12 Compliance Gaining Rachel dewis/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • • • • • • • • • Define compliance gaining and list the six principles that function to gain compliance. Explain the reciprocity principle and a technique to employ it. Explain the social validation principle and a technique to employ it. Explain the commitment/consistency principle and a technique to employ it. Explain the liking principle and a technique to employ it. Explain the scarcity principle and a technique to employ it. Explain the authority principle and a technique to employ it. Discuss how culture factors into compliance gaining. Apply compliance gaining principles to a real-world context. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 249 8/26/14 4:19 PM Defining Compliance Gaining Section 12.1 Every year in the United States, Disney releases one or two movies from its “vault” of classic movies. For example, in 2014 the movie The Jungle Book was released from the Disney Vault in a Blu-ray Disc™ format. See http://video.disney.com/watch/blu-ray-trailer-jungle -book-4eaa1405f72777fc2e2e78e7. Disney movies are offered for sale only for a limited time, after which they “go back in the vault” for about 7 years. Before the advent of videotape recordings for the home in the 1970s, Disney would release movies through theaters in a 7-year cycle, which would allow children and their parents to see classic animated movies (Smith, 2012). Once VHS recordings became available, Disney continued with the cycle of limited releases, updating the video products for DVD and then Blu-ray, with platinum and diamond editions, and so on. Rare or rediscovered content is added to the new editions, which increases their value for consumers. See http:// video.disney.com/watch/the-disney-vault-4bb39e5beef06a8833003b15. Obviously, Disney does not have a literal vault for the films, but the imagery of a locked vault reinforces the idea that access to the movies is scarce. Scarcity is meant to stimulate demand for the movie and increase sales. Scarcity is one of six principles that persuasion professionals use to increase the likelihood that someone will comply with a request. In this chapter we will examine compliance, which is an action that is taken because it has been requested. This means a person acts merely because he has been asked to do so. There really is no change in attitudes, only a change in behavior. This is different from persuasion. As you recall (from Chapter 1), compliance gaining is distinct from persuasion because attitudes are not involved. A person still retains his or her free will in complying with a request, but no internal change has occurred for that person. 12.1 Defining Compliance Gaining You can think of compliance gaining as a type of interpersonal influence (Cialdini & Sagarin, 2005). Much of the success of this interpersonal influence builds on social norms. Therefore, the effectiveness of these principles of social influence will vary from one place to the next to the extent that social norms vary from one place to the next (Rhoads & Cialdini, 2002). You will learn about six principles of compliance gaining. These principles have been distilled and formulated by a distinguished social scientist, Robert Cialdini, after years of observation and testing (Cialdini, 2009). The principles are reciprocity, social validation, commitment/consistency, liking/friendship, scarcity, and authority. Keep in mind that these are general tendencies, and not laws of behavior. Because people vary, their responses to these principles will vary also. You should also know at the outset that some of the techniques discussed in this chapter are unethical—a couple of them are even illegal. Therefore, you need to be mindful of such applications in the real world. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 250 8/26/14 4:19 PM Reciprocity Principle Section 12.2 12.2 Reciprocity Principle The first principle is reciprocity, which is an equitable exchange between two or more parties; in more common terms, we know this as “returning a favor.” A person should be more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favor or a concession. Societies have a long tradition of people exchanging gifts and favors. Generally, receiving a gift can create a sense of obligation on the part of the person receiving the gift. We tend to pay someone back after they have done something nice for us. In fact, some people make it a point not to accept gifts or favors because they do not want to feel obligated to someone in the future. Many businesses now make it company policy that employees are not allowed to accept gifts from outside vendors or third parties for just this reason. Image Source/Image Source/Superstock We are more likely to agree to requests from people who have provided us a gift or favor. Humans are social beings and this principle helps us survive as a society. Parents of young children sometimes swap babysitting services with each other so they can have a night out. If Ed helps his neighbor Tennyson repair a fence one day, Tennyson likely will offer to help Ed when he patches a concrete sidewalk in the near future. If we cannot help each other in direct ways, we will find some other way to do it. One man I know mows the lawn for his elderly neighbor, and she consistently bakes cookies for him. This principle helps a society function well, but this principle can also be used on purpose to influence another person’s behavior. Fundraising organizations use this principle quite often. For example, they will include stickers, return address labels, a notepad, or some other type of small gift when they send out a solicitation for funds. Including the small gift increases the likelihood that someone will send a donation in return. Likewise, food servers at a restaurant who include a small gift such as foil-wrapped chocolate candy along with the bill tend to receive much higher tips (Strohmetz, Rind, Fisher, & Lynn, 2002). Interestingly, it is not the gift itself but the server’s apparent generosity that leads to higher tips. In a follow-up study with four conditions, the server was instructed (a) not to offer candy with the bill; (b) to offer each diner one piece of chocolate; (c) to offer each diner two pieces of chocolate; or (d) to offer one piece of chocolate, turn to walk away, and then, as if as an afterthought, return to offer a second piece of chocolate. Each one of the candy conditions resulted in higher tips than the control condition, as before, and offering two pieces of chocolate resulted in higher tips than just offering one piece. Further, the “afterthought” condition led to even higher tips than the two-piece condition. This means that it was the server’s apparent generosity, more than the amount of the gift itself, that led bill payers to reciprocate with a higher tip. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 251 8/26/14 4:19 PM Social Validation Principle Section 12.3 One technique that follows from the reciprocity principle is the door-in-the-face technique. This technique involves making an extreme request, which is rejected, and then following that up with a much more modest request, which was the initial objective. All things being equal, the person will be more likely to agree to the request. This tendency is based on reciprocal concessions, which is a type of a favor. By making a concession on the original request, the requester can expect the target person to make a similar concession as well. Let’s say that you wanted to have some of your roommate’s peanut butter, but your roommate was likely to say no to you, based on your extensive history of mooching. You could ask, “Can I have your sirloin steak that’s in the refrigerator?” When your roommate says no, you follow up by asking, “Well, can I have a few tablespoons of your peanut butter?” All things being equal, your roommate, not wanting to appear callous or unreasonable in the face of your concession, is likely to agree. Fundraisers often use the door-in-the-face technique. They will ask for a rather high donation, knowing that you most likely will refuse. Then, the fundraiser will request a much more modest amount. The next time that you get a solicitation request in the mail, take a look at the amounts that are requested. Usually, the response card will suggest a series of donation amounts such as $500, $250, $100, $20, or $5. The target donation that they are seeking is $20. You subtly reject the higher figures, which makes the $20 figure seem like a more reasonable request. The $5 figure is too small to make it worth your while, so that the $20 figure is bracketed between extremely high values and the pittance value. The next-to-last value is the target donation amount. 12.3 Social Validation Principle The second principle is social validation. A person should be more willing to comply with a request if that behavior is consistent with what similar other people are thinking or doing. In other words, we look at what other people are doing as a guide to what we should do. You probably know that bartenders and musicians often “prime” the tip jar with a few bills to encourage people to make a contribution. Have you wondered, however, if it is better to prime the jar with bills or with coins? Scientists in New Zealand tested this in a field experiment by setting a Plexiglas® box at the entrance to an art gallery and secretly filming people’s donation behavior. Then, they left different combinations of currency to see how they might influence donations (see Figure 12.1). When the box held bills primarily, fewer people made donations, but the donations themselves were higher in value. When the box held mostly coins, a larger number of people made donations, but the individual donations were lower in value. When the box was empty, the total value donated was substantially less. Apparently, the empty box suggested a norm that most people were not donating. The scientists concluded that the best combination was a mix of bills and coins to suggest that both types of donations were appropriate. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 252 8/26/14 4:19 PM Social Validation Principle Section 12.3 Figure 12.1: The effect of the social validation principle on donation behavior Based on the findings in Martin and Randal’s study, what might be the most lucrative way for a bartender to prime the tip jar? Source: Martin, R., & Randal, J. (2008). How is donation behavior affected by the donations of others? Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 67(1), 228–238. Copyright © 2008, Elsevier. I recently came across a message that was intended to increase people’s participation in a donation campaign. The message stated, in part, that “11% of the employees in our organization have already made a donation.” What do you think that message was communicating? The author of the message presumably was trying to get more people to participate in the campaign, but the unintended effect of the message most likely was that “very few people are participating in the campaign.” And, consequently, most people likely would feel less pressure to participate if they were made aware that most of their peers were not participating either. This is an example of a descriptive norm. You will recall (from Chapter 2) that a descriptive norm contains information about what other people are doing. An injunctive norm contains information about what most people approve of or disapprove of in a particular situation. It is important to note that we examine the behavior of people who we think are similar to us. That is one reason why political candidates list endorsements on a campaign website. Similarly, many companies and organizations want Facebook users to “like” their page. A large number of likes suggests a strong degree of social validation, which, in turn, should lead to a greater number of customers or volunteers, and so on. In one field experiment, scientists sought to determine if a person’s tendency to “like” a status update might be influenced by who has already “liked” it (Egebark & Ekström, 2011). The experiment had three conditions, (a) one in which one unknown user liked the update, (b) one in which three unknown users liked the update, and (c) one in which one known peer liked the update. A single unknown user had no effect on a person’s tendency to “like” an update. However, endorsement either by three unknown users or by one peer significantly increased the likelihood that a user would “like” the update. This effect was limited to clicking the “like” button, a relatively simple behavior. The endorsements had no such effect on the likelihood that a user would add a comment, which is a more effortful behavior. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 253 8/26/14 4:19 PM Commitment-Consistency Principle One technique that follows from this principle is the list technique. In this technique, you show a target person a list of similar other people who have already engaged in this behavior. For example, if you are asking people to sign a petition, it helps if you have several pages of names of people who have already signed the petition. People are much less likely to be one of the first people to sign a petition, but they are much more likely to sign a petition if it looks like many similar people have already signed the petition. So, let’s say that you want to get members of a sorority to participate in a food drive. You will have a higher participation rate if you are able to show a list of other members of that specific sorority who have already agreed to participate. Or, if you want a sorority, as a whole, to agree to participate in the food drive, you should first show a list of other sororities that have already agreed to participate in it. The type of factor that can be used to show that someone identifies with another group of people is nearly endless. It can be based on geographic area, such as showing someone that everyone else in their neighborhood has agreed to participate, or based on ethnicity, gender, employment, religious affiliation, and so on. Section 12.4 age fotostock/age footstock/Superstock We are more likely to sign a petition if we believe other people who are similar to us have already signed it. 12.4 Commitment-Consistency Principle A third principle is the commitment-consistency principle. After a person commits to a position, that person should be more willing to comply with a request for behavior that is consistent with that position. As you saw in Chapter 10, people have a tendency to be consistent, or at least to want to be. That is, they want to behave the same way in a variety of situations, and they want their attitudes and behavior to be consistent with each other. People not only want to be consistent, but they also want to appear to be consistent because consistency signals to us someone who is rational and reasonable. For the commitment to have an effect on subsequent behavior, it is important for the commitment to be voluntary, active or effortful, and public or visible to others (Rhoads & Cialdini, 2002). The principle still works, although sometimes not as strongly, when the commitment isn’t effortful or public. Many techniques stem from this principle. We will examine them in more detail here. One technique that I used as a salesperson is sometimes called the four walls technique. That is, you get the person to say yes to a series of questions, each one of which is intended to probe the likelihood that the person is ready to make a purchase. If a person responds consistently to these questions, he boxes himself in (thus the name “four walls”) to act in accordance with his responses. For example, during a test drive the salesperson can ask does the car handle well? (Yes.) Is the steering wheel responsive? (Yes.) Do you like the comfort of the fabric? (Yes.) Is the display easy to read? (Yes.) Does the car ride quietly? (Yes.) Did you feel mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 254 8/26/14 4:19 PM Commitment-Consistency Principle Section 12.4 the power of the engine? (Yes.) Will this car have better fuel economy than your current one? (Yes.) If the payments are right for your budget, would you like to go ahead and buy this car today? (Yes.) The idea is that the customer has expressed a positive attitude toward the product several times. If the customer has agreed to many reasons why the vehicle is a good choice and has many favorable features, it would be illogical (inconsistent) not to explore purchasing the car. Of course, as you learned in Chapter 9, if the customer believes that the salesperson is using a sales technique, this one, like any other technique, could backfire. The trial close is another technique that relies on the commitment-consistency principle. The trial close is used to address potential objections and takes this format: If I could . . . , would you . . . ? For example, the salesperson would say, “If I could get the car payments to less than $350, would you buy this car today?” Or, “If I could find a model that had a DVD player installed, would you buy it?” Once the customer makes a commitment, the salesperson will do everything possible to meet that condition. If the salesperson can meet that condition, then the customer is more likely to follow through . . . or raise another objection. If the customer refuses to make any commitment, then the salesperson knows that the customer is not a serious prospect at that time. Another technique is the foot-in-the door technique. In this case, the requester asks for a small favor, which almost certainly will be granted. In fact, the target would look unreasonable if he did not go along with the request. Then the requester follows up with a larger and related favor. People who agree to the first request are much more likely to agree to the second larger request. For example, people who were asked to give someone the time of day were more likely to agree to a subsequent request to give that person some spare change (Guéguen & Fischer-Lokou, 1999). In one field experiment, homeowners were asked to wear a small lapel pin to promote a local charity, while others were not (Pliner, Hart, Kohl, & Saari, 1974). A week or so later, people who had agreed to wear the pin were more likely to contribute money to that charity. What happened was that wearing the lapel pin changed the person’s attitudes so that the person developed a slightly favorable attitude toward the charity. Then, when the person was asked for a donation, that favorable attitude meant that the person was more likely to give money. After all, a person’s attitudes and behaviors need to align, or be consistent, as you saw in Chapter 10. Another technique is the bait-and-switch tactic, which is illegal in most states. Retailers might advertise a particular product at a special low price. When the customer arrives to take advantage of the special price, he or she finds out that the product is no longer in inventory, or that it is missing a particular feature that he or she thought would be included. In essence, a retailer attracts customers with one product (the “bait”) and then tries to sell them another product (the “switch”). However, because the customer has already made the commitment of driving to the store and investing the effort to get there, the consumer typically agrees to purchase some other similar product at a higher price. That is why many states insist that the advertised product be in stock on the day the ad runs. Auto dealers even have to display in the ad the stock number of the advertised vehicle. A similar technique is called the lowball technique. In this technique the salesperson pitches an unreasonably low price to get the customer to make some sort of commitment, either a commitment to come to the store, or a commitment to try the product, or so on. However, when the time comes to make the actual purchase, the salesperson “discovers” some reason why the