of random routine patrol work WC we are talking about many different and arment is an effective one? When we talk about ex variables. The police cannot control all the viables that might produce crime, such as social zation; anger: poverty: hostility, revenge: e o commit crime as an alternative to the world pechological, social, or biological problems and the with conducting academic and scientific research Despite the difficulties and problems associated policing, the research has been influential in the development of policing strategies during the best three decades. Although systematic research policing is relatively new, it has influenced how police departments operate as well as public per ceptions of policing. Changes in policy and practice around the country suggest that research has had particularly important conceptual and operational Lects in patrol operations. Most of all, the research CHAPTER PATROL OPERATIONS 263 committing their crimes. Just how effective is ran dom routine patrol The Kansas City patrol study was the first attempt to actually text the effectiveness During 1972 and 1973, the Kansas City, Mincuri, Police Department, under the leadership of Chief Clarence Kelly (who later became the director of the conducted an experiment to test the effects of routine preventive patrol. This yearlong experiment was both influential and controversial Fifteen patrol beats in Kansas City's South Patrol Division were used for the study. Five of these beats were assigned to a control group with no changes in normal patrol staffing or tactics. Five other beats were chosen as reactive beats, and all preventive patrolling was eliminated. Outside patrol units handled calls in the reactive beats, and units that has been conducted, though somewhat limited, left the beats once they had handled the calls. The his caused law enforcement personnel to reexamine final five beats in the experiment were proactive their beliefs about crime and preventing crime and beats, in which two to three times the usual level of to consider more creative ways to address the crime preventive patrolling was provided. Thus, the reac tive beats (with all routine patrol eliminated) and the proactive beats (with routine patrol increased) were Can we have controlled experiments to see if a police department is effective? Can we eliminate the experimental groups. If random routine patrol is an effective way of policing our communities, we police patrols from one neighborhood and com- would expect to see changes in the reactive and pro- pare the crime rate in that neighborhood with the active beats. crime rate in the neighborhood where there are When the Kansas City study was finished, the police patrols? A myriad of problems accompany researchers concluded, "Decreasing or increasing controlled experiments with crime. Is such experi- routine preventive patrol within the range tested in mentation ethical? Is it legal? This chapter will look the experiment had no effect on crime, citizen fear at several controlled experiments with crime to see of crime, community attitudes toward the police on how they have affected our traditional concepts of the delivery of police service, police response time, or traffic accidents." In effect, the study failed doing police work. to demonstrate that adding or taking away police patrols from an area made any difference within the community Random Routine Patrol: The conclusions of the Kansas City study shocked many people and differed from the assump- tions made regarding police patrol. It had been com monly believed that putting more officers on patrol Random routine patrol, otherwise known as pre- would cause a decrease in crime, and taking away ventive patrol, involves a police officer driving around within a community when he or she is not that our traditional three cornerstones of policing pervisor. Tradition has held that random routine The Kansas City Study police would cause it to increase In summary, the Kansas City study indicated an assignment from the radio dispatcher or a might not be the most effective way to do police patrol creates a sense of omnipresence and deters Crime because a criminal will not chance commit the corner. Random routine patrol was believed to ing a crime if a police officer might be just around cable police officers to catch criminals in the act of Kansas City patrol study the first study conducted to test the effectiveness of random routine patrol Gratanaty| 264 PART POLICE OPERATIONS work. The study definitely led the way for the ack tremendous changes in our thinking about policing demic study of policing, which in turn has caused In time, further studies of rapid res citizens' calls to 11 were carried out the es took into account the complexity of report missions had failed to do. Total response time, which the earlier research by the two from the moment of the crime to the the first police officer) consists of three components 1. The time between when the crime occurs the moment the victim or a witness cas police 2. The time required for the police to process the call 3. Travel time from the time the patrol care the dispatcher's call until it arrives at the same Rapid Response to Citizens' 911 Calls Rapid response to citizens' calls to 911 has tradition ally been thought of as a way in which the police could catch criminals while they were in the act of committing their crimes or as they were escap ing from their crimes. The ideal scenario is this: A citizen observes a person committing a crime and immediately calls 911. The police respond in sec onds and arrest the perpetrator. This sounds great, but it rarely works that way. Another scenario follows: A citizen is mugged and, just after the mugging, immediately calls 911 and reports the crime. The police respond in sec- onds and catch