhabiting New York City. The community is one of the American minority ethnic groups living in higher socioeconomic deprivation in New York. The group is below the federal poverty line, and its members constitute various marginalized groups, including prisoners. Rozenfeld et al. (2020) state that African Americans have a more significant number of coexisting noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) owing to the political, economic, and environmental determinants of health. This proposal uses a narrative approach and an analysis of data from not-for-profit hospital networks and the National Institute of Health (NIH) to establish the relationship between socio-economic status and the COVID-19. For example, racism is a social issue that has never ceased in the United States. It is why African Americans in New York are deficient in the social determinants of health (Lee et al., 2020). For instance, unemployment for this group is relatively high compared to the counterpart whites. Access to adequate housing, healthcare, and other social services is a critical challenge among blacks (Hawkins, 2020; Rogers et al., 2020; Henning-Smith et al., 2020). Most of them serve in the black color job market that may not yield enough income to facilitate proper education. Most of these people have underlying healthcare issues, including chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and conditions such as obesity. According to Raifman & Raifman (2020, p. 138), "people living in more socioeconomically disadvantaged neighborhoods and minority ethnic groups have higher rates of almost all of the known underlying comorbidities that increase the severity and mortality of COVID-19". Such Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -4 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) underlying risk factors include but are not limited to hypertension, asthma, diabetes, liver disease, renal disease, smoking, obesity, heart disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Theoretical Perspective Conflict Theory The conflict theory can be used to describe the patterns of class and how COVID19 affected the lower-class neighborhoods. Contact theory has been employed to an increasing extent by those interested in exploring social processes and social problems. The current interest in Negros and their problems and aspirations has resulted in a number of studies in which conflict theory is an important analytical tool (Williams, 1976). Conflict theory states society is in a state of continuous conflict because of competition for controlled resources. COVID19 had a major impact on the poor neighborhoods because of inadequate healthcare and the lack of proper resources. The conflict theory in relation to COVID19 and its effect on black people shows how disruptive and dysfunctional social conflict is, and the need for support in organizations and societies. Keywords: COVID-19, Health Disparities, Race/Ethnicity, Health Risk Factors/Comorbidities, Social Determinants of Health, African-American Community, Public Health Deficiency for Marginalized Groups, Pre-Existing Non-Communicable Diseases, Syndemic Impact, and access to social service. Comment [Office3]: Ayana, your Literature Review is well written. Where are the missing sources??? There should be a minimum of 20 peer-reviewed sources r Literature Review There are various descriptive elements of African Americans that demonstrate systemic disenfranchisement and oppression. The factors significantly contribute to the disproportionate Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -5 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Comment [Office4]: Try to include the name of the source when you go over it or the name of the journal so that I will know that you have included a certain source. However, I realize you are following Dr. Taylor’s video (and very well I might add. Check the number. impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, with the minority group enduring the worst impacts (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). The minority community is underrepresented in the medical profession and the government (Wright &Merritt, 2020). The statistics contribute to implicit biases and unconscious attitudes that disadvantage African Americans. Evidence of the same in the healthcare sector is determining who to be tested or complete ignorance of symptoms from the group (Wright &Merritt, 2020). State and local governments also have policies that do not incorporate the group. One such case is the drive-through testing, which does not account that a higher percentage of African American homes do not have cars than Whites' homes (Wright &Merritt, 2020). The governmental policies in place contribute to the health inequities by placing significant societal and cultural barriers to minority communities, including African American communities (Alcendor, 2020). Current statistics suggest disparities in the incidence prevalence and mortality rates of COVID-19 among racial and ethnic groups in the United States. According to Zahnd (2020), "African Americans, Hispanics, and the Native American Indians are disproportionately diagnosed with and die from COVID-19. These findings are explained by health risk factors such as respiratory illnesses, hypertension, malignancies, heart failure, cerebrovascular and pulmonary diseases, and diabetes (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020: Alcendor, 2020). African-Americans also have high BMI than Caucasians for children and adults (Wright &Merritt, 2020). The group's prevalence of health conditions contributes to acute respiratory distress syndrome and associated complications, severely decreasing their survival chances (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). African Americans are more prone to severe COVID-19 infections due to these underlying conditions (Alcendor, 2020). Similarly, social determinants of health, including access to healthcare, poor neighborhood and housing conditions, economic insecurity, Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -6 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) and limited resources, make these people more vulnerable to the virus (Henning- Smith et al. 2020). The American fraternity underestimated the effect of social determinants of health on the comorbidity of COVID19. "However, there is a serious public health lesion pointing back to decades and showing that the pandemic is proportionately affected the disadvantaged and the poor" (Reyes, 2020). Hearne and Niño (2021) argue that if the government can mitigate the problems of housing, overcrowding, and poor nutrition, it would be possible to minimize the effects of infectious diseases. Many African Americans in New York and other parts of the United States are relatively poor and exposed to smoke, increasing asthma morbidity. Limited access to healthcare implies that their control of asthma is poor. The interplay of asthma and COVID-19 explains the risk of COVID-19 severity due to disparities in hospitalizations for COVID-19. The discrepancy in American healthcare services provision is also shown to have surfaced along racial lines (Wright &Merritt, 2020). While the United States registers the highest healthcare spending, there is inadequate insurance, high-cost sharing on patients, and geographical disparities underlying healthcare access. Lakshay Sood and Vanita Sood (2020) state that 16% of African Americans did not have healthcare insurance than 6% of Whites in 2018. Over 25% of the African Americans were not insured until the inception of the Affordable Care Act's adoption. When COVID-19 entered the United States, testing kits were equally distributed across all fifty states without considering the population density and the actual needs for testing in every state. Jahromi and Hamidianjahromi (2020) identify ethnic minority communities as among the country's most vulnerable populations. During the testing period, many Americans let go of the chance to curb the virus's spread. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -7 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) In the process of testing, data was never thought to be biased by race on the number of tested individuals, but the actual data point to the fact that many African Americans missed testing. In Kansas, for instance, "the COVID-Racial Data Tracker showed that out of 94,780 tests carried out, only 4,854 were from African Americans, and 53,350 were from whites" (Reyes, 2020, p. 299; Credit, 2020). On the other hand, African American Americans constituted about 70% of deaths in the state. Only 78,650 Blacks were tested in Illinois than 220,930 Whites (Pollack & Kelly, 2020; Gold et al., 2020). African Americans contribute to 33% of the population in Louisiana, according to the 2019 Census, but the deaths of the population account for 55% of the total in the state (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). The American public media in New York reported on the COVID-19 mortality rate by ethnicity. The report shows that the minorities were hit hard, and among these, the African Americans in every state were severely affected (Ahmed et al. 2020). African Americans reported increased death rates in North Caroline, Michigan, St Louis, New York, Alabama, Louisiana, and Illinois than Caucasians (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). The statutory and federal bodies have responded to the pandemic by instituting several measures to curb the spread of the COVID-19 virus. Minority communities register higher rates (81%) of adhering to the regulation as opposed to the Whites (59%) (Alobula et al., 2020). However, the minority groups registered low knowledge and low attitude scores than the Whites registered at 30% versus 58%, and 27% versus 52%. The lack of equality in knowledge and attitude impedes the practice of the minority communities because they are not as empowered as the Whites and thus did not engage more freely. The findings provide insight into the increased prevalence of contracting the virus by African-American populations (Hearne & Niño, 2020). Equality in current education programs requires relevant authorities to diversify the tools used in Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -8 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) education programs for the COVID-19 virus because the current practices do not improve all citizens' engagement (Alobula et al., 2020). The African American community's distribution in the labor market contributes to their increased inherent risk for the COVID-19 virus. Most of the group works in the lowest-paying service and domestic occupations where face-to-face contact is mandatory. Such work environments limit the individual's capacity to follow social distancing guidelines, and most of the personnel are incapable of working from home (Snowden & Graaf, 2021). These occupations generally have no job security, which contributed to increased economic impact to the community following the surge in unemployment due to the pandemic. 46.6% of high-risk white adults live in households where one worker cannot work from home, which in contrast to 56.5% of Blacks. The same group of African American workers is less likely to get paid sick leave (Snowden & Graaf, 2021). The community households are more likely to place them in close proximity with others (Snowden & Graaf, 2021), significantly increasing the risk of contracting the COVID-19 virus. Snowden, L. R., & Graaf, G. (2021). COVID-19, social determinants past, present, and future, and African Americans' health. