Earliest Europeans in North America 1 CHRESTIEN LE CLERCQ The Customs and Religion of the Indians (C.1700) Chrestien Le Clercq was a missionary to the MikMaq Indians in the late 17 th century. He sacrificed a comfortable life in France for a difficult and somewhat dangerous life in North America. He worked hard to convert the native people’s to Christianity, with very little success. While the missionaries were often misguided and believed the native peoples to be inferior to Europeans, they generally believed they were helping the Indians find what they considered the righteous path. This is an excellent example of two key concepts: Eurocentrism and the cultural construction of gender. 2 Eurocentrism • Practice of putting emphasis on European culture and customs. • Assumes European concepts and people are superior This is an important concept that helps us understand how and why the Europeans treated native peoples like second class citizens and assumed the natives were ignorant savages. Christianity and the social hierarchies of Europe led European people to believe they were god’s chosen people and as such, they had a right to rule over all other people. It also helps explain how slavery was allowed to become a bedrock institution. We see the residue of this ideology when we examine the daily lives of people of color in the U.S. The tragic events in Charlottesville, Virginia, are evidence of this white privilege in action. This concept also explains why many fundamentalist Christian groups still treat women like servants to men. 3 Cultural Construction of Gender • • • • • Concepts of Masculine and Feminine Based on Social Norms and Values, not Biology Varies depending on Culture Defines expectations for Men and Women Potential Problems? For Men? Women? One of the most common ways dominant groups oppress subordinate groups is with the argument that the subordinate group is biologically inferior. The English once suggested that they were descendants of the angels but the Irish (my people) were descended from apes and therefore the Irish are inferior and must bend to the will of the English. For American women, the argument used to deny them their basic rights was that they are not capable of rational thought, that they need and must depend on men. This line of thinking kept women in subjection for hundreds of years. In the later 20 th century, scholars began looking closely at what creates gender norms. They discovered that gender roles vary immensely from one country to another. The expectations for men and women are different, depending on the region of the world. In some areas of India, women build the homes and men are agriculturalists. In other parts of the world, women are the agriculturalists. In native communities, some women became warriors and this was not frowned upon or considered strange. A great example of this is in chapter one of the text book: Weetamoo, of the Pocasset tribe, was a fierce warrior. From this evidence, historians developed the theory that gender is culturally constructed, it is not a fixed category determined by biology alone. Look for evidence of this in the excerpts that follow. 4 • “As our Indians perceive that much honour is accorded to the missionaries, and that they have given themselves in respect and reverence the title of Patriarch, some of these barbarians have often been seen meddling with, and affecting to perform, the office and functions of missionary, even to hearing confession, like us, from their fellow countrymen.” Notice the use of language to convey ownership, “our Indians.” How does Le Clercq refer to the native peoples? Where does he use a disparaging and condescending tone? What is he expressing with this statement? Surprise? Anger? What is it and why? 5 • “It is a surprising fact that this ambition to act the patriarch does not only prevail among the men, but even the women meddle therewith. These, in usurping the duality and the name of religieuses, say certain prayers in their own fashion, and affect a manner of living more reserved than that of the commonalty of Indians, who allow themselves to be dazzled by the glamour of a false and ridiculous devotion.” What is so surprising to Le Clercq? What concept outlined earlier in this power point does his surprise reflect? How so? What is clear about Le Clercq’s assumption about women’s roles from this excerpt? How does Le Clercq evaluate the MikMaq’s religion? 