initial price cannot be honored. The salesperson might not have known that floor mats mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 255 8/26/14 4:19 PM Liking Principle Section 12.5 were not included in the price, or that a special paint protection package had been added, and so on. Of course, lying about a product’s price is unethical. Unlike the bait-and-switch technique, the lowball technique does not involve trying to switch a customer to another product. Instead, the lowball technique focuses on attracting a customer with an unrealistically low price for a product and then raising the price for that same product. Another tactic is the legitimization-of-paltry-favors technique. This is also known as the even-a-penny-would-help technique. Most people want to see themselves as being kind, considerate, and helpful, and it would be heartless—that is, inconsistent with their self-image—to turn down a request for a single penny. All things being equal, people will agree to a request if even a small, token, or trivial amount is requested. This request makes it acceptable to offer a trivial amount of help. In this case, it is difficult for the target to refuse to help and still be consistent with their idea of being a nice, helpful individual. Ironically, once a person agrees to help, the amount they give usually is more than the trivial amount that the requester mentioned. For example, if Susan asks John to give just a dollar to a charity fundraiser, and John agrees to give, John likely will give $4 or $5, and not just the single dollar. So, the technique increases the likelihood that someone would give, but it does not really affect the amount that a person would give. 12.5 Liking Principle Exactostock/Exactostock/Superstock We tend to like people who appear to be similar to us, whether in race, gender, clothing, or personality. The fourth principle is called the liking, or friendship, principle. A person should be more willing to comply with requests of friends or of other people who they like. We tend to like people who are similar to us. The basis for this similarity, as you recall from Chapter 11, can be almost anything. Not surprisingly, we also like people who pay us compliments. We also like people who cooperate with us to help us meet some sort of an objective. You are probably more likely to help your friends when they ask you for help than you are to help a stranger. This is only natural. However, some organizations take advantage of this principle to increase people’s compliance behavior. Some companies’ sales strategies depend largely on the liking principle. A young man named Milton once went on a job interview at a company that sells financial products and services. The interview went well, but Milton was struck by a question at the end of the interview. The interviewer asked him how many friends and family he had in the local area. Milton, a college student, replied that he had very few friends and family in that area. After the interview, he remarked to me that it was odd that they would ask that question. I explained to him that this company probably was using the liking principle for sales. That is, Milton would be asked to mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 256 8/26/14 4:19 PM Liking Principle Section 12.5 contact all of his friends and family and try to sell them financial products. Because he was their friend or their relative, they would be more likely to agree to his request. I then warned him that once he ran out of friends and family to call, he likely would be dismissed from his job, presumably because of the decline in his sales performance. This company was well known for its high level of turnover in its sales force. Essentially, the company was “hiring” people who had networks of friends to use those networks to sell product. This is a common hiring strategy used by organizations that employ commission-based salespeople. Network marketing companies thrive on this principle. A hostess invites her friends to a party for jewelry, or home cleaning products, or nutritional supplements, and so on. The people who attend are more likely to buy something because of a sense of obligation or loyalty to their friend. The distributor, or seller, displays the products and describes their features and benefits, but the fact that the people in attendance are friends of the hostess increases the likelihood that they would purchase something. This liking principle applies to a range of personal characteristics. We tend to like people who are physically attractive, and this carries over into how we evaluate them on other dimensions, which is known as a halo effect, as shown in Figure 12.2. We attribute all sorts of positive outcomes to physically attractive people, believing them to be more sociable, and, to a lesser degree, more intelligent (Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991). Even when people are exposed to pictures of a politician for a fraction of a second, they are likely to perceive more attractive candidates as being more competent, and this tendency is reflected in actual voting results (Verhulst, Lodge, & Levine, 2010). Of course, physical attractiveness can backfire too. In one set of experiments, photos of attractive children, versus unattractive children, generated less empathy for attractive children and fewer charitable responses from viewers, as long as the need was moderate (Fisher & Ma, 2014). Figure 12.2: The halo effect Can you think of a time when the physical attractiveness of a person influenced your beliefs about their other personal characteristics? Likable Sociable Intelligent mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 257 Successful Attractive Competent In addition to liking people who are physically attractive, we like people who share some sort of similarity with us, as you read in Chapter 11. We also like people who flatter us, even if we know the flattery was less than sincere. In fact, the flattery does not even need to be true, and it still works (Rhoads & Cialdini, 2002). We also tend to like and favor people with whom we cooperate (Brewer, 1979). Once we have interacted with someone in a group setting, we tend to like that person more, even months later, which means mere familiarity enhances liking, unless we have gotten to know that person a little too well (Norton, Frost, & Ariely, 2013). 