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 8(1), 12-20. DOI: Comment [Office5]: Another way to write the paragraphs, is to state https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00923-3 In the Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, the author examined (or assessed or discussed or explored)… In the peer-reviewed article, COVID-19, social determinants, past, present and future and African Americans’ health, Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -9 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Comment [Office6]: The journal title should be capitalized but not the periodical title. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -10 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Bibliography Abrams, E. M., & Szefler, S. J. (2020). COVID-19 and the impact of social determinants of Comment [Office7]: Also, unless Blackboard reformatted your paper which is very possible, each citation should be indented with a handing indent and the hyperlinks to the .do should be made available (blue and underlines). See example. The journal names should also be italicized. health. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 8(7), 659-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/S22132600(20)30234-4 Ahmed, F., Ahmed, N. E., Pissarides, C., & Stiglitz, J. (2020). Why inequality could spread COVID-19. The Lancet Public Health, 5(5), e240. https://doi.org/10.1016/S24682667(20)300852 Ahmed, S. M., Shah, R. U., Bale, M., Peacock, J. B., Berger, B., Brown, A., ... & Keegan, L. T. (2020). Comprehensive testing highlights racial, ethnic, and age disparities in the COVID-19 outbreak. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.05.20092031 Comment [Office8]: Check for possible missing information. The name of the journal??? Alcendor, D. J. (2020). Racial disparities-associated COVID-19 mortality among minority populations in the U.S. Journal of clinical medicine, 9(8), 2442. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9082442 Alobuia, W. M., Dalva-Baird, N. P., Forrester, J. D., Bendavid, E., Bhattacharya, J., & Kebebew, E. (2020). Racial disparities in knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to COVID-19 in the USA. Journal of public health, 42(3), 470-478. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdaa069 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -11 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Bambra, C., Riordan, R., Ford, J., & Matthews, F. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities. J Epidemiol Community Health, 74(11), 964-968. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech2020-214401 Credit, K. (2020). Neighborhood inequity: Exploring the factors underlying racial and ethnic disparities in COVID- 19 testing and infection rates using ZIP code data in Chicago and New York. Regional Science Policy & Practice, 12(6), 1249-1271. https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12321 Gold, J. A., Rossen, L. M., Ahmad, F. B., Sutton, P., Li, Z., Salvatore, P. P., ... & Jackson, B. R. (2020). Race, ethnicity, and age trends in persons who died from COVID-19 United States, May-August 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(42), 1517. https://dx.doi.org/10.15585%2Fmmwr.mm6942e1 Hawkins, D. (2020). Social determinants of COVID-19 in Massachusetts, United States: an ecological study. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, 53(4), 220. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7411251/ Hearne, B. N., & Niño, M. D. (2021). Understanding How Race, Ethnicity, and Gender Shape Mask-Wearing Adherence During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from the COVID Impact Survey. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 1-8. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40615-020-00941-1 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -12 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Henning- Smith, C., Tuttle, M., & Kozhimannil, K. B. (2020). Unequal distribution of COVID19 risk among rural residents by race and ethnicity. The Journal of Rural Health. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjrh.12463 Henning-Smith, C., Ramirez, M. R., Hernandez, A., Hardeman, R. R., & Kozhimannil, K. B. (2019). Differences in preventive care among rural residents by race and ethnicity. University of Minnesota Rural Health Research Center Policy Brief. https://rhrc. umn.Edu/publication/differences-in-preventive-care-among-rural-residents- by-racandethnicity/. Published. https://rhrc.umn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/UMNpreventive-services-disparities-policy-brief_11.8.19.pdf Jahromi, A. H., & Hamidianjahromi, A. (2020). Why African Americans are a potential target for COVID-19 infection in the United States. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(6), e19934. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/19934 Khan, M. M. A., Khan, M. N., Mustagir, M. G., Rana, J., Islam, M. S., & Kabir, M. I. (2020). Effects of underlying morbidities on the occurrence of deaths in COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Global Health, 10(2). https://dx.doi.org/10.7189%2Fjogh.10.020503 Lemke, M. K., Apostolopoulos, Y., & Sönmez, S. (2020). A novel COVID- 19 based truck driver syndemic? Implications for public health, safety, and vital supply chains. American journal of industrial medicine, 63(8), 659-662. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.23138 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -13 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Pollack, H., & Kelly, C. (2020). COVID-19 And Health Disparities: Insights From Key Informant Interviews | Health Affairs Blog. Retrieved February 25 2021, from https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20201023.55778/full/ Lee, A. C. K., Alwan, N. A., & Morling, J. R. (2020). COVID19, race and public health. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.06.052 Raifman, M. A., & Raifman, J. R. (2020). Disparities in the population at risk of severe 12 illness from COVID-19 by race/ethnicity and income. American journal of preventive medicine, 59(1), 137-139. https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(20)301550/pdf Reyes, M. V. (2020). The Disproportional Impact of COVID-19 on African Americans. Health and Human Rights, 22(2), 299. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7762908/ Rogers, T. N., Rogers, C. R., VanSant- Webb, E., Gu, L. Y., Yan, B., & Qeadan, F. (2020). Racial Disparities in COVID- 19 Mortality among Essential Workers in the United States. World Medical & health policy, 12(3), 311-327. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wmh3.358 Rozenfeld, Y., Beam, J., Maier, H., Haggerson, W., Boudreau, K., Carlson, J., & Medows, R. (2020). A model of disparities: risk factors associated with COVID-19 infection. International journal for equity in health, 19(1), 1-10. https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-020-01242-z Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -14 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Snowden, L. R., & Graaf, G. (2021). COVID-19, social determinants past, present, and future, and African Americans' health. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 8(1), 12-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00923-3 Sood, L., & Sood, V. (2020). Being African American and rural: double jeopardy from Covid19. J Rural Health, jrh-12459. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjrh.12459 Statista Research Department, (March 9, 2021). U.S. Unemployment Rate, by Ethnicity 2020. Retrieved https://www.statista.com/statistics/237917/us-unemployment-rate-byrace-andethnicity/ Turner-Musa, J., Ajayi, O., & Kemp, L. (2020, June). Examining social determinants of 13 health, stigma, and COVID-19 disparities. In Healthcare (Vol. 8, No. 2, p. 168). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8020168 Williams, J. (1976). Conflict Theory and Race Conflict. Social Science,51(1), 32-36. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41886040 Wright, J. E., & Merritt, C. C. (2020). Social equity and COVID- 19: The case of African Americans. Public Administration Review, 80(5), 820-826. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13251 World Health Organization. (2020). Novel Coronavirus ( 2019-nCoV): situation report, 3. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/docs/defaultProf. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -15 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) source/coronaviruse/situatioreports/20200130sitrep10ncov.pdf?sfvrsn=d0b2e480_2#:~:text=The %20final%20name%20of%20the,on%20Taxonomy%20of%20Viruses. Zahnd, W. E. (2020). The COVID- 19 pandemic illuminates persistent and emerging disparities among rural black populations. The Journal of Rural Health. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjrh.12460 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -16 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) KEY TERMS: LITERATURE REVIEW: Go to About for the journal and read what the journal is about. The Lancet Public Health is an online-only, open access title in The Lancet's growing family of specialty journals. Building on the foundation of The Lancet as a champion of public health research, this monthly journal is committed to publishing high-quality original Research Articles, Editorials, Comments, and Correspondence that contribute to advancing health equity, public health practice and policy making worldwide. The journal is indexed/abstracted in the DOAJ, MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, and in the Journal Citation Reports. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -17 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Paragraph Example #1: In the public health article “Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19,” published in The Lancet Public Health, the authors discuss [ or use words that describe the authors’ writing (e.g., examine, review, compare, critique]… [add the in-text citation at the end of the sentence inside the period]. Paragraph Example #2 The authors of The Lancet Public Health article published earlier this year examine [ or use words that describe the authors’ writing [e.g., compare, critique, review]…[add the intext citation at the end of the sentence inside the period]. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -18 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -19 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -20 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -21 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -22 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -23 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) METHODOLOGY: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -24 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) METHODOLOGY: DURING THE PANDEMIC USE THE CHART BELOW: INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CHART STEP 1: Count and make sure you have 20 sources that have been summarized in your Literature Review. STEP 2: Categorize the 20 sources as Peer-Reviewed articles (1st 2 columns) or Reports (Magazine articles or other sources, basically your secondary sources) in the last 2 columns. STEP 3: Make sure column 2 and column 4 add up to 20. STEP 4: Review your Peer Reviewed articles and determine the following: • • • • How many peer-reviewed articles have an abstract? (Second row) How many peer-reviewed articles are available online? How many peer-reviewed articles were published from 2015-2019? How many peer-reviewed article are directly related to your topic? STEP 5: Review your Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) and determine the following: • • • • How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) have an abstract? (Second row) How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) are available online? How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) were published from 20152019? How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) are directly related to your topic? STEP 6: Underneath your Chart, explain the reason for this type of Methodology, along with the various databases used to locate your materials. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -25 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Methodology Chart: During the Pandemic Inclusion Exclusion Based on the relevance and inclusion criteria Based on the relevance and exclusion criteria for this Research Proposal, 16 peer-reviewed for this Research Proposal, four additional articles qualified and were analyzed in the sources did not qualify but were analyzed in Literature Review. the Literature Review. Peer-Reviewed Reports (Magazine Articles 2020-2021 articles or other related sources) Published During the Pandemic (March 2020 – Present) Articles with an Reports (Magazine Abstract articles or other sources) containing cited sources (or other scientific evidence) Articles available Reports (Magazine online articles or other related sources) available online Articles published Reports (Magazine 2015-2019 articles or other Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -26 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Articles directly related to the Research Proposal Topic related sources) published prior to March 2020 Reports (Magazine articles or other related sources) directly related to the Research Proposal DISCUSSION: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -27 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) RECOMMENDATIONS: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -28 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) BIBLIOGRAPHY ERASE THESE INSTRUCTIONS: List all of the sources you used to generate your ideas about the topic including sources cited in your assignment, as well as source you did not cite but used for background information. Your citation should be indented similar to the citations below and include the website link. See examples below. ERASE ALL HIGHLIGHTED TEXT. Kinner, S. A., Young, J. T., Snow, K., Southalan, L., Lopez-Acuña, D., Ferreira-Borges, C., & O'Moore, É. (2020). Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19. The Lancet Public Health, 5(4), e188-e189. Retrieved from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(20)30058-X/fulltext Mohler, G., Bertozzi, A. L., Carter, J., Short, M. B., Sledge, D., Tita, G. E., Uchida, C. D., & Brantingham, P. J. (2020). Impact of social distancing during COVID-19 pandemic on crime in Los Angeles and Indianapolis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 68, 101692.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101692 Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235220301860 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -29 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Mohler, G., et al. (2020). Impact of social distancing during COVID-19 pandemic on crime in Los Angeles and Indianapolis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 68, 101692.Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235220301860 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -30 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) SOC 440-301: Research Proposal – Draft (First Half) Research Proposal Research Proposal: Sections 1-5, and 11 Student: Ayanna Salaam Does Not Meet Expectations (0-1) Approaches Expectation (2) 4/23/2021 Meets Expectations (3-4) 1. Title (see Rubric Point Description) Approaches Expectation (4-6) 2. Introduction: Statement of the Purpose (see Rubric Point Description) Approaches Expectation (4-6) √ Does Not Meet Expectations (0-3) Meets Expectations (7-9) Meets Expectations (7-9) Exceeds Expectations (10) 10 9 Exceeds Expectations (10) 10 9 √ Approaches Expectation (4-6) Meets Expectations (7-9) 4. Key Terms (see Rubric Point Description) Exceeds Expectations (10) 10 10 √ Does Not Meet Expectations (0-6) Approaches Expectation (7-13) 5. Literature Review (See Rubric Point Description) Meets Expectations (14-19) Exceeds Expectations (20) 20 15 √ Does Not Meet Expectations (0-1) Subtotal 5 √ Does Not Meet Expectations (0-3) 11. Initial Citation Format (see Rubric Point Description) 5 √ Does Not Meet Expectations (0-3) 3. Introduction: Statement of the Problem (see Rubric Point Description) Exceeds Expectations (5) Approaches Expectation (2) Meets Expectations (3-4) Exceeds Expectations (5) 5 3 √ 60 51 SOC 440-301: Research Proposal – Draft (First Half) Research Proposal Please carefully review and read the following: This Rubric, The Full Rubric with explanations for the points, and The brief comments on your Research Proposal. When you submit the Methodology, Discussion and Recommendation sections, you also will have the opportunity to revise your Research Proposal. Otherwise, the points above will added to and/or calculated into your final grade.. THE IMPACT OF COVID19 ON THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY Ayana Salaam John Jay College Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Senior Seminar April 16, 2021 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -1 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem This research examines the influence of the COVID-19 virus on exacerbating existing health and economic disparities for the African American population. The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a new strain of corona viruses. It presents a contagious respiratory disease whose outbreak was reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 (WHO, 2020). Since it is relatively new, the knowledge about its impact on human health is still ongoing, but no cure has been developed yet. The health conditions identified and associated symptoms include sore throat, muscle and body aches, shortness of breath, fever or chills, cough, diarrhea, nausea, and congestion in the breathing system. However, people could be asymptomatic after contracting the virus. This proposal's problem is that the COVID-19 pandemic came with various implications for health and economic inequalities in New York City. There is historical and contemporary evidence of disparities in pandemics, particularly in the United States. Based on the international research on the impact of the Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918 and the H1N1 outbreak of 2009, there is evidence of socio-economic, ethnic, and geographical disparities in every pandemic (Abrams & Szefler, 2020; Ahmed et al. 2020). The COVID-19 is no different from the former pandemics considering the rate of infections and mortality. According to Turner-Musa et Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -2 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) al. (2020), the inequalities in COVID-19 conditions reflect the underlying economic disparities and the existing disparities in health and chronic disease's social determinants. The COVID-19 is closely related to the Spanish Influenza and H1N1 pandemics. All three occurred against the backdrop of social and economic disparities in non-communicable diseases. The severity and prevalence of the COVID-19 pandemic are tremendous because of past chronic illnesses (Khan et al. 2020). Those pre-existing diseases are strongly correlated with the social determinants of health. Singer Merrill came up with a syndemic concept in his work to broaden the understanding of the relationship between HIV/AIDs and drug abuse and violence in the United States (Bambra et al., 2020; Lemke et al., 2020). According to Bambra et al. (2020), a syndemic occurs when risk factors entwine and interactively exacerbate the disease by exponentially exaggerating its adverse effects on a particular population. For this reason, people of color (particularly the African Americans) in New York City experienced COVID-19 as a syndemic. When COVID-19 broke out the New York City, many African Americans, especially the elderly, succumbed to the disease's fatality because they had pre-existing NonCommunicable Diseases (NCDs) and unfavorable social conditions. The unemployment rate for the minority community in 2020 was 11.4%, compared to the national average of 8.1% (Statista Research Department, 2021). What are the current socio-economic disparities increasing the risk of illness and mortality rates of African American communities to the COVID-19 virus? Statement of Purpose The purpose of this research proposal is to examine the relationship between the COVID19 as a public health issue and the underlying disparities impacting minority Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -3 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) communities. The case study to inform the research question is the African American community inhabiting New York City. The community is one of the American minority ethnic groups living in higher socioeconomic deprivation in New York. The group is below the federal poverty line, and its members constitute various marginalized groups, including prisoners. Rozenfeld et al. (2020) state that African Americans have a more significant number of coexisting noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) owing to the political, economic, and environmental determinants of health. This proposal uses a narrative approach and an analysis of data from not-for-profit hospital networks and the National Institute of Health (NIH) to establish the relationship between socio-economic status and the COVID-19. For example, racism is a social issue that has never ceased in the United States. It is why African Americans in New York are deficient in the social determinants of health (Lee et al., 2020). For instance, unemployment for this group is relatively high compared to the counterpart whites. Access to adequate housing, healthcare, and other social services is a critical challenge among blacks (Hawkins, 2020; Rogers et al., 2020; Henning-Smith et al., 2020). Most of them serve in the black color job market that may not yield enough income to facilitate proper education. Most of these people have underlying healthcare issues, including chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and conditions such as obesity. According to Raifman & Raifman (2020, p. 138), "people living in more socioeconomically disadvantaged neighborhoods and minority ethnic groups have higher rates of almost all of the known underlying comorbidities that increase the severity and mortality of COVID-19". Such Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -4 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) underlying risk factors include but are not limited to hypertension, asthma, diabetes, liver disease, renal disease, smoking, obesity, heart disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Theoretical Perspective Conflict Theory The conflict theory can be used to describe the patterns of class and how COVID19 affected the lower-class neighborhoods. Contact theory has been employed to an increasing extent by those interested in exploring social processes and social problems. The current interest in Negros and their problems and aspirations has resulted in a number of studies in which conflict theory is an important analytical tool (Williams, 1976). Conflict theory states society is in a state of continuous conflict because of competition for controlled resources. COVID19 had a major impact on the poor neighborhoods because of inadequate healthcare and the lack of proper resources. The conflict theory in relation to COVID19 and its effect on black people shows how disruptive and dysfunctional social conflict is, and the need for support in organizations and societies. Keywords: COVID-19, Health Disparities, Race/Ethnicity, Health Risk Factors/Comorbidities, Social Determinants of Health, African-American Community, Public Health Deficiency for Marginalized Groups, Pre-Existing Non-Communicable Diseases, Syndemic Impact, and access to social service. Literature Review Comment [Office1]: Add the article name or publisher in each of the paragraphs. There are various descriptive elements of African Americans that demonstrate systemic disenfranchisement and oppression. The factors significantly contribute to the disproportionate Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -5 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) In [add name of article], the authors discuss, explain, assess, or examine… [add in-textt citation]. impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, with the minority group enduring the worst impacts (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). The minority community is underrepresented in the medical profession and the government (Wright &Merritt, 2020). The statistics contribute to implicit biases and unconscious attitudes that disadvantage African Americans. Evidence of the same in the healthcare sector is determining who to be tested or complete ignorance of symptoms from the group (Wright &Merritt, 2020). State and local governments also have policies that do not incorporate the group. One such case is the drive-through testing, which does not account that a higher percentage of African American homes do not have cars than Whites' homes (Wright &Merritt, 2020). The governmental policies in place contribute to the health inequities by placing significant societal and cultural barriers to minority communities, including African American communities (Alcendor, 2020). Current statistics suggest disparities in the incidence prevalence and mortality rates of COVID-19 among racial and ethnic groups in the United States. According to Zahnd (2020), "African Americans, Hispanics, and the Native American Indians are disproportionately diagnosed with and die from COVID-19. These findings are explained by health risk factors such as respiratory illnesses, hypertension, malignancies, heart failure, cerebrovascular and pulmonary diseases, and diabetes (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020: Alcendor, 2020). African-Americans also have high BMI than Caucasians for children and adults (Wright &Merritt, 2020). The group's prevalence of health conditions contributes to acute respiratory distress syndrome and associated complications, severely decreasing their survival chances (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). African Americans are more prone to severe COVID-19 infections due to these underlying conditions (Alcendor, 2020). Similarly, social determinants of health, including access to healthcare, poor neighborhood and housing conditions, economic insecurity, Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -6 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) and limited resources, make these people more vulnerable to the virus (Henning- Smith et al. 2020). The American fraternity underestimated the effect of social determinants of health on the comorbidity of COVID19. "However, there is a serious public health lesion pointing back to decades and showing that the pandemic is proportionately affected the disadvantaged and the poor" (Reyes, 2020). Hearne and Niño (2021) argue that if the government can mitigate the problems of housing, overcrowding, and poor nutrition, it would be possible to minimize the effects of infectious diseases. Many African Americans in New York and other parts of the United States are relatively poor and exposed to smoke, increasing asthma morbidity. Limited access to healthcare implies that their control of asthma is poor. The interplay of asthma and COVID-19 explains the risk of COVID-19 severity due to disparities in hospitalizations for COVID-19. The discrepancy in American healthcare services provision is also shown to have surfaced along racial lines (Wright &Merritt, 2020). While the United States registers the highest healthcare spending, there is inadequate insurance, high-cost sharing on patients, and geographical disparities underlying healthcare access. Lakshay Sood and Vanita Sood (2020) state that 16% of African Americans did not have healthcare insurance than 6% of Whites in 2018. Over 25% of the African Americans were not insured until the inception of the Affordable Care Act's adoption. When COVID-19 entered the United States, testing kits were equally distributed across all fifty states without considering the population density and the actual needs for testing in every state. Jahromi and Hamidianjahromi (2020) identify ethnic minority communities as among the country's most vulnerable populations. During the testing period, many Americans let go of the chance to curb the virus's spread. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -7 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) In the process of testing, data was never thought to be biased by race on the number of tested individuals, but the actual data point to the fact that many African Americans missed testing. In Kansas, for instance, "the COVID-Racial Data Tracker showed that out of 94,780 tests carried out, only 4,854 were from African Americans, and 53,350 were from whites" (Reyes, 2020, p. 299; Credit, 2020). On the other hand, African American Americans constituted about 70% of deaths in the state. Only 78,650 Blacks were tested in Illinois than 220,930 Whites (Pollack & Kelly, 2020; Gold et al., 2020). African Americans contribute to 33% of the population in Louisiana, according to the 2019 Census, but the deaths of the population account for 55% of the total in the state (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). The American public media in New York reported on the COVID-19 mortality rate by ethnicity. The report shows that the minorities were hit hard, and among these, the African Americans in every state were severely affected (Ahmed et al. 2020). African Americans reported increased death rates in North Caroline, Michigan, St Louis, New York, Alabama, Louisiana, and Illinois than Caucasians (Jahromi & Hamidianjahromi, 2020). The statutory and federal bodies have responded to the pandemic by instituting several measures to curb the spread of the COVID-19 virus. Minority communities register higher rates (81%) of adhering to the regulation as opposed to the Whites (59%) (Alobula et al., 2020). However, the minority groups registered low knowledge and low attitude scores than the Whites registered at 30% versus 58%, and 27% versus 52%. The lack of equality in knowledge and attitude impedes the practice of the minority communities because they are not as empowered as the Whites and thus did not engage more freely. The findings provide insight into the increased prevalence of contracting the virus by African-American populations (Hearne & Niño, 2020). Equality in current education programs requires relevant authorities to diversify the tools used in Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -8 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) education programs for the COVID-19 virus because the current practices do not improve all citizens' engagement (Alobula et al., 2020). The African American community's distribution in the labor market contributes to their increased inherent risk for the COVID-19 virus. Most of the group works in the lowest-paying service and domestic occupations where face-to-face contact is mandatory. Such work environments limit the individual's capacity to follow social distancing guidelines, and most of the personnel are incapable of working from home (Snowden & Graaf, 2021). These occupations generally have no job security, which contributed to increased economic impact to the community following the surge in unemployment due to the pandemic. 46.6% of high-risk white adults live in households where one worker cannot work from home, which in contrast to 56.5% of Blacks. The same group of African American workers is less likely to get paid sick leave (Snowden & Graaf, 2021). The community households are more likely to place them in close proximity with others (Snowden & Graaf, 2021), significantly increasing the risk of contracting the COVID-19 virus. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -9 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Bibliography Abrams, E. M., & Szefler, S. J. (2020). COVID-19 and the impact of social determinants of health. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 8(7), 659-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/S22132600(20)30234-4 Ahmed, F., Ahmed, N. E., Pissarides, C., & Stiglitz, J. (2020). Why inequality could spread COVID-19. The Lancet Public Health, 5(5), e240. https://doi.org/10.1016/S24682667(20)300852 Ahmed, S. M., Shah, R. U., Bale, M., Peacock, J. B., Berger, B., Brown, A., ... & Keegan, L. T. (2020). Comprehensive testing highlights racial, ethnic, and age disparities in the COVID-19 outbreak. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.05.20092031 Alcendor, D. J. (2020). Racial disparities-associated COVID-19 mortality among minority populations in the U.S. Journal of clinical medicine, 9(8), 2442. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9082442 Alobuia, W. M., Dalva-Baird, N. P., Forrester, J. D., Bendavid, E., Bhattacharya, J., & Kebebew, E. (2020). Racial disparities in knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to COVID-19 in the USA. Journal of public health, 42(3), 470-478. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdaa069 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -10 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Comment [Office2]: Review each of your citations, there is missing information. Bambra, C., Riordan, R., Ford, J., & Matthews, F. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic and health inequalities. J Epidemiol Community Health, 74(11), 964-968. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech2020-214401 Credit, K. (2020). Neighborhood inequity: Exploring the factors underlying racial and ethnic disparities in COVID- 19 testing and infection rates using ZIP code data in Chicago and New York. Regional Science Policy & Practice, 12(6), 1249-1271. https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12321 Gold, J. A., Rossen, L. M., Ahmad, F. B., Sutton, P., Li, Z., Salvatore, P. P., ... & Jackson, B. R. (2020). Race, ethnicity, and age trends in persons who died from COVID-19 United States, May-August 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(42), 1517. https://dx.doi.org/10.15585%2Fmmwr.mm6942e1 Hawkins, D. (2020). Social determinants of COVID-19 in Massachusetts, United States: an ecological study. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, 53(4), 220. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7411251/ Hearne, B. N., & Niño, M. D. (2021). Understanding How Race, Ethnicity, and Gender Shape Mask-Wearing Adherence During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from the COVID Impact Survey. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 1-8. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40615-020-00941-1 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -11 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Henning- Smith, C., Tuttle, M., & Kozhimannil, K. B. (2020). Unequal distribution of COVID19 risk among rural residents by race and ethnicity. The Journal of Rural Health. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjrh.12463 Henning-Smith, C., Ramirez, M. R., Hernandez, A., Hardeman, R. R., & Kozhimannil, K. B. (2019). Differences in preventive care among rural residents by race and ethnicity. University of Minnesota Rural Health Research Center Policy Brief. https://rhrc. umn.Edu/publication/differences-in-preventive-care-among-rural-residents- by-racandethnicity/. Published. https://rhrc.umn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/UMNpreventive-services-disparities-policy-brief_11.8.19.pdf Jahromi, A. H., & Hamidianjahromi, A. (2020). Why African Americans are a potential target for COVID-19 infection in the United States. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(6), e19934. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/19934 Khan, M. M. A., Khan, M. N., Mustagir, M. G., Rana, J., Islam, M. S., & Kabir, M. I. (2020). Effects of underlying morbidities on the occurrence of deaths in COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Global Health, 10(2). https://dx.doi.org/10.7189%2Fjogh.10.020503 Lemke, M. K., Apostolopoulos, Y., & Sönmez, S. (2020). A novel COVID- 19 based truck driver syndemic? Implications for public health, safety, and vital supply chains. American journal of industrial medicine, 63(8), 659-662. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.23138 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -12 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Pollack, H., & Kelly, C. (2020). COVID-19 And Health Disparities: Insights From Key Informant Interviews | Health Affairs Blog. Retrieved February 25 2021, from https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20201023.55778/full/ Lee, A. C. K., Alwan, N. A., & Morling, J. R. (2020). COVID19, race and public health. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.06.052 Raifman, M. A., & Raifman, J. R. (2020). Disparities in the population at risk of severe 12 illness from COVID-19 by race/ethnicity and income. American journal of preventive medicine, 59(1), 137-139. https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(20)301550/pdf Reyes, M. V. (2020). The Disproportional Impact of COVID-19 on African Americans. Health and Human Rights, 22(2), 299. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7762908/ Rogers, T. N., Rogers, C. R., VanSant- Webb, E., Gu, L. Y., Yan, B., & Qeadan, F. (2020). Racial Disparities in COVID- 19 Mortality among Essential Workers in the United States. World Medical & health policy, 12(3), 311-327. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wmh3.358 Rozenfeld, Y., Beam, J., Maier, H., Haggerson, W., Boudreau, K., Carlson, J., & Medows, R. (2020). A model of disparities: risk factors associated with COVID-19 infection. International journal for equity in health, 19(1), 1-10. https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-020-01242-z Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -13 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Snowden, L. R., & Graaf, G. (2021). COVID-19, social determinants past, present, and future, and African Americans' health. Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities, 8(1), 12-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00923-3 Sood, L., & Sood, V. (2020). Being African American and rural: double jeopardy from Covid19. J Rural Health, jrh-12459. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjrh.12459 Statista Research Department, (March 9, 2021). U.S. Unemployment Rate, by Ethnicity 2020. Retrieved https://www.statista.com/statistics/237917/us-unemployment-rate-byrace-andethnicity/ Turner-Musa, J., Ajayi, O., & Kemp, L. (2020, June). Examining social determinants of 13 health, stigma, and COVID-19 disparities. In Healthcare (Vol. 8, No. 2, p. 168). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8020168 Williams, J. (1976). Conflict Theory and Race Conflict. Social Science,51(1), 32-36. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41886040 Wright, J. E., & Merritt, C. C. (2020). Social equity and COVID- 19: The case of African Americans. Public Administration Review, 80(5), 820-826. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13251 World Health Organization. (2020). Novel Coronavirus ( 2019-nCoV): situation report, 3. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/docs/defaultProf. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -14 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) source/coronaviruse/situatioreports/20200130sitrep10ncov.pdf?sfvrsn=d0b2e480_2#:~:text=The %20final%20name%20of%20the,on%20Taxonomy%20of%20Viruses. Zahnd, W. E. (2020). The COVID- 19 pandemic illuminates persistent and emerging disparities among rural black populations. The Journal of Rural Health. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjrh.12460 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -15 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) KEY TERMS: LITERATURE REVIEW: Go to About for the journal and read what the journal is about. The Lancet Public Health is an online-only, open access title in The Lancet's growing family of specialty journals. Building on the foundation of The Lancet as a champion of public health research, this monthly journal is committed to publishing high-quality original Research Articles, Editorials, Comments, and Correspondence that contribute to advancing health equity, public health practice and policy making worldwide. The journal is indexed/abstracted in the DOAJ, MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, and in the Journal Citation Reports. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -16 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Paragraph Example #1: In the public health article “Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19,” published in The Lancet Public Health, the authors discuss [ or use words that describe the authors’ writing (e.g., examine, review, compare, critique]… [add the in-text citation at the end of the sentence inside the period]. Paragraph Example #2 The authors of The Lancet Public Health article published earlier this year examine [ or use words that describe the authors’ writing [e.g., compare, critique, review]…[add the intext citation at the end of the sentence inside the period]. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -17 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -18 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -19 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -20 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -21 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -22 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) METHODOLOGY: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -23 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) METHODOLOGY: DURING THE PANDEMIC USE THE CHART BELOW: INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CHART STEP 1: Count and make sure you have 20 sources that have been summarized in your Literature Review. STEP 2: Categorize the 20 sources as Peer-Reviewed articles (1st 2 columns) or Reports (Magazine articles or other sources, basically your secondary sources) in the last 2 columns. STEP 3: Make sure column 2 and column 4 add up to 20. STEP 4: Review your Peer Reviewed articles and determine the following: • • • • How many peer-reviewed articles have an abstract? (Second row) How many peer-reviewed articles are available online? How many peer-reviewed articles were published from 2015-2019? How many peer-reviewed article are directly related to your topic? STEP 5: Review your Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) and determine the following: • • • • How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) have an abstract? (Second row) How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) are available online? How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) were published from 20152019? How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) are directly related to your topic? STEP 6: Underneath your Chart, explain the reason for this type of Methodology, along with the various databases used to locate your materials. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -24 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Methodology Chart: During the Pandemic Inclusion Exclusion Based on the relevance and inclusion criteria Based on the relevance and exclusion criteria for this Research Proposal, 16 peer-reviewed for this Research Proposal, four additional articles qualified and were analyzed in the sources did not qualify but were analyzed in Literature Review. the Literature Review. Peer-Reviewed Reports (Magazine Articles 2020-2021 articles or other related sources) Published During the Pandemic (March 2020 – Present) Articles with an Reports (Magazine Abstract articles or other sources) containing cited sources (or other scientific evidence) Articles available Reports (Magazine online articles or other related sources) available online Articles published Reports (Magazine 2015-2019 articles or other Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -25 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Articles directly related to the Research Proposal Topic related sources) published prior to March 2020 Reports (Magazine articles or other related sources) directly related to the Research Proposal DISCUSSION: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -26 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) RECOMMENDATIONS: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -27 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) BIBLIOGRAPHY ERASE THESE INSTRUCTIONS: List all of the sources you used to generate your ideas about the topic including sources cited in your assignment, as well as source you did not cite but used for background information. Your citation should be indented similar to the citations below and include the website link. See examples below. ERASE ALL HIGHLIGHTED TEXT. Kinner, S. A., Young, J. T., Snow, K., Southalan, L., Lopez-Acuña, D., Ferreira-Borges, C., & O'Moore, É. (2020). Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19. The Lancet Public Health, 5(4), e188-e189. Retrieved from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(20)30058-X/fulltext Mohler, G., Bertozzi, A. L., Carter, J., Short, M. B., Sledge, D., Tita, G. E., Uchida, C. D., & Brantingham, P. J. (2020). Impact of social distancing during COVID-19 pandemic on crime in Los Angeles and Indianapolis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 68, 101692.