the perpetrator as he or she is at the crime scene or in immediate flight from it. This also sounds great, but again, it rarely works that way. The traditional approach of rapid response to 911 calls was based on unexamined assumptions about police patrol. Research during the past 20 years has pointed out that we cannot depend on this television por trayal of police work In 1967, the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, in its Task Force Report: Science and Technology, found that quick response to a citizen's report of a crime to 911 made an arrest more likely. However, the commission emphasized that only extremely quick response times were likely to result in arrest. The commission discovered that when police response time was one or two minutes, an arrest was likely, and improvements in the response time of even 15 to 30 seconds greatly improved the likelihood of an arrest. In contrast, when response time exceeded three or four minutes, the probability of an arrest dropped sharply. In 1973, the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals recom- mended, "Urban area response time... under normal conditions should not exceed 3 minutes for emer. gency calls and 20 minutes for nonemergency calls." The commission stated, "When the time is cut to 2 minutes, it can have a dramatic effect on crime."? Two studies looked even more carefully at response time and at the different types of site ations that spur calls to 911 for police assistance These studies found that victims often delay call ing the police after a crime or other incident occurs Sometimes no phone is available: sometimes the victims are physically prevented from calling by the perpetrator. Often, victims of crime are tem porarily disoriented, frightened, ashamed, or even apathetic. Some people in one study reported that they first called parents, insurance companies, or their doctors. Later studies reported that the average citizen delay in calling the police for seri ous crimes was between 5 and 10 minutes. The discovery that citizens often wait several minutes before calling the police, as well as the fact that some victims discover the crimes after the fact, puts response time in a different light and suggests that rapid response may not be as significant as was once thought. We will always need some type of rapid police response to citizens' calls to 911, even though we have to realize that a one or two-minute response is highly unrealistic. We will always need rapid response to calls where someone is in danger or the perpetrator is still on the scene or is in immediate flight from Also, quick response improves the chances for find ing and interviewing possible witnesses and secur ing and retrieving physical evidence for analysis However, as the academic studies have indicated alternative strategies to rapid response to citizens calls to 911 are needed to make better use of police officers patrol Function Academic Studies of the Police the 1960s, there was little study of the police function what patrol officers do and how they For years, O. W Wilson's writings were the de of policing. It took many years of study to real much of what Wilson taught us about police was based on faulty assumptions. Despite the act that many of Wilson's ideas have been replaced by new ideas and concepts based on the subsequent cach revolution in policing, we still care a tremen- ay and write on police operations us thanks to him as the first researcher to really George L. Kelling and Mary A. Wycoff, in their Vol Erring Strategy of Policing: Case Studies of Se Change, wrote that during the era domi- ated by O W Wilson and his colleagues, roughly the 1920s through the 1970s, police strategy and nagement emphasized bureaucratic autonomy. ciency and internal accountability through com and and control systems that focused on counter- preventive patrol by automobile, and rapid response ing serious crime by criminal investigation, random to calls for service. During the 1970s, however, rescarch into police practices challenged the core competencies of police preventive patrol and rapid response to calls for service. What do the police hope to accomplish through the use of patrol? William G. Gay, Theodore H. Schell, and Stephen Schack define the goals of patrol as follows: "crime prevention and deterrence, the apprehension of criminals, the provision of non- crime-related service, the provision of a sense of community security and satisfaction with the police, and the recovery of stolen property." They then divide routine patrol activity into four basic func- tional categories: Calls for service. Responding to citizens' calls to 911 relative to emergencies or other problems accounts for 25 percent of patrol time. Preventive patrol. Driving through a commu- nity in an attempt to provide omnipresence accounts for 40 percent of patrol time. Officer-initiated activities. Stopping motorists or pedestrians and questioning them about their Administrative tasks. Paperwork CHAPTER PATROL OPERATIONS 265 James Q. Wilco's pioneering work, Varieties of Police Behavior. The Management of Law and Order study what police officers do. Wilson concluded that in Eight Communities, resulted from an attempt to the major role of the police was handling the situ Wion and believed that the police encounter many troubling incidents that need some sort of "fixing up." He said that enforcing the law might be one tool a patrol officer uses, threats, coercion, sympa Most important to the police officer, Wilson said, "is keeping things under control so that there are doing too much." no complaints that he is doing nothing or that he is For many years, the major role of police patrol was considered to be law enforcement. However, research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s by