8/26/14 4:19 PM Scarcity Principle Section 12.6 12.6 Scarcity Principle A fifth principle is scarcity. A person will normally try to secure opportunities that are scarce or running out. If something is rare, or risks becoming rare, it becomes more valuable. Typically, something that is harder to obtain tends to be more valuable. Consider Virgil’s® root beer (http://reedsinc.com/product/virgils-root-beer/). The product packaging highlights the fact that the beverage is made from a blend of unique and rare herbs and spices, such as anise, wintergreen, pimento berry oil, and cassia oil. These spices were sourced from around the globe and were chosen after years were invested in developing the beverage’s taste. These facts are meant to make the root beer more valuable, and worth the higher price that is charged compared to other root beer competitors. Likewise, manufacturers capitalize on the scarcity principle all the time. Makers of figurines will create “special editions” of a particular doll. Early access to a Disney theme park is only valuable if the access is limited to a few people, and not the general public. A book author will go on tour, offering to sign copies of her latest novel to promote the book’s sales. Having the author’s signature makes the book much more valuable because there is a limited quantity. One technique that comes from this principle is the deadline technique. You see it all the time. Advertisers will say that a particular offer is available only for a “limited time,” such as 1 week, or 3 days, or 24 hours. It could be that a product is available for a limited time, or in limited quantities; or it could be that a special discount, price, or incentive is available for a limited time. Richard Levine/age footstock/Superstock People are more likely to take advantage of resources or opportunities that are scarce or dwindling. Just as people hate to miss out on a good deal, people more generally are also susceptible to wanting to avoid a loss. So, framing a message in terms of avoiding a loss tends to be more effective than framing a message in terms of making a gain (Rhoads & Cialdini, 2002). Scarcity is not limited to material resources; years of life are a limited resource too. For example, if you want to encourage someone to stop smoking, should you highlight the years of life that someone could gain by extending one’s life? Or, should you highlight the years of opportunities that someone could lose? You might think they are equivalent, but tobacco-cessation messages that emphasize that a smoker could lose years of life by continuing to smoke are more effective than messages that emphasize the years of life that could be added if a smoker were to stop (Wilson, Purdon, & Wallston, 1988). In other words, years of life are a scarce resource that is running out. Let’s say José is a 25-year-old smoker who wants to quit. If you highlight the years of life he will lose, along with missing out on the opportunity for important mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 258 8/26/14 4:19 PM Scarcity Principle Section 12.6 life experiences, such as playing with his grandchildren and visiting new places, he will be more motivated to quit smoking now than if you highlight the possibility of extending his life by several years and gaining more experiences as a consequence. The end result of quitting smoking is the same, but the way the message is framed can be an important motivational factor. With regard to health issues specifically, the effectiveness of either a loss-framed message relative to a gain-framed message will vary according to the health issue and the type of action that is desired, whether preventing disease (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2007) or screening for a disease (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2009). For example, no difference has been found for the effect of message framing on encouraging vaccinations (O’Keefe & Nan, 2012), while gain-framed messages are more effective for encouraging people to brush and floss their teeth (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2007). Further, the degree to which someone is susceptible to a health risk can influence whether a loss-framed message is more effective than a gain-framed message. For people who think they are vulnerable to a risk, a loss-framed message is more effective (Hull, 2012; Hwang, Cho, Sands, & Jeong, 2012). Generally speaking, though, people tend to be loss averse, meaning that people are more strongly motivated by avoiding a loss than making a gain (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984). People are particularly prone to loss aversion when they face something concrete (rather than abstract) like a choice in the near future; if they think about the distant future, then they tend to focus on benefits and making gains (Lynch & Zauberman, 2007; Malkoc & Zauberman, 2006). So, highlighting scarcity might be particularly effective when it concerns a loss of something concrete in the near future. Persuasion in Focus: Persuasion and Career Advancement People may be reluctant to ask for raises or promotions at work. If this sounds like you, how can you improve your persuasive abilities in this area? One strategy is to find an advocate. Having an advocate can help you be perceived as more prestigious (Cliffe, 2013). This is the heart of the authority principle; if you have someone standing in your corner, especially someone in a position of power, that person can use their authority to speak about your skills. For example, if you are seeking a raise and a highly respected colleague puts in a good word for you, he or she might carry general authority. You will gain some leverage based on the general esteem that person’s opinion carries. Likewise, if this respected colleague possesses specific authority over you—perhaps holding an upper-level management position—he or she can vouch for your specific skills, which will likely confer to you some additional leverage. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 259 8/26/14 4:19 PM Authority Principle Section 12.7 Persuasion in Focus: Persuasion and Career Advancement (continued) What other persuasive techniques can be used to secure a raise or promotion? In this chapter, we’ve discussed physical attractiveness, finding similarities with others, flattering others, and becoming familiar. Each of these techniques can be helpful in some instances, but unfortunately all of these can be drawbacks as well. When managers of the opposite sex focus on employees’ appearances, for example, they might not focus as much on more substantive attributes. We’re not restricted to authority appeals only, however. Reciprocity, social validation, commitment-consistency, and scarcity appeals can help you make a more persuasive case for yourself. Below is a brief run-down of how you can use each in trying to get a raise or promotion: • • • • Reciprocity: Return all favors and do favors whenever possible. Social validation: Follow workplace norms for hours worked and production. Find common ground with others to find ways to “socialize.” This will improve the odds of being “liked.” Commitment-consistency: Follow through on all promises, and expect the same of others. If a boss has made promise but not kept it, ask for clarification or explanations as to why. Scarcity: Identify rare, specialized skills and highlight these qualities (or have others do so). If you are willing to leave the position for better pay, find ways to share this information with the boss; people try to avoid loss, especially when replacement skills aren’t easy to come by. Critical Thinking Questions 1. 