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101692 Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235220301860 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -28 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) Mohler, G., et al. (2020). Impact of social distancing during COVID-19 pandemic on crime in Los Angeles and Indianapolis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 68, 101692.Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235220301860 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -29 of 16- Research Proposal: Introduction (Spring 2021) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 1. TITLE INSTRUCTIONS: After completing your final draft, you may want to review your title to make sure that relates to the topic of your Research Proposal; summarizes the main idea; and describes your Research Proposal. 0 – 1% A title is not present or the title is unrelated to the topic of the research proposal. 2% A title is present but the title is missing key elements (does not summarize the main idea and/or does not describe the research proposal). 3% - 4% A title is present, and includes most of the key elements that are expected (summarizes the main idea and/or describes the research proposal). 5% A title is present, and includes all of the key elements. RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 0% – 3% 4% - 6% 7% - 9% 10% The Research Proposal fails to tackle a significant issue that impacts the discipline of Criminology and there is no attempt to build on previous research. The Research Proposal is relatively significant and there is an attempt to build on existing research. RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 3. INTRODUCTION: Statement of the Problem See relevant content posted on Blackboard under Introduction and Course Agenda Material, and Check-list, as well as PowerPoint. 0% – 3% 4% - 6% 7% - 9% 10% There is a small attempt to provide readers with a statement of the Problem and cite some of the relevant sources. There is a number attempts to provide readers with a statement of the Problem and cite most of the relevant sources. The student has provided readers with a Statement of the Problem, conducted thorough background research and cited all of the relevant sources. 2. INTRODUCTION: Statement of the Purpose See relevant content posted on Blackboard under Introduction and Course Agenda Material, and Check-list, as well as PowerPoint. There is no attempt to provide readers with a statement of the Problem and/or cite relevant sources. SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx The Research Proposal is significant and there is a good attempt to build on existing research. 1 of 9 pages Grade Component (Weight) Grade Component (Weight) The Research Proposal is very significant and the student has developed the purpose of the Research Proposal by building on the existing research. Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 0 – 1% There was no attempt to provide key terms used to research the topic. 2% There was a small attempt to provide key terms used to research the topic. 3% - 4% There was a major attempt to provide key terms used to research the topic. RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations 5% The student researched the topic, used key terms found in peer-reviewed articles, and provided a significant list of key terms that may used in the field for future research. Exceeds Expectations 5. LITERATURE REVIEW The student has conducted a thorough search and research on the topic and provided a critical analysis of the current published body of knowledge and identified relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research. 0 – 10% 11% - 19% 20% - 24% 25% The Literature Review is very comprehensive based on the student’s original research and describes relevant scientific material described in summary format based on the student’s original summaries. 4. KEY TERMS See template, Weekly Live-Session Course Agenda Materials, as well as PowerPoint. The Literature Review lacks comprehensive coverage of the relevant material. The Literature Review is relatively comprehensive and describes some of the relevant material. The Literature review is relatively comprehensive and describes most of the relevant material, although significant gaps still exist. The purpose of the Research Proposal is not clearly described and is not connected to the sources. The purpose of the Research Proposal is described, but not as clearly as it should be and some of the sources are not cited and are not summarized. The purpose of the Research Proposal is adequately described and clear, although some of the sources are not properly cited and are not properly summarized. There is some attempt to connect the material reviewed with the Literature Review. There is a good attempt to connect the material reviewed with the Literature Review. There is no connection using the selected sources reviewed, the summaries are inadequate, and the purpose of the Research Proposal is not clear based on the Literature Review. SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx 2 of 9 pages The Research Proposal is clear and the student described and provided an excellent connection between the sources reviewed and the student’s proposed topic. Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) Grade Component (Weight) Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 6. METHODOLOGY The student reviewed the Methodology sources posted on Blackboard, as well as the PowerPoint viewed and discussed during the Live Session(s). The student proposed and designed the process for carrying out research and developed the procedure for data collection. The student should select either the methods (e.g., Quantitative [or Qualitative, or mixed methods]) for studying the distribution and cause of crimes and explain what methods may be used (e.g. survey research, field research, evaluation research, and explain how this Research Project will assist criminologist in gathering reliable and valid data in the field of criminology. Qualitative research methods may include interviews, observations, actions and interactions, 0% – 3% No proposed methods section is included in the Research Proposal or many of the key elements of the methods section are missing (e.g., who the participants are/a description of the data collection process/ no list of materials material provided, the procedure is not clearly described, no method(s) of analysis is/are discussed. If applicable, in particular with live human subjects, there are no ethical issues considered. 4% - 6% The proposed methods section is included in the Research Proposal but many of the key elements of the methods section are missing (e.g., who the participants are/a description of the data collection process/ no list of materials material provided, the procedure is not clearly described, no method(s) of analysis is/are discussed. If applicable, in particular with live human subjects, there are a few ethical issues considered. 7% - 9% The proposed methods section is included in the Research Proposal but a few of the key elements of the methods section are missing (e.g., who the participants are/a description of the data collection process/ no list of materials material provided, the procedure is not clearly described, no method(s) of analysis is/are discussed, if applicable. In particular with live human subjects, there are some ethical issues considered. 10% The proposed methods section is included in the Research Proposal and all of the key elements of the methods section are included (e.g., who the participants are; a description of the data collection process; a list of the materials that may be provided; the procedure is clearly described; the method(s) of analysis is/are discussed, as well as any ethical issues, if relevant. SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx 3 of 9 pages Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 7. METHODOLOGY: DURING THE PANDEMIC Review the materials posted on Blackboard and the PowerPoint that provides the sample chart and materials for the assessment and analysis of the scientific evidence collected. 0% – 3% 4% - 6% 7% - 9% 10% No proposed Methods Section: during the Pandemic is included in the Research Proposal or many of the key elements of the Methods Section: during the Pandemic are missing (e.g., the Chart containing the twenty (20) sources that were retrieved, along with the key terms used to collect the material and the pertinent information concerning the year of the sources, type of sources, whether the source contained an abstract, and other relevant information related to the data collection process during the Pandemic). The proposed Methods Section: during the Pandemic is included in the Research Proposal but some of the key elements of the Methods Section: during the Pandemic are missing (e.g., the Chart containing the twenty (20) sources that were retrieved, along with the key terms used to collect the material and the pertinent information concerning the year of the sources, type of sources, whether the source contained an abstract, and other relevant information related to the data collection process during the Pandemic). The proposed Methods Section: during the Pandemic is included in the Research Proposal and includes many of the key elements of the Methods Section: during the Pandemic but not all of the elements (e.g., the Chart containing the twenty (20) sources that were retrieved, along with the key terms used to collect the material and the pertinent information concerning the year of the sources, type of sources, whether the source contained an abstract, and other relevant information related to the data collection process during the Pandemic). The proposed Methods Section: during the Pandemic is included in the Research Proposal and includes all of the key elements of the Methods Section: during the Pandemic (e.g., the Chart containing the twenty (20) sources that were retrieved, along with the key terms used to collect the material and the pertinent information concerning the year of the sources, type of sources, whether the source contained an abstract, and other relevant information related to the data collection process during the Pandemic). SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx 4 of 9 pages Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 0% – 3% 4% - 6% 7% - 9% 10% No potential research implications of the Research Proposal are discussed or adequately discussed and are not relevant. Some research implications are discussed, but they are not strongly connected to the the Research Proposal. • The relevant research implications, either theoretical or practical, are not properly discussed. Some important research implications are discussed, which are connected to the proposed Research Proposal. • A good attempt is made to discuss both theoretical and practical research implications connected to the relevant criminological theories. The student provided and discussed research implications that are important, relevant and discussed relevant criminological theories in the Research Proposal. • Both theoretical and practical implications are accurately described and connected to the relevant criminological theories. RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 9. RECOMMENDATIONS Provide at least five recommendations why this Research Proposal should significantly impact future research. 