Practical Research 11th edition Paul D. Leedy & Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Chapter 6 Descriptive Research Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Descriptive Research Designs • • • • Observation studies Correlational research Developmental design Survey research Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Quantitative Observation Studies • Involve humans, other animals, plants, nonliving objects • Focus is limited, prespecified • Quantify behavior • Require planning, attention to detail, and time • Provide a quantitative alternative to qualitative approaches Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Maintaining Objectivity in Observation Studies • Define the behavior precisely and concretely ▪ Should be easily recognized • Divide the observation period into small segments ▪ Record whether the behavior does or does not occur Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Maintaining Objectivity in Observation Studies • Use a rating scale to evaluate the behavior in terms of specific dimensions ▪ Have people rate the same behavior independently • Train the raters to use specific criteria until consistent ratings are obtained Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Correlational Research • Examines the extent to which differences in one variable are related to differences in other variables • Researchers gather data about two or more characteristics for a particular group to see if these characteristics are interrelated Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Correlational Research • Scatter plots show the overall pattern and describe the interrelationship • Correlation does not, in and of itself, indicate causation Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Developmental Designs • Cross-sectional study: people from several different groups are sampled and compared • Longitudinal study: a single group of people is followed over time, and data are collected at various times Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pros and Cons: Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal Study • Cross-sectional studies: ▪ Pro • All the data can be collected at one time ▪ Con • Different populations may represent different life experiences (threat to internal validity) Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pros and Cons: Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal Study • Longitudinal studies: ▪ Pro • Correlations between characteristics at different times can be computed ▪ Con • Participants may be lost to follow-up • Characteristic being measured may change because participants have experience with the instrument Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Compromise: Cohort-Sequential Design • Addresses weaknesses of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs • Includes two or more age groups (the cross-sectional piece), followed over a period of time (the longitudinal piece) • Allows calculation of correlations between measures taken at two different time periods • Predictions can be made across time Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Survey Research • Goal is to learn about a large population by surveying a sample of that population • Also called a descriptive survey or normative survey • Simple design – researcher poses a series of questions, quantifies responses, and draws inferences about a population • Captures a fleeting moment of time — extrapolation can be made about a longer period of time Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Types of Survey Research • Interview ▪ Structured or semi-structured ▪ Face-to-face, telephone, video conference ▪ High response rate • Questionnaire ▪ Paper-and-pencil or computerized ▪ Low return rate ▪ Assurance of remaining anonymous Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Data Collection • Checklist: a list of behaviors, characteristics, or other entities under investigation • Limited information: observed or not observed • Rating scale: used to evaluate a behavior, attitude etc. on a continuum (“never” to “always”) Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Data Collection • May be ordinal or interval scale ▪ People may not interpret scale the same way • Rubric: two or more rating scales, with concrete descriptions of behavior for each scale point ▪ Scales may not address the same things Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Computerizing Observations • Use a computer to record what you see • Use a spreadsheet to organize the data • Consider software specific to your purpose Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study • Ask questions that help answer the research question • Write questions with quantifiable answers (numerical codes) • Restrict questions to a single idea • Consider asking a few questions to elicit qualitative data • Use a computer to streamline the process Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study • Conduct pilot test(s) • Introduce yourself and explain the purpose of the study • Be sure participants offer informed consent in writing • Ask controversial questions in the latter part of the interview • Seek clarifying information as needed Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Constructing a Questionnaire • • • • Keep it short Keep the respondent’s task simple Provide specific instructions Use simple, clear, unambiguous language Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Constructing a Questionnaire • Give a rationale for any item for which the purpose is unclear • Check for unwarranted assumptions implicit in the question • Check for consistency • Conduct pilot test(s) to determine validity. Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Constructing a Questionnaire • Word questions in ways that don’t give clues about preferred or desirable responses • Determine in advance how you will code the responses • Scrutinize the almost-final product to make sure it addresses your needs • Make the questionnaire attractive and professional looking Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Using Technology when Administering Questionnaires • Ask participants to answer on the computer ▪ Locally ▪ Remote via email or Web • Personalize all correspondence ▪ Invitations to participate ▪ Thank you notes • Scan data if necessary • Organize information via database Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Maximizing the Return Rate • Consider the timing ▪ Avoid holidays and vacation times • Make a good first impression • Motivate potential respondents ▪ Write a great cover letter ▪ Include a self-addressed envelope with prepaid postage ▪ Offer to send the results of your study • Be gently persistent ▪ Send reminder letters Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Probability Sampling • Probability sampling: researcher specifies in advance that each segment of the population is represented in the sample ▪ Requires random selection Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Random Selection • Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected • Characteristics of the sample are assumed to approximate the characteristics of the total population • Tables of random numbers or computer programs are used to select from a list of the population Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Probability Sampling Techniques • Simple random sampling: Researcher numbers everyone in the population and then uses random number generator to select participants • Stratified random sampling: Researcher identifies strata — different groups in population — and samples equally from each one ▪ Example: 10 students in each grade Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Probability Sampling Techniques • Proportional stratified sampling: Researcher identifies strata and samples from each one based on its proportion in the population ▪ Example: • population: 100 first graders, 200 second graders • sample: 10 first graders, 20 second graders Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Probability Sampling Techniques • Cluster sampling: Researcher subdivides a large area into smaller units (clusters), selects a subset of clusters, and then selects individuals randomly from each identified cluster • Example: ▪ Population = all