6 • “They look upon these women as extraordinary persons, whom they believe to hold converse, to speak familiarly, and to hold communication with the sun, which they have all adored as their divinity. Not long ago, we had a famous one of them who, by her extravagant superstitions, encouraged the same in these poor Indians.” Why is Le Clercq surprised that women are revered as “extraordinary” by the MicMaq? What two concepts does this statement reflect? How? 7 “It can truly be said that if some one of these people would devote himself wholly to goodness, and would take care to instruct the others, he could accomplish prodigies among them, since they would easily believe everything that a man of their nation would tell them.” “… it angered these persons beyond endurance to contradict them in a foolishness which passed in their esteem for something divine and sacred.” What does Le Clercq believe these people have devoted themselves to? What is he suggesting they should do, according to this quote? Why does he suggest “they would easily believe everything that a man of their nation would tell them?” Why, according to Le Clercq, did the MicMaq get upset with him? 8 French and Indian War, aka: Seven Years War - battle between the French and British over colonial lands - led to seething resentment. The colonists resented British soldiers demanding room and board, taking over colonial homes, treating the colonials or “Yankees” as if they were second class citizens, and British protection of Native lands. Women often took the brunt of caring for soldiers while their husbands were away. Colonial settlers wanted access to Native lands and the British, in attempts to prevent further conflict with Native peoples and costly wars, issued the: Proclamation of 1763, which halted all settlement west of the Appalachian line. After the Treaty of Paris, which ended the French and Indian War, all French lands in North America were yielded to the British. The Native peoples who fought along side the French suffered tremendous losses after the war as the British, unlike the French, did not attempt to co-exist with the Native peoples. Their goal was to dominate them. The Sugar Act , passed by the British in the American colonies, started a series of fiscal reforms aimed at reducing the cost of keeping British troops in N. America – many of these reforms directly affected the cost of domestic products, purchased by women. The act required complicated forms and gave judges 5% incentive for guilty verdicts. It lowered costs but increased convictions/enforcement of taxes. Townshend Act: taxed glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea and further exacerbated tensions between colonists and the British. 1 This is the line that marked the end of where colonists were allowed to settle. Many colonists ignored this British attempt at limiting settlement (in order to reduced tensions with native peoples) and built homes and used land that crossed the line. 2 As tensions mounted, women were forced to take sides. To cut the cord with the British and move away from dependency on British goods, women were encouraged to boycott British goods. In reaction to the Townshend Act (1767), which imposed taxes on glass, paper, paint, and imported tea to pay for the salaries of British royal officials in the colonies, outraged colonists in the major seaports began a boycott of British imports in 1768. This broadside from slide above, which would have been posted in public places, was aimed at merchants who refused to honor the boycott. The reference to “Daughters of Liberty” conveys the importance of women as consumers to colonial resistance. Spinning Bees became a popular symbol of resistance as women spun their own cloth and avoided purchasing imported British cloth. Their involvement spurred a new sense of patriotism and pride, which led to an increased confidence and sense of purpose. Lucy Knox-wife of general Henry Knox, wrote her husband during war that when he returned, he should not consider himself “commander in chief of your own house, but be convinced that there is such a thing as equal command.” Freedom Petitions were arguments for liberty presented to New England courts in 1770’s by enslaved Africans. These increased as talk of liberty and freedom spread. All of these developments give us a strong sense of how powerful the influence of liberty rhetoric was for women, African Americans, and colonists in general. 3 Native American people endured repeated usurpations of their lands by encroaching white settlers. This coupled with British promises of the return of their lands at the close of the war led most Native peoples to side with the British. Colonial victory meant loss of liberty for Indians as settlers gained access to their lands. Many tribes were divided as older leaders faced off against younger warriors. African American men and women were offered their freedom, which was a powerful incentive and led thousands to join the British troops. Runaway slaves were often times treated worse than they were in bondage. Many were abandoned or not given food if rations were low. White women had a variety of different experiences, depending on their religion, their husbands political position, and their own convictions. Quaker women, opposed to war by religious beliefs and attempted to remain neutral but were often attacked for their position and treated as if they were traitors. Tories were colonials who were loyal to the British. Many women were forced into this position by husbands who worked for the British. When their husbands were away, these women were ostracized and many had their houses plundered, their food and provisions stolen. The Patriots were women who supported the rebels (colonists fighting against the British). Women contributed to