aca- demics showed that very little of a patrol officer's time was spent on crime fighting duties. PATROL ACTIVITY STUDIES To determine what police actually do, researchers have conducted patrol activity studies. This research has involved study- ing four major sets of data: data on incoming calls to police departments (calls to 911), calls radioed to patrol officers, actual activity by patrol officers, and police citizen encounters. The nature of incoming calls to police depart- ments reveals the kinds of problems or conditions for which citizens call 911. Data from these calls can usually be retrieved from telephone logs or from recordings of conversations between callers and 911 operators. The calls radioed to patrol officers, or assignments given to police patrol units by 911 dispatchers, reveal the types of problems for which people call the police and the types of problems the police feel deserve a response by patrol units. The data regarding the actual activity of patrol officers during each hour of their tours can usu- ally be retrieved from officers' activity reports and observations by researchers riding with police patrol officers. Data on what occurs when an officer encounters a citizen-either when the officer is on assignment from the dispatcher or is on self-initiated activities can best be retrieved from researcher observations The patrol activity studies that were conducted in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s reported gener- ally that patrol officers spend less than 20 to 30 percent of their time on crime-related calls. Gary activities account for 15 percent of patrol time. accounts for 20 percent of patrol time 10 INTRODUCTION and how they do it. It covers police patrol opera- miscuter is about police operations! What the police Bonding to 911 cais, allocation of resources amer police operational units ve crime rigting strategies, traffic operations, The chapter will discuss the academic studies of the and 19705, particularly the Kansas City study. of the traditional methods of doing po cework as changed our understanding of the effective ed academs and progressive police administrators mecan City study as well as other studies, has CHAPTERS PATROL OPERATIONS 261 to look dosely at their operations to see if there are better, more effective ways to do police work. We will bamine some of the changes that have taken place as art of these studies and some of the new, more effective ways of policing Most of this chapter will be related to police patrol operations, the core of policing Patrol operations nvolve the activities and role of the patrol officer and the various methods of doing patrol work, including motorized and foot patrols. Additionally, the chapter will discuss traffic operations and special operations, induding SWAT teams and K-9 units retroactive investigation of past crimes, which will be examined in depth in Chapter 10 Police Patrol Operations Traditional Methods of Police Work The three cornerstones of traditional police work are (1) random routine patrol, (2) rapid response to citi past crimes by detectives! ans calls to 911, and (3) retroactive investigation of The average U.S. police officer arrives at work at the beginning of his or her shift and receives the keys and the patrol car from the officer who used it on the previous tour. The officer then drives around a designated geographic area (random routine patrol). When the officer receives a call from the police dispatcher, he or she responds to the call and performs whatever police work is required an arrest, first aid, breaking up a fight, taking a crime report and so on (rapid response to citizens' calls to 911). If the call involves a crime, the officer conducts a preliminary investigation and often refers the case to a detective, who conducts a follow-up nvestigation of the crime (retroactive investigation of past crimes by detectives). As soon as the offi- ceris finished handling the call, he or she resumes petrol and is ready to respond to another call These are the methods of traditional police When we think of the police, often our first image is that of the man or woman in uniform driving a police car at rapid speeds with lights and siren to the scene of a crime or an accident. We also may think of the uniformed officer on foot patrol ("walking a beat") in a downtown business area, moving a drunk and dis- orderly citizen away from a group of ordinary shop pers. (Foot patrol is a method of deploying police officers that gives them responsibility for all policing activity by requiring them to walk around a defined geographic area.) We may think of a police officer on horseback or one on a motorcycle. All these officers have one thing in common: they are patrol officers. Since the time of Sir Robert Peel (the promoter of the first organized, paid, uniformed police force in London in 1829), patrol has been the most impor- tant and visible part of police work to the public. response to citizens' calls to 911, and retroactive work. However, are random routine patrol, rapid tovestigation of past crimes by detectives the best ways for the police to safeguard our communities? Are these methods effective? Is this combination of tethods the only way to do police work? This chap- ter will address these issues with the exception of random routine patrol Officers driving around a designated geographic area rapid response to citizens' calls to 911 Officers being dis- patched to calls immediately regardless of the type of call retroactive investigation of past crimes by detectives The follow-up investigation of crimes by detectives that occurs after a crime has been reported foot patrol police officers walk a beat or assigned area rather than patroling ina motor vehicle 262 PART) POLICE OPERATIONS Peel's major innovation and