2. 3. —Cheri Ketchum, Ph.D. How might incorporating some of these kinds of appeals help you overcome any personal barriers to advancement that you might feel? Have you ever relied on an advocate to help you be more persuasive? What are some ways you have seen social validation come into play in your current or previous job(s)? Reference Cliffe, S. (2013, July/August). The uses (and abuses) of influence. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from http://hbr.org/2013/07/the-uses-and-abuses-of-influence/ar/1 12.7 Authority Principle The sixth principle is that of authority. People are more willing to follow the suggestions of someone who appears to be an authority. Authority can come from expertise, such as the expertise that stems from acquiring special knowledge, or authority can come from the exercise of power. It makes sense that we would follow the suggestions of someone who is an expert, or an authority. We often do not have the time or resources to develop the expertise that would be needed in every area of life, so we rely on and defer to those who specialize in things we do not. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 260 8/26/14 4:19 PM Summary of Compliance-Gaining Principles Denkou Images/Denkou Images/Superstock We are more likely to agree to requests from people who appear to be an authority. Section 12.8 There are two kinds of authority: specific authority, and general authority. Specific authority, as the name implies, is specific to a particular situation. A nutritionist, for example, would be considered an expert in the area of nutrition, but not clothing or plumbing. Medical doctors and nurses enjoy specific authority. An electrician enjoys specific authority. General authority, on the other hand, applies in several types of situations. Authority can be real or apparent. That is, symbolic authority can be just as effective as real authority; that is why most security guards at shopping malls wear a uniform that resembles a police uniform. People are more likely to go along with the request from someone who appears to have authority. As a mall employee, the shopping mall security guard indeed does have authority on that private property. But wearing a police-type uniform increases the likelihood that people will go along with that person’s requests. Advertisers use the authority principle when they have an actor wear a lab coat while presenting a nutritional supplement. People who wear a business suit can also appear to be an authority. In one study, researchers had a person wear ordinary work clothes, that is, a wrinkled blue denim shirt, dirty patched pants, and scuffed shoes, and cross the traffic as a jaywalker at a busy intersection in Austin, Texas (Lefkowitz, Blake, & Mouton, 1955). Someone else then counted the number of people who also crossed illegally with the jaywalker. That person then changed into a business suit, tie, and shined shoes, and again crossed traffic as a jaywalker. More than three times as many people were willing to follow the person when he wore a business suit than when he wore ordinary work clothes. That is, people were willing to risk their own lives and illegally walk across a busy intersection just because someone wearing a business suit did it. 12.8 Summary of Compliance-Gaining Principles Although we have discussed each of the six principles of compliance gaining separately, two or more can function together to increase the likelihood that someone would comply with a request. In fact, most persuasion professionals use several at the same time. A salesperson for financial products might display credentials in her office (authority); share personal information, along with family photos, in a get-acquainted interview (liking); and have an album of customer testimonials for the prospective customer to view (social validation). She might mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 261 8/26/14 4:19 PM Cultural Factors in Compliance Gaining Section 12.9 also offer the customer trial access to investment resources (reciprocity), and if the customer explores the material and tries it out, the customer is more likely to follow through with a request for the salesperson’s business (commitment/consistency). The principles can be used in some sort of sequence. For example, let’s say you are a music marketer for a label that targets college students. You might want to get a potential customer to make a small commitment, such as visiting a Facebook page or listening to a sample song, in hopes that the person will be more likely to comply with a larger request at a later time (consistency/commitment). To get the initial commitment, you might hire a few college students as your “campus representatives” to increase the likelihood that students would agree to the label’s initial request (liking). At an initial stage, your campus rep might remark that the new song file, or tickets to a release party, etc., are limited to just a few hundred people (scarcity). However, once enough people have downloaded the file or acquired tickets, then your rep shows how popular the artist is and how the artist is trending more highly (social validation). 12.9 Cultural Factors in Compliance Gaining Keep in mind that compliance-gaining principles are based on social norms, and because norms vary from one society to the next, the principles’ effectiveness will vary, too. In an interdependent culture (such as that of Japan), individuals are more attuned to social relationships and obligations, compared with an independent culture (such as that of the United States). In fact, ads in South Korea tend to emphasize in-group or family benefits and social relations, while ads in the United States tend to stress personal benefits (Han & Shavitt, 1994). Therefore, a technique based on social validation should be stronger in an interdependent culture. For example, ads in South Korea are more likely than U.S. ads to feature a social validation appeal such as, “Seven out of 10 people are using this product” (Kim & Markus, 1999). In a culture in which it is important to fit in with one’s group, being made aware of what similar others are doing, as in the list technique, should prove to be quite effective. On the other hand, a technique based on commitment/consistency should be stronger in an independent culture. In one study, people in Asia and the United States were asked to complete a relatively brief online survey (Petrova, Cialdini, & Sills, 2007). About 1 month later, they received a request to participate in a survey that they were told would take 40 minutes, that is, a larger, related request. Among people who agreed to the initial invitation, U.S. participants were more likely than Asian participants to agree to the subsequent request. In other words, the commitment-consistency principle was stronger among U.S. participants. As further evidence, a measure of a person’s orientation toward individualism or collectivism was shown to account for this difference. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 262 8/26/14 4:19 PM Practical Application: Social Validation and Similarity in Hotel Conservation Messages Section 12.10 Persuasion in the Real World: Boosting Sales in TV Shopping Cable shopping programs, such as the Home Shopping Network (www.hsn.com), have honed a variety of influence techniques that are designed to improve sales. Although compliance-gaining principles are effective as tools of influence, they also can work well in persuasion. The principle of scarcity is evident in the use of a countdown clock, which warns that a particular sale or special price will end in just a few minutes. Also the program keeps a running tally of how many objects are available in inventory for sale. The not-so-subtle hint is that the viewer had better purchase the product before the inventory runs out. Of course, if the product is wildly successful, the manufacturer will make more and sell them again on the cable shopping network. The network also uses the social validation principle. For example, some shows make elaborate use of testimonials. Users of the product call in and share how they have used the product and highlight its features and benefits. Also, by displaying how many products have been sold in the past hour, the program is communicating how many people have purchased the product, which is a consensus cue. The liking principle is also employed by hosts and models who are physically attractive and offer each other compliments. The program even highlights the products that the hosts are wearing or using. The host and guest often will provide personal anecdotes about using a product. These anecdotes serve to promote the product, but more importantly, they serve to demonstrate that the host is a regular person, familiar and relatable to the viewer, thus enhancing the viewer’s ability to like the host and therefore purchase the product. Parasocial interaction, the phenomenon in which a viewer feels they have a personal connection with a television personality (Moyer-Gusé, 2008), can be an important factor in a person’s motivation to watch a shopping channel. Finally, the principle of authority is also evident in the selection of hosts. Who better to discuss the benefits of a set of cookware than a celebrity chef? And, usually, the program host will highlight the guest’s credentials as part of the introduction. Taken together, these time-tested compliance-gaining principles increase the likelihood that viewers will purchase a product. Based on the success of the Home Shopping Network, it seems that an increased likelihood translates into increased sales as well! 12.10 Practical Application: Social Validation and Similarity in Hotel Conservation Messages Hotels typically encourage guests to reuse towels. Reusing towels saves the hotels in laundry costs, and reducing the laundry loads benefits the environment too. Until recently, most hotels highlighted the benefits to the environment if a guest were to reuse a towel. This approach drew on the commitment-consistency principle. That is, by reminding hotel guests of their pro-ecological values, guests would be more likely to act in a way that was consistent with their values. However, Cialdini and colleagues suspected that the principle of social validation would be even more effective (Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskevicius, 2008). Two different messages were used on the hotel towel racks. In rooms assigned to the control condition, the message read: mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 263 8/26/14 4:19 PM Summary and Resources HELP SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT. You can show your respect for nature and help save the environment by reusing your towels during your stay. Rooms in the treatment condition featured this message: JOIN YOUR FELLOW GUESTS IN HELPING TO SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT. Almost 75% of guests who are asked to participate in our new resource savings program do help by using their towels more than once. You can join your fellow guests in this program to help save the environment by reusing your towels during your stay. This information in the treatment condition was factually correct, based on the hotel’s prior experience. Highlighting this norm was an appropriate use of the social validation principle and did not mislead hotel guests or exert undue pressure on them. The social validation message yielded a reuse rate of 44%, while the control condition message yielded a reuse rate of 35%. In a follow-up study, five types of messages were used to see which reference group might be most effective. The control group card of just making a plea about saving the environment remained the same, but the treatment cards varied in their reference group. The second card, a treatment card, referred to “men and women” to make gender a salient factor. In another treatment, a third card referred to “your fellow citizens” to make citizenship a salient factor. A fourth card was the same as in the previous study, referring to “your fellow guests.” A fifth card, however, referred to “your fellow guests” but then highlighted that particular room. The additional text read, in part, “75% of the guests who stayed in this room (#XXX).” Logically, referring to a specific room should not increase a greater sense of identification, but this message yielded the highest towel reuse rate (49%). The other cards yielded rates of 41–44%, while the control condition rate remained around 35%. As you will recall from Chapter 11, people can feel a sense of social identity