the war effort in many ways. 4 Women contributed to the war effort in many ways!!! Camp followers did cooking, cleaning, laundry, prepared ammunition, and some took up arms. Many women nursed wounded soldiers and thousands of women remained home where they managed plantations, farms, and businesses of all kinds. Many of the women who remained home also worked to raise money for the war. Wars are not fought without money; their contributions were immensely important. The rebels were not getting much foreign support because most expected the British to win. The funds women raised were vital to the war effort. The Ladies Assoc. of Philadelphia was started by Esther DeBerdt Reed and Sarah Franklin Bache, daughter of Benjamin Franklin. There were also several hundred (impossible to determine an exact number) women who taped their breasts and dressed as men to fight as soldiers. Deborah Samson fought for nearly two years. Rachel and Grace Martin, were sister spies for the rebels and Sybil Ludington became known as the female Paul Revere. Her father, a Colonel of the local Patterson, New York militia, heard news of the British approaching and needed help alerting his troops throughout the countryside. His 16 year daughter volunteered to ride 40 plus miles through the rain in the middle of the night. 5 This is an excerpt from a letter written by Abigail Adams to her husband, John Adams. Abigail Adams was the wife of John Adams, the second president of the United States. She was not formally educated, as most women were not allowed a formal education, but she was a voracious reader and highly intelligent woman. It’s clear from the letters between she and her husband that she did not agree with the patriarchal policies of colonial, male leaders of the revolutionary era. In this excerpt, she is threatening her husband by claiming that women have the power to “subdue their masters” and she argues that giving men unchecked power, “arbitrary” power, will always lead to destruction. Like many other oppressed groups, women were influenced by the talk of revolution, by the rhetoric of liberty and freedom. Abigail Adams makes it clear that she wants women to be represented in this new government, as do many other women as well. She helps to debunk the myth that women happily went along with their subservient roles and did not want anything more. They knew they were being oppressed and demanded change for hundreds of years but men were in power and did not want to give up their position of privilege. Do we still deal with these issues today? What does having only 17% women in congress today suggest about this imbalance? 6 *Daughter of a poor Massachusetts farmer, Deborah Sampson disguised as a man, enlisted in the Continental Army at 21 years old in 1782. Influenced by religious revivalism, became a Baptist in 1780. *Had been an indentured servant until 18 years of age in 1782. *Participated in several key battles, extracted a bullet from her own leg in order to avoid a doctor discovering her gender. Her second injury caused a fever and upon examination her identity was discovered. Her commanding officer knew her secret but kept it to himself and she was honorably discharged at the end of the war. Many years later, at the behest of fellow soldiers, she received a soldier’s pension. Without the help of fellow male soldiers, including Paul Revere, she would not have received anything. What does this suggest about how our leaders valued women’s involvement? 1802-became a public lecturer, dressing in uniform, carrying a musket, and speaking to large audiences. “ I burst the tyrant bonds which held my sex in awe and clandestinely or by stealth, grasped an opportunity which custom and the world seemed to deny, as a natural privilege.” In this image, Sampson is portrayed wearing genteel, feminine attire. 7 Paul Revere made this engraving weeks after five people were accidentally killed in a shooting in Boston. The image depicts the British soldiers wantonly firing into a crowd of unarmed, innocent bystanders. That is not how this episode unfolded. Several sailors, a few of which were blasted drunk, had been following the “red coats” or British soldiers around all day. They had been badgering them, throwing things at them. That evening, one of the men threw a block of ice and one of the soldiers fell to the ground, accidentally discharging his weapon. The other soldiers thought they were being fired upon and began shooting their weapons as well. Five people were killed in this tragic event but it was not a “massacre” as the engraving suggests. What purpose would such propaganda serve? Why would Revere represent the situation in this way? 8 This woodcut depicts a crowd in New Hampshire trying to intimidate the stamp official by hanging his effigy and staging a mock funeral. Colonists were often very violent in their efforts to stop the British. In some cases, mob violence superseded any real form of justice. 