contribution to say was the idea of a continuous police presence through out a community that is organized and delivered by means of regular patrol over a fixed beat by unt formed officers, Patrol is the essence of policing requests to check out strange smells, teque street corner, and requests for information and do something about the aggressive person in the zens do not know whom to call or other bu with almost anything you can think of. Whenet services are not available, they call the police The Legacy of O. W. Wilson a Until the 1970s, most of what we knew abou of the School of Criminology at the University patrol was written by O.W. Wilson, former de California at Berkeley and a former police chien McLaren, in the classic book Police Administration Wichita and Chicago, and his associate, Raymon Wilson called patrol "the backbone of policing and stated that patrol is designed to create an impo sion of omnipresence, which will eliminate the actual opportunity (or the belief that the opports nity exists) for successful misconduct. The wed Activities of the Patrol Officer Patrol is known as the foundation of the police department. Patrol officers are the uniformed offi- cers who respond to calls for service, emergencies, and all sorts of disturbances that occur. They are the most visible arm of the criminal justice system as well as the gatekeepers to the system. Almost with out exception, all police officers begin their careers in patrol, and this is where they garner the bulk of their police experience. Patrol is where most sworn personnel are assigned and carry out the mission of the police agency. Generally, 60 to 70 percent of Law enforcement officers spend their time patrolling, so omnipresence can be defined as "the quality of how this time is used is of critical importance. always being there." Thus, if the police are always The patrol function has changed little since there or seem to be always there, criminals cannot 1829 and has three main goals: operate. Wilson's patrol ideas were designed to make • The deterrence of crime the police appear to be as omnipresent as possible. • The maintenance of a feeling of public security Wilson defined the distribution of patrol offi Twenty-four hour availability for service to the cers as the "assignment of a given number of person public nel according to area, workload, time, or function." Under Wilson's theory, some police officers work Traditionally, the primary services provided by the day shift, some work the evening shift, and oth the patrol function include enforcing laws, deter- ers work the night shift. Officers are assigned to cer ring crime, maintaining order, keeping the peace, tain areas based on the workload (number of crimes, enforcing traffic laws and keeping traffic flowing. arrests, and calls for service) in a particular area. Patrol investigating accidents, conducting preliminary investigations, responding to calls for assistance, officers are also assigned according to the type of work they perform-foot, radio car, traffic, canine, or and assisting those who cannot help themselves. The patrol officer is the police department's some other type of patrol function. Professional police management has consistently followed Wilson's ideas generalist and foremost representative to the public. He or she performs numerous and varied duties in on emphasizing the rational distribution of patrol and for the community. Patrol officers face numer- officers according to a workload formula. ous complex problems on a daily basis and see things that most people never see. Patrol officers respond to calls about overflowing sewers and lights being Evaluating the out, reports of attempted suicides, domestic dis Effectiveness of homes, reports of people banging their heads against reports of Martians trying to gain entry to people's Police Work brick walls, requests to check on the welfare of elderly people who have not been seen for a few days, omnipresence The impression of always being there. Evaluating the effectiveness of police work is very difficult. If a city has a high crime rate, does it for low that its police department is not effective city has a low crime rate, does it follow that its par angerous situation Wy confident and have a false sense of security ve to go unattended when an agency doubles but their abilities as a team. In addition, beats cars in cars and does not have enough officers Ne for stalling and this, too, can result in cars has become an issue again with feloninis This discussion of one- versus wo-officer son officers on the upowing Police unions and and local officials in some parts of the country Criminals seem to have become even more advocating reexamining the issue of two-officer ne and well-armed, and less hesitant to hurt or an officer. After several murders and attempted bone officer cars has been questioned, though wers of officers in South Florida, the use of tradi- pars unlikely there will be changes due to bud and staffing issues. St. Louis and Kansas City who are discussing this issue, as they have had offi- es recently murdered and almost murdered, and it is believed the incidents might not have occurred had the officers been in two-officer cars. Agencies are trying to analyze this issue, but it is complex and challenging, and it may be difficult to come to a definitive solution CHAPTER PATROL OPERATIONS 209 When foot petrol is withdrawn from neighbor hoodie, levels offer increase significantly Citizen satisfaction with police increases when foot petrol is added in neighborhoods Police who patrol on foot have a greater appre ciation for the values of the neighborhood resi automobiles dents than do police who patrol the same arca in • Police who patrol on foot have greater job sat isfaction, less fear, and higher morale than do officers who