over even the smallest factors. The principle of social validation holds that we can be influenced by the norms and behavior of similar others. In this case, the similarity stemmed from having shared a specific hotel room. Summary and Resources Summary • • mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 264 Compliance gaining is a form of interpersonal influence in which a person agrees to a request merely because he has been asked. Usually, attitudes are not involved, so compliance gaining is distinct from persuasion. Although there seem to be any number of ways to get someone to perform an action, these methods have been reduced to six overarching principles: ୭୭ Reciprocity. Someone is more likely to agree to a request if that person has first received some sort of favor or gift. One technique that follows from the reciprocity principle is the door-in-the-face technique. ୭୭ Social validation. Someone is more likely to agree to a request if it lines up with what similar other people are thinking or doing. One technique that follows from this principle is the list technique. 8/26/14 4:19 PM Summary and Resources • ୭୭ Commitment/consistency. After someone commits to a position, especially if she does so publicly, she will be more likely to comply with a request for behavior that is consistent with that initial commitment. One technique, among others, that follows from this principle is the four walls technique. ୭୭ Liking. People are more likely to agree to a request from a friend or someone they like. Liking also includes people who are physically attractive or who are similar. ୭୭ Scarcity. We feel we should take advantage of resources or opportunities that are scarce or are running out. One technique that comes from this principle is the deadline technique. ୭୭ Authority. Someone is more likely to follow the request of someone who appears to be an authority or an expert. The effectiveness of these compliance-gaining principles is based on social norms. Therefore, because social norms vary from one society to the next, the effectiveness of any specific principle will vary, as well. Questions for Reflection and Application 1. Define the six principles of compliance gaining. How might some of them relate to the two fundamental dimensions of impression formation (i.e., warmth and competence) discussed in Chapter 2? 2. Describe a time when you used a compliance-gaining technique and explain why it did or did not work. 3. Select one of the six compliance-gaining principles and explain how its use could be ethical and/or unethical. 4. Explain the difference between the principle of social validation and the principle of liking/friendship. 5. Find the website for a network marketing company. Identify the various compliancegaining principles that might boost sales and explain how they would work. Key Terms authority principle A principle that holds that people are more willing to follow the suggestion of someone who appears to be an authority, whether from expertise or from the exercise of power. bait-and-switch tactic A technique that is illegal in most states, in which someoneattracts the customer with one product (the “bait”) and then tries to sell them another product (the “switch”). mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 265 commitment-consistency principle A principle that holds that after a person commits to a position, that person should be more willing to comply with a request for behavior that is consistent with that position. deadline technique A technique in which someone may say that a particular offer is only available for a limited time, or that a product is only available for a limited time, or in limited quantities. 8/26/14 4:19 PM Summary and Resources door-in-the-face technique A technique that involves making an extreme request, which is rejected, and then following that up with a much more modest request, which was the initial objective. foot-in-the-door technique A technique in which the requester asks for a small favor, which almost certainly will be granted, and then the requester follows up with a larger and related favor; people who agree to the first request are much more likely to agree to the second, larger request. four walls technique A technique in which a target person responds affirmatively to a series of questions, each one of which is intended to probe the likelihood that the person is ready to make a purchase; if the person consistently responds affirmatively to these questions, he boxes himself in to act in line with his responses. general authority Authority that applies in several types of situations and that can be real or apparent; symbolic authority can be just as effective as real authority. halo effect An effect in which we tend to like people who are physically attractive, and in which we attribute all sorts of positive outcomes to physically attractive people. legitimization-of-paltry-favors technique A technique in which a person agrees to a request involving a small, token, or trivial amount, and once a person agrees to help, she will usually give more than the trivial amount that was requested. Also known as the even-a-penny-would-help technique. list technique A technique in which a target person is shown a list of similar other people who have already engaged in a requested behavior. lowball technique A technique in which a salesperson pitches an unreasonably low price to get the customer to make some sort of commitment; however, when the time comes to make the actual purchase, the initial price is not honored in hopes that the customer will make the purchase anyway. reciprocity principle A principle in which a person should be more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favor or concession. scarcity principle A principle that holds that a person should try to secure opportunities that are scarce or running out; if something is rare, or risks becoming rare, it becomes more valuable. social validation principle A principle that holds that a person should be more willing to comply with a request if that behavior is consistent with what similar other people are thinking or doing. specific authority Authority that is specific to a particular situation only, such as a nutritionist in the field of nutrition, or a medical doctor in the field of medicine. trial close A technique that is used to address potential objections and takes the format: If I could . . . , would you . . . ? liking principle A principle that holds that people should be more willing to comply with requests of friends or other people who they like. mag81516_12_c12_249-266.indd 266 8/26/14 4:19 PM
Purchase answer to see full attachment