students in a district with 1200 schools ▪ Clusters = townships within the district Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Probability Sampling Techniques • Systematic sampling: researcher selects individuals/clusters according to predetermined sequence, which must originate by chance • Example: ▪ Scramble the list of people randomly ▪ Then pick every nth person Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nonprobability Sampling • Nonprobability sampling: researcher cannot guarantee that each element of the population will be represented in the sample ▪ Some members of the population have little or no chance of being sampled Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nonprobability Sampling Techniques • Convenience sampling (accidental sampling) ▪ Researcher takes samples that are readily available. • Example: People who arrive at the store for breakfast Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nonprobability Sampling Techniques • Quota sampling: ▪ Researcher conveniently selects participants in the same proportion that they are found in the general population, but not in a random fashion • Example population: 100 first graders, 200 second graders • Example sample: the first 10 first graders and the first 20 second graders who arrive at school that day Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Nonprobability Sampling Techniques • Purposive sampling: Researcher choose participants for a particular purpose ▪ People from voting districts that, in the past, have been helpful in predicting the election outcome ▪ The researcher must always provide a rationale explaining the selection of a particular sample Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Surveys of Very Large Populations • Multistage sampling: ▪ Divide country into primary areas, randomly select areas to sample ▪ Divide the primary areas into sample locations, randomly select locations to sample ▪ Divide sample locations into chunks, randomly select chunks to sample Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Surveys of Very Large Populations • Multistage sampling: ▪ Divide chunks into segments, randomly select segments to sample ▪ Divide segments into units, randomly select units to sample Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size • Basic rule: The larger the sample, the better • For smaller populations (N=100 or fewer), survey the entire population • If population is around 500, sample 50% • If population is around 1,500, sample 20% Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size • If population is over 5,000, a sample size of 400 is fine • The larger the population, the smaller the percentage • Need a representative sample Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sources of Bias • Bias = any influence, condition, or set of conditions that distort the data • Researchers should try to avoid bias, but acknowledge that it occurs Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sources of Bias • Sampling Bias: occurs when any factor(s) leads to a nonrepresentative sample of the population • Examples: ▪ Selecting from phone book (no land line?) ▪ Using an online survey (no Internet?) ▪ Mailing questionnaires (low or selective response rate?) Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Strategies for Identifying Sampling Bias • Look for items that may be influenced by factors that distinguish respondents from nonrespondents. • interests, education level, age, etc. • Compare responses that were returned quickly with those that were returned later. • late responses often look like what you’d expect from nonrespondents • Randomly select a small number of nonrespondents and try to contact them. Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sources of Bias • Instrumentation bias: measurement instruments slant the results ▪ questions lead to particular answers • Response bias ▪ participants say what they think researcher wants to hear ▪ participants want to create favorable impression Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sources of Bias • Researcher bias ▪ researchers have a point of view ▪ researchers choose what they want to study ▪ researchers make subjective interpretations Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Interpreting the data • Don’t forget — it’s “descriptive” research, but you still have to interpret the data Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Questions to ask yourself • Why is a description of this population/phenomenon valuable • What data will I need to solve the research problem • What procedures do I need and how should I implement them • How do I get a sample that is truly reflective of the population Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Questions to ask yourself • How can I collect my data in a way that ensures no misrepresentations or misunderstandings • How do I control for possible bias • What do I do with the data once I have collected them • How do I organize the data and prepare them for analysis Practical Research: Planning & Design, 11th Edition Leedy & Ormrod Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Running head: Excessive Energy Consumption Course: CMP 551 Research Methods Topic: Excessive Energy Consumption Name: Mourya Varma Dandu Date: 03/16/2017 1 Excessive Energy Consumption 2 Energy consumption by different technological inventions has been posed as a great problem in the current world. All the devices being invented demand for energy so as to function effectively. It is amazing on how smart phones and tablets consume a lot of power, being charged nearly thrice daily for a normal user. It is true that the improvements in technology has more than enough positive outcomes, there demand for energy utilization is wanting, having in mind examples like desktops, which are to be connected to a power source throughout their usage. The increased consumption of energy by the technological devices greatly affects the electricity and other energy sources’ costs of individuals. Currently, people do pay in more costs without getting back appreciable returns of the payments made. This is since the costs paid for do not account for any profitable action, but they cover the energy use by the home gadgets, mostly phones, laptops and desktops argues Apergis, & Payne, (2010). Additionally, the energy overuse by the devices do lead in carbon overuse. Mostly when the devices are left plugged in and running, there is increased electrical use and thereafter result in release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A research by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory do indicate that a desktop computer left idling do consume more than 600 kW of electricity each year as elaborated in Perrucci, Fitzek, & Widmer, (2011, May). The laboratory additionally indicates that cellphones attached to chargers even when they are completely charged do waste approximately 20 kW annually. Moreover, the situation also causes a reduction in energy supply. In most cases, electricity costs in areas that have high populations is determined by both supply and demand. Some of the electricity plants do make higher charges during high demand moments. The overuse that results Excessive Energy Consumption 3 due to excessive use of energy by technological devices contributes to a scarcity in the energy supply and thus increasing the energy costs. In conclusion, it is a fact that the improvements in technology have greatly helped the society. However, when the situation is weighed from both the angles, then one notices they are accompanied by many disadvantages. Actually, why is the economy getting tougher when the technological field is rapidly growing? This what makes energy consumption to suit my research topic. 4 Excessive Energy Consumption Work Cited Apergis, N., & Payne, J. E. (2010). The emissions, energy consumption, and growth nexus: evidence from the commonwealth of independent states. Energy Policy, 38(1), 650-655. Perrucci, G. P., Fitzek, F. H., & Widmer, J. (2011, May). Survey on energy consumption entities on the smartphone platform. In Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), 2011 IEEE 73rd (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
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