0% – 3% 4% - 6% 7% - 9% 10% No recommendations were made that describes the significance of submitting this Research Proposal for future research. A few recommendations were made that describe the significance of submitting this Research Proposal for future research. Some important recommendations were made that describe the significance of submitting this Research Proposal for future research. The student provided and discussed significant recommendations that are important and relevant and may impact future research. 8. DISCUSSION (Implications) Research implications suggest how the findings may be important for policy, practice, theory, and subsequent (future) research. Research implications are basically the conclusions that you draw from your Literature Review and explain how your analyze of the Literature Review may be important for policy, practice, and/or theory. Grade Component (Weight) [Reminder: View the materials under Criminological Theory posted on Blackboard including the film connecting and defining various theories. SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx 5 of 9 pages Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY Students were required to include all of the sources they used to research the background material for their topic, Introduction, key terms, Literature Review. 0 – 5% Major problems exist with the Bibliography. • Many citations in the body of the Research Proposal are missing • The Bibliography is either missing and/or or seriously problematic. 6%- 10% • An attempt has been made to include some of the sources used in the Research Proposal but some citations are missing in the body of the proposal. 11% - 14% • A good attempt has been made to cite the sources used in the Research Proposal • There are very few problems with the citations in the body of the proposal • There are very few problems with the Bibliography, except for a few minor errors. 15% • The Bibliography is excellent • The citations in the body of the Research Proposal are correctly cited. • The Bibliography is complete. RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 11. CITATION FORMAT 0 – 1% 2% 3% - 4% 5% The Research Proposal is formatted according to to APA (or ASA) formatting guideline very few errors and/or very few formatting errors. The Research Proposal is perfectly formatted according to APA (or ASA) formatting guidelines and there are no formatting errors. Student has followed a uniform citation style (e.g., APA or ASA style). Little or no attempt was made to format the Research Proposal according to meet the APA (or ASA) formatting guidelines. Many in-text citations in the body of the Research Proposal are missing and/or cited materials was not included in the Bibliography. SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx Some effort was put into formatting the Research Proposal according to meet the APA (or ASA) formatting guidelines. Some of the formatting elements are present, although a number of elements are missing. 6 of 9 pages Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) Grade Component (Weight) Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 12. ORGANIZATION OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL 0 – 1% 2% 3% - 4% 5% The student prepared a well-research, wellorganized Research Proposal. The Research Proposal is very disorganized and the template was not used • Certain sections of the proposal are missing or sections are in the wrong order • The writing does not flow logically either across sections or within sections, and the list of transition words (posted on Blackboard and distributed by email) were not used • The Research Proposal is somewhat disorganized • All sections of the proposal are present and the template was used BUT there are problems with the organization of the sections • The writing does not flow logically either across sections or within sections, and transition words (see Transition List on Blackboard) were not used. The Research Proposal is relatively organized • All sections of the proposal are present, template was used and the sections are presented in the correct order • The writing flows relatively well across sections and within sections, as well as some of the transition words have been used. The organization of the Research Proposal is excellent and the student used the template with the JJC logo. • All sections of the proposal are present and the template was used. • The flow of the writing is excellent across sections and within sections, and transition words are used throughout the Research Proposal. Grade Component (Weight) Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 13. GRAMMAR, PUNCTUATION, & SPELLING 0 – 1% 2% 3% - 4% 5% There are major grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors • The errors seriously interfere with the readability of the proposal There are grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors • The Research Proposal has errors that the student failed to change (e.g., errors that are visible like spelling errors with the red squiggly line underneath a word). Grammar, punctuation, and spelling is correct except for minor errors. • Evidence of proofreading is present. There are no grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors •The Research Proposal was clearly proofread or the student had the Proposal reviewed in the College’s Writing Center. The student took the initiative and reviewed the Research Proposal for grammar, punctuation, and/or spelling errors. SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx 7 of 9 pages Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) RESEARCH PROPOSAL Does Not Meet Expectations Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 14. ACCURACY, CLARITY, & CONCISENESS The student presented an accurate, clear and effective Research Proposal that is concise (using the fewest words to clearly convey the information required in each subsection of the Research Proposal. 0 – 1% 2% 3% - 4% 5% • Many factual errors exist within the Research Proposal. • The Research Proposal is not clearly written. • The writing is not concise and the content of the Research Proposal is irrelevant (based on the topic/subject covered in the Introduction). Most facts presented in the Research Proposal are accurate and the research (along with intext ctations) is discussed is accurate but some issues still remain unclear. • The Research Proposal is not clear and there are portions of the Research Proposal that are difficult to understand. • The writing is reasonably concise and relevant, although some of the content could have been re-organized either in chronological order or in order based on the significance (importance) of the subtopic. Almost all facts presented in the Research Proposal are accurate and the research (along with in-text citations) is generally accurate. • The Research Proposal is written with reasonable clarity although there are still a small number of issues in the Research Proposal that are difficult to understand • The writing is generally concise and relevant. All of the facts presented in the Research Proposal are accurate and the research and in-text citations are accurate. • The Research Proposal is clearly written and very easy to analyze a) why it is important in the discipline of criminology, and b) easy to review and analyze why the problems and issues related to the research should be conducted. • The Research Proposal is appropriately concise and relevant in the discipline of criminology, in particular during the global pandemic. SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx 8 of 9 pages Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric Grade Component (Weight) SOC 440-301: Dr./Professor Patricia Johnson Coxx Research Proposal Grading Rubric (Spring 2021) Does Not Meet Expectations • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Approaching Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 1. Title 2. Introduction • Statement of the Purpose 3. Introduction • Statement of the Problem 4. Key Term 5. Literature Review 6. Methodology Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Methods 7. Methodology: During the Pandemic 8. Discussion 9. Recommendations 10. Bibliography 11. Citation Format 12. Organization 13. Grammar, Punctuation & Spelling 14. Accuracy, Clarity & Conciseness TOTAL OF SECTIONS FINAL SCORE FINAL GRADE: RESEARCH PROPOSAL SOC 440-301 (Spring 2021) Dr./Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx 9 of 9 pages Research Proposal (final draft) Grading Rubric DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY John Jay College of Criminal Justice ERASE ALL HIGHLIGHTED TEXT SAVE THIS DOCUMENT SOC440YOURNAME052021 RESEARCH PROPOSAL (FINAL DRAFT) TEMPLATE SOC 440-301 [ADD YOUR FULL NAME] TITLE: [ADD THE TITLE OF YOUR RESEARCH PROPOSAL] INTRODUCTION: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: The statement of the problem is INTRODUCTION: STATEMENT OF THE PURPOSE: The statement of the purpose is KEY TERMS: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -1 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021) LITERATURE REVIEW: (Summarize only 20 sources, 20 paragraphs) Make sure you have included this citation in your Bibliography along with the Link so your reader can easily read the article. Kinner, S. A., Young, J. T., Snow, K., Southalan, L., Lopez-Acuña, D., Ferreira-Borges, C., & O'Moore, É. (2020). Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19. The Lancet Public Health, 5(4), e188-e189. Retrieved from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(20)30058-X/fulltext Go to About for the journal and read what the journal is about. The Lancet Public Health is an online-only, open access title in The Lancet's growing family of specialty journals. Building on the foundation of The Lancet as a champion of public health research, this monthly journal is committed to publishing high-quality original Research Articles, Editorials, Comments, and Correspondence that contribute to advancing health equity, public health practice and policy making worldwide. The journal is indexed/abstracted in the DOAJ, MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, and in the Journal Citation Reports. Paragraph Example #1: In the public health article “Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19,” published in The Lancet Public Health, the authors discuss [ or use words that describe the authors’ writing (e.g., examine, review, compare, critique]… [add the in-text citation at the end of the sentence inside the period]. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -2 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021) Paragraph Example #2 The authors of The Lancet Public Health article published earlier this year examine [ or use words that describe the authors’ writing [e.g., compare, critique, review]…[add the intext citation at the end of the sentence inside the period]. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -3 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021) METHODOLOGY: METHODOLOGY: DURING THE PANDEMIC USE THE CHART BELOW: INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CHART STEP 1: Count and make sure you have 20 sources that have been summarized in your Literature Review. STEP 2: Categorize the 20 sources as Peer-Reviewed articles (1st 2 columns) or Reports (Magazine articles or other sources, basically your secondary sources) in the last 2 columns. STEP 3: Make sure column 2 and column 4 add up to 20. STEP 4: Review your Peer Reviewed articles and determine the following: • • • • How many peer-reviewed articles have an abstract? (Second row) How many peer-reviewed articles are available online? How many peer-reviewed articles were published from 2015-2019? How many peer-reviewed article are directly related to your topic? STEP 5: Review your Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) and determine the following: • • • • How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) have an abstract? (Second row) How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) are available online? How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) were published from 20152019? How many Reports (Magazine articles or other sources) are directly related to your topic? STEP 6: Underneath your Chart, explain the reason for this type of Methodology, along with the various databases used to locate your materials. Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -4 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021) Methodology Chart: During the Pandemic Inclusion Exclusion Based on the relevance and inclusion criteria Based on the relevance and exclusion criteria for this Research Proposal, 16 peer-reviewed for this Research Proposal, four additional articles qualified and were analyzed in the sources did not qualify but were analyzed in Literature Review. the Literature Review. Peer-Reviewed Reports (Magazine Articles 2020-2021 articles or other related sources) Published During the Pandemic (March 2020 – Present) Articles with an Reports (Magazine Abstract articles or other sources) containing cited sources (or other scientific evidence) Articles available Reports (Magazine online articles or other related sources) available online Articles published Reports (Magazine 2015-2019 articles or other related sources) published prior to March 2020 Articles directly Reports (Magazine related to the articles or other Research Proposal related sources) Topic directly related to the Research Proposal Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -5 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021) DISCUSSION: RECOMMENDATIONS: Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -6 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021) BIBLIOGRAPHY ERASE THESE INSTRUCTIONS: List all of the sources you used to generate your ideas about the topic including sources cited in your assignment, as well as source you did not cite but used for background information. Your citation should be indented similar to the citations below and include the website link. See examples below. ERASE ALL HIGHLIGHTED TEXT. Kinner, S. A., Young, J. T., Snow, K., Southalan, L., Lopez-Acuña, D., Ferreira-Borges, C., & O'Moore, É. (2020). Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19. The Lancet Public Health, 5(4), e188-e189. Retrieved from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(20)30058-X/fulltext Mohler, G., Bertozzi, A. L., Carter, J., Short, M. B., Sledge, D., Tita, G. E., Uchida, C. D., & Brantingham, P. J. (2020). Impact of social distancing during COVID-19 pandemic on crime in Los Angeles and Indianapolis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 68, 101692.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101692 Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235220301860 Mohler, G., et al. (2020). Impact of social distancing during COVID-19 pandemic on crime in Los Angeles and Indianapolis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 68, 101692.Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235220301860 Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -7 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021) Prof. Patricia Johnson Coxx (SOC 440-301) -8 of 25- Research Proposal: FINAL DRAFT (Spring 2021)
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THE IMPACT OF COVID19 ON THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY:
OUTLINE
Thesis statement: Owing to institutional racism, socioeconomic status, and psychosocial
stress, the excessive burden of diverse chronic diseases, diabetes, and cardiovascular
disease that Black Americans face is amplified due to Coronavirus disease 2019
1. Introduction
a. Statement of purpose
b. Statement of the Problem
2. Theoretical Perspective
a. Conflict Theory
b. Keywords
2. Literature review
a. Description
3. Methodology
a. Description
b. Characteristics
4. Methodology during the pandemic
a. Description
5. Discussion
a. Explanation
6. Recommendations
a. Further recommendations


THE IMPACT OF COVID19 ON THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY
Ayana Salaam
John Jay
College Professor
Patricia Johnson Coxx
Senior Seminar
April 16, 2021

INTRODUCTION
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this research proposal is to examine the relationship between the COVID19 as
a public health issue and the underlying disparities impacting minority communities. The case
study to inform the research question is the African American community inhabiting New York
City. The community is one of the American minority ethnic groups living in higher socioeconomic
deprivation in New York. The group is below the federal poverty line, and its members constitute
various marginalized groups, including prisoners. Rozenfeld et al. (2020) state that African
Americans have a more significant number of coexisting non- communicable diseases (NCDs)
owing to the political, economic, and environmental determinants of health. Owing to institutional
racism, socioeconomic status, and psychosocial stress, the excessive burden of diverse chronic
diseases, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease that Black Americans face is amplified due to
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) (Yancy, 2020). We aim to utilize focus groups to learn
about the obstacles to COVID-19 care and prevention of Black Americans and use partnerships
and community-based methods with underrepresented minorities to improve confidence and
research attendance.
This proposal uses a narrative approach to establish the relationship between socio-economic
status and the COVID-19. For example, racism is a social issue that has never ceased in the United
States. It is why African Americans in New York are deficient in the social determinants of health
(Lee et al., 2020). For instance, unemployment for this group is relatively high compared to the
counterpart whites. Access to adequate housing, healthcare, and other social services is a critical
challenge among blacks (Hawkins, 2020; Rogers et al., 2020; Henning-Smith et al., 2020). Most

of them serve in the black color job market that may not yield enough income to facilitate proper
education. Most of these people have underlying healthcare issues, including chronic diseases such
as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and conditions such as obesity.
According to Raifman & Raifman (2020, p. 138), "people living in more socioeconomically
disadvantaged neighborhoods and minority ethnic groups have higher rates of almost all of the
known underlying comorbidities that increase the severity and mortality of COVID-19". Such
underlying risk factors include but are not limited to hypertension, asthma, diabetes, liver disease,
renal disease, smoking, obesity, heart disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Statement of the Problem
This research examines the influence of the COVID-19 virus on exacerbating existing health
and economic disparities for the African American population. The Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19) is a new strain of corona viruses. It presents a contagious respiratory disease whose
outbreak was reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 (WHO, 2020). Since it is relatively
new, the knowledge about its impact on human health is still ongoing, but no cure has been
developed yet. The health conditions identified and associated symptoms include sore throat,
muscle and body aches, shortness of breath, fever or chills, cough, diarrhea, nausea, and congestion
in the breathing system. However, people could be asymptomatic after contracting the virus. In
April 2020, US regional initiatives started introducing monitoring and interventions to expand
testing and minimize spread among vulnerable populations to track the development of COVID19, which has risen in occurrence in Black communities (Yancy, 2020). However, due to racial
obstacles to recruitment and poor participation in educational and healthcare services, Black people
are less likely to engage in scientific studies. In April 2020, US regional initiatives started

introducing monitoring and interventions to expand testing and minimize spread among vulnerable
populations to track the development of COVID-19, which has risen in occurrence in Black
communities (Yancy, 2020). However, due to racial obstacles to recruitment and poor participation
in educational and healthcare services, Black people are less likely to engage in scientific studies.
Due to this, it is essential to create integrative and inclusive methodologies that provide reliable
data about the current dynamics regarding racial oppression and its impact during the COVID-19
pandemic.
The COVID-19 pandemic came with various implications for health and economic inequalities
in New York City. There is historical and contemporary evidence of disparities in pandemics,
particularly in the United States. Based on the international research on the impact of the Spanish
influenza pandemic of 1918 and the H1N1 outbreak of 2009, there is evidence of socio-economic,
ethnic, and geographical disparities in every pandemic (Abrams & Szefler, 2020; Ahmed et al.
2020). The COVID-19 is no different from the former pandemics considering the rate of infections
and mortality. According to Turner-Musa et al. (2020), the inequalities in COVID-19 conditions
reflect the underlying economic disparities and the existing disparities in health and chronic
disease's social determinants.
The COVID-19 pandemic is closely related to the Spanish Influenza and H1N1 pandemics. All
three occurred against the backdrop of social and economic disparities in non-communicable
diseases. The severity and prevalence of the COVID-19 pandemic are tremendous because of past
chronic illnesses (Khan et al. 2020). Those pre-existing diseases are strongly correlated with the
social determinants of health. Singer Merrill came up with a syndemic concept in his work to
broaden the understanding of the relationship between HIV/AIDs and drug abuse and violence in
the United States (Bambra et al., 2020; Lemke et al., 2020). According to Bambra et al. (2020), a

syndemic occurs when risk factors entwine and interactively exacerbate the disease by
exponentially exaggerating its adverse effects on a particular population. For this reason, people of
color (particularly the African Americans) in New York City experienced COVID-19 as a
syndemic. When COVID-19 broke out the New York City, many African Americans, especially
the elderly, succumbed to the disease's fatality because they had pre-existing Non- Communicable
Diseases (NCDs) and unfavorable social conditions. The unemployment rate for the minority
communit...

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