patrol in wutomobiles A thorough study conducted in Newark regard ing foot patrols was unable to demonstrate that either adding or removing foot patrols affected crime in any way. However, Newark citizens involved in this study were less fearful of crime and more satisfied with services provided by officers on foot patrol than services by officers on motor- ized patrol. Also, Newark citizens in this study were aware of additions and deletions of foot patrol from their neighborhoods, in contrast with the Kansas City study, where citizens did not perceive changes 25 in the level of motorized patrol. Thus, the Newark foot patrol study does not prove that foot patrols reduce crime but rather, that foot patrols actually Return to Foot Patrol make citizens feel safer. Experience indicates that citizens want to see a return to the old "cop on the Police officers on motorized patrols are more effi- cient than foot officers. Cars get to locations much When a similar foot patrol study was con- more quickly, they can cover much larger areas, and ducted in Flint, residents believed the police on they provide the officers more comfort in inclem- foot patrol were more responsive to their needs than ent weather. Cars also allow the transport of all the had been the case before the experimental program equipment that officers of today have in their arse Interviews over a four-year period disclosed that the nals. However, as we have seen, some police manag- Neighborhood Patrol program improved relation- ers and other experts feel that automobile patrolling ships between the police and the community has led to a distancing of police officers from the Citizens want and like foot patrol officers. Why does this more expensive form of policing seem to be community that they serve. In the mid-1980s, in an attempt to get the police more effective than the traditional radio car patrol? closer to the public and to avoid the problems caused It is not necessarily the implementation of foot patrol itself but, rather, the relationship that devel by the alienation of radio car officers from the com- ops between the officer and the community because munity, an emphasis on foot patrol began to return. of the officer's increased accessibility. Through by 1985, foot patrol had been reinstituted in many relationships with the community members, the dies and approximately two-thirds of medium officer feels like a part of the community and will Rized and large police departments used foot patrol work to address the true underlying issues affect- in some form. Researchers arrived at the following ing the community, and the citizens experience an conclusions about the reinstitution of foot patrol in beat. 23 Newark, New Jersey, and Flint, Michigan: When foot patrol is added in neighborhoods, Newark foot patrol study A study conducted to determine the effectiveness of footpatrol officers in preventing crime levels of fear decrease significantly ceul This is the driving force munity police which will be more the cussed in Chapter 12 the effectiveness of implementing footpatrol. The Evidence-Based Policing 270 PART) POLICE OPERATIONS improved sense of safety when they feel they can trust their police officers Recently, Philadelphia added some support to 10. block beata, in its efforts to target high crime neighborhoods in the city. After several months, the Seency noted a decrease in shootings and the over all crime rate. The success of this endeavor won the officers over to the idea, and since then they have worked even harder to strengthen their relationship with the community, The revelation that some experimentation conducted and could possibly challenge long beliefs led some researchers to stress thang improving police response to and tactics entific research could provide great informe Ous situations. To the extent that relevant research can be conducted without endangengt community of raising ethical issues, it could po an excellent scientific basis for future and Noted criminologist Lawrence W. Sherman proposed this concept in 1948, called this evidence-based policing (evidence refers to entific evidence, not criminal evidence). She defines this type of policing as the use of the bent implement guidelines and evaluate agencies, programs Patrol Innovations: Working Smarter The variou tudies and the resulting chal- lenges to long-term beliefs regarding policing in general and patrol in particular have caused law enforcement to examine traditional ways of doing things. If random patrol produces no real benefit how can that time be better spent? Is there another type of patrol activity that might prove to be more productive? If responding immediately and in emer- gency mode is not necessarily beneficial, how can we organize our response so that it will be appropriate to the call for service and reduce the potential danger to the officer and the public? Can we combine these issues and come up with blocks of time that can be better spent in other ways in an effort to address crime problems? The answers to these questions are especially critical given the current economic chal- lenges and the fact that law enforcement has to do more with much less In the overall realization that the crime problem is not entirely under the control of law enforcement, the importance of involving the community in the crime fighting effort has become clear. Much of the police role involves order maintenance and service activities. Developing a partnership and a working relationship with the community can help address these issues and make the law enforcement mission and officers." To successfully make use of evidence based policing, departments will have to let go of the traditional wisdom that has become part of depan. ment history and be willing to deviate from the way we've always done it." Sherman recommends the departments access the "best practices from the la erature and adapt them to their specific laws, policies and communities. He then advocates monitoring and evaluating the projects to determine if they are work ing and if they can be improved. The sharing of the information with other agencies will continue to add to the knowledge available. 