9 Bostonians, after tarring and feathering the tax collector, force tea down his throat. A noose hangs from the “Liberty tree” and the Boston Tea party is happening in the background. Tarring and feathering was a common practice in the revolutionary era. It was a terrible, brutal, cruel and often lethal crime. Hot tar was poured over people’s bare skin, then feathers were stuck to them and they were paraded through the city streets. The tar was impossible to remove and would often tear the skin, nearly down to the bone, off of the victim’s body. This is another example of the intense violence and mob mentality of revolutionary politics. 10 British cartoon, “A Society of Patriotic Ladies” (1774) created in response to 51 women in Edenton, N.Carolina, who signed a pledge to boycott British goods. What do you notice about this cartoon? What does the dog and child suggest? What does the woman with the gavel suggest? What about the man and woman in the middle of the cartoon? 11 A romanticized depiction of a battle during the Revolutionary War. Notice women are present, again debunking the myth that women were removed from the chaos. 12 After the war, many desperate tribes that had fought with the British were forced to acquiesce to American rule. The new U.S government pushed Native peoples into farming and the efforts to proselytize (convert) them increased. They were expected to abandon their customs, including those that allowed women some power and freedom. Native men who had once been hunters were suddenly idle and without the land or resources to continue the traditions of their ancestors. Despondent and confused, many turned to alcohol, which compounded the issue of domestic violence against women. Early 19th C painting features Creek Indians as U.S agent Benjamin Hawkins introduces them to plows as a first step in Americanizing them. He focuses on men, placing his back to the woman who stands among the food stuffs she has produced. This stance represents white officials’ and missionaries’ goal of redefining gender roles among the Creek so that men would abandon hunting in exchange for farming, while women would give up their traditional role of raising crops to undertake domestic roles in the home. 13 Some African American women benefited from the new nations celebration of “liberty” when their owners were compelled to set them free; however, their emancipation had limitations. Black women struggled to find work outside of domestic jobs. Many took in boarders as a way of supplementing their meager salaries. This trend of manumission (freeing slaves) was short lived. Quakers, by the war’s end, were increasingly less tolerant, less apologetic about slavery. When the Cotton Gin was invented, there was an increased demand for slaves but after 1804 the transatlantic slave trade was illegal. The only way for slave owners to get more slaves was to buy locally or breed them. This increased the incidences of rape against black slave women and encouraged slave owners to push their female slaves into sexual relationships with other slave men. 14 For some white women, the Revolutionary era led to a kind of empowerment and longing for a broader political role. Deputy Husbands were women who took over responsibilities ordinarily reserved for men while their husbands were off fighting or creating policy like John Adams. Abigail Adams wrote to her husband, “remember the ladies,” suggesting that women deserved a greater role in the new republic. The response to women like Abigail Adams was to give women a new title. They were not given the vote or considered full citizens but they were the “Republican Mothers.” Republican Mothers would raise the next generation of American sons to be virtuous and support their new republic. This new title served as a platform for women to argue for many changes. Judith Sargent Murray argued that women needed a formal education in order to be the best Republican Mothers. Women expanded on this role to include work outside the home, voluntary organizations that broadened the female sphere. Divorce Laws-all states allow after war except S. Carolina 15 Portrait of John and Elizabeth Lloyd Cadwalader and their daughter Anne. 1772-prominent Philadelphia businessman and family by artist Charles Wilson. This illustrates the emerging ideal of companionate marriage, which is based on affection rather than male authority. Companionate Marriage-Emerging ideal for marriage in late 18th and early 19th centuries, one based on friendship and mutuality rather than the model of master and servant. Abigail Adams helped to influence this shift with her notion that men should give up the “harsh title of Master for the more tender and endearing one of Friend.” 16 1792 painting by Samuel Jennings. This is a depiction of liberty suggests the way that revolutionary ideology ignited questions about women’s and slaves’ freedom. The female figure offers books to newly freed slaves. Other forms of knowledge depicted are a globe, an artist’s palette, and the top of a column evoking the republic of ancient Rome. Beneath her left foot lies a broken chain. In the background, free slave enjoy leisure time. This linked slavery with tyranny and liberty with abolition. 17 
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