30 Predictive Policing Predictive policing is the application of analytical techniques to identify targets for police attention and interaction and to prevent crime or solve past crime This process is sometimes referred to as forecasting Smaller departments can accomplish this on a small scale using crime analysis, and bigger department can address it via data analysis and statistical predie tions. The more simple and conventional approach to crime analysis and investigation has led the to the more complex "predictive analytics" thu evidence-based policing Using available scientific research on policing to implement crime fighting strategies and department policies predictive policing The application of crime analysis, data analysis, and statistical predictions to identify targets for police attention, also called forecasting expand on the conventional method with the use of mathematical formulas to analyze larger data se Small departments are best served by approaching other officers, and engaging in preventive patrol position is advisable of the matter than can academic studies have performed a valuable function try cha them too far in downplaying and deemphas 1970s, many police chiefs and scholars had the crime-fighting image of police work, by the crime-related and law enforcement aspects op work. These authors believe a middle of the A former police chat gives a vivid de police patrol work that may post mode to the to their crackling radios, which offer to read Cops on the street hurry from call to call bound is the time when the ghetto throbs with especially on summer weekend nights. The bocine, Violence, drugs, illness, Blaring van human misery. The cops jump from Cs, rarely having time to do more than One down sufficiently and leave for the Gaps of boredom and inactivity fill the intet hot months. Periods of boredom get inca longer as the night wears on and the weather ims, although there aren't many of these in the gets colder, 266 MRT) POLICE OPERATIONS Cordner, commenting on these studies, writes that most patrol work involves not doing anything very specific, but rather taking breaks, meeting with most common in police patrol, and the remaining time is divided among police initiated activities (33 percent) and calls from the police dispatcher (67 percent). Cordner says the police initiated activities are mostly related to law enforcement (pat: ticularly traffic enforcement). The calls from the dispatcher involve a blend of crimes, disputes, traf fic problems, and service requests, with crimes and disputes being the most common." Jack R. Greene and Carl B. Klockars described a survey of a full year's worth of computer-aided dis- patch (CAD) data for the Wilmington, Delaware, Police Department. Their survey found, as did many of the previous studies regarding police activ ity, that much of police work deals with problems that are not related to crime." The study revealed that the police spent 26 percent of their time on criminal matters, 9 percent on order maintenance assignments, 4 percent on service related functions, 11 percent on traffic matters, 2 percent on medical assistance, and 12 percent on administrative mat ters. Five percent of their time, they were unavail able for service, and almost 30 percent of the time was clear or unassigned, when the officers per formed random routine patrol Two significant findings emerged from this study. First, when the percentages of time involved in unavailable, administrative, and clear time are excluded from the data, the data indicate that the police spent almost 50 percent of their time on criminal matters, 16 percent on order maintenance, 8 percent on service, 21 percent on traffic, and 4 percent on medical assistance. Second, 47 percent of the officers' time was spent on activities other than actual assignments. We have seen that the police spend their time performing numerous types of duties. They spend significant time on criminal matters, but the mea- surement of this time varies, depending on the study. In looking at all of the police activity stud- ies, it is obvious why most experts today agree that the bulk of police patrol work is devoted to what has been described as random routine patrol, administrative matters, order maintenance, and service-related functions. However, Cordner and Scarborough have stated that although the studies From the Foot Beat to the Patrol Car Patrol allocation models give the police answers as to where and when to assign officers. Over the years, however, different methods of deploying police off cers have been used. The two major deployments are motorized patrol and foot patrol. Police patrol, as we saw in Chapter 1, is a his torical outgrowth of the early watch system. The first formal police patrols were on foot, and the cop on the beat became the symbol and very essence of policing in the United States. Furthermore, the cop on the beat became the embodiment of American government to most citizens. However, as early as the 1930s, foot patrols were beginning to vanish in favor of the more efficient and faster patrol cat." By the late 1930s and 1940s, police management experts stressed the importance of motorized patio as a means of increasing efficiency, and the number of cities using motorized patrol grew. By the 1960s, the efficiency of the remain were considered geographically restrictive and ing foot patrols was being challenged. Foot patrols wasteful of personnel. Foot officers, who at the time had no portable radios (not available until Rushing to the Scene CHAPTER PATROL OPERATIONS 267 Wonentered po ang responding to calls with he was not that uncommon We did a lot more frequently than officers do today! dien, as was the procedure at the time. After remember responding to bar fights with his pending to many of these calls in this manner, begun to question the rationale of running red s and driving over the speed limit, with cars ng over in every direction to get out of my way began to wonder why I was risking my life and the of other motorists, as very rarely was there stil ant going on when I got there. Most of the time, end had separated the individuals involved, and Wisudy a situation of mutual (druni) combat echt seem to be a worthug ves OVER Over the years po ce departments looked at situation and came to similar conclusions. Our department started to strictly limit which calls we ON THE JOB someone-wally management decided to the police, which was often the threat made by management when the subjects wouldn't leave the lounge. If the subjects didn't leave, management pided up the phone and called the police, the sub jects saw the management was serious and left and consequently, they were often gone or leaving when we got there When police departments started examining the philosophy of immediate response and response time, it became apparent that factors outside our control, such as the common delay before making a call to the police, determined whether our response was, in fact, immediate and thus our "immediate response lost a lot of its value. When departments weighed the issues of danger to the public and off cers, they began to severely restrict the types of could respond to in an emergency mode because of calls that require an emergency response It took a long time to make adjustments in the potential for injuries and death and the liability procedure, officers still like to respond as an emer gency vehicle and would like to do it more often But early in my career we were very cogni They sometimes argue that it's better to get to most zant of police response times, and a bar fight was Situations earlier rather than later, but with streets a call with potential injuries, we wanted to have increasingly more crowded at all hours of the day good response time. We were not considering and night, speeding to every call in emergency the fact that often the fight had been going on response mode just isn't safe. for a while or might even have been over before Linda Forst Noved the 1970s), were inefficient in terms of covering large areas or being available to be signaled and sent on assignments. Thus, to management experts, footpatrols were not as efficient as the readily avail able radio cars. At about this time, many cities had shifted almost totally away from foot patrols, replacing However, as a report of the Kansas City, Missouri, them with more deployable two-person car patrols. Police Department pointed out, in 1966, the number of foot patrol beats per shift in Boston, Baltimore, could be best achieved by using a highly mobile force of one person cars The more men and more cars that are visible on the streets, the greater is the potential for pre- venting a crime. A heavy blanket of conspicu. ous patrol at all times and in all parts of the city tends to suppress violations of the law. The most economical manner of providing this heavy blanket of patrol is by using one-man cars when and where they are feasible. The next section explores the debate about one. person versus two person patrol cars in more detail. The change from foot to motor patrol revolution ized U.S. policing. It fulfilled the expectations of the management experts by enabling police departments to provide more efficient patrol coverage-that is, covering more areas more frequently and responding Pittsburgh, and other major urban centers remained in the hundreds.18 The International Association of Chiefs of Police IACP) went one step further than the cities that were moving toward patrol cars, strongly advo- ng a conspicuous patrol that conveyed a sense of police omnipresence, which this association believed 268 PART 3 POLICE OPERATIONS more quickly to calls for service. However, one Was very efficient in coverage, but achieving that efficiency involved a trade-off in the relationship between the police and the community With the advent of motor patrol, police officer who drove quickly through the streets to respond to the calls for service, became isolated from the com munity and had few contacts with ordinary zens in normal situations. Most calls to which the police responded involved problems, either crime or order maintenance problems. The personal contact between citizens and the officer on the foot beat was lost, and a growing rift began to develop between the police and the public. Few people noticed this change in policing until the riots of the 1960s drama tized the problem of police community relations Around 1968, experts began to realize the prob lems created by the emphasis on the efficiency of the patrol car and by the absence of the foot officer's closeness to the community. The Task Force Report of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice noted, "The most sig nificant weakness in American motor patrol opera- tions today is the general lack of contact with citizens except when an officer has responded to a call. Forced to stay near the car's radio, awaiting an assign- ment, most patrol officers have few opportunities to develop closer relationships with persons living in the district. Despite the drawbacks, by 1978, the Police Practices Survey found that more than 90 per- cent of all beats were handled by motor patrol. Foot patrol accounted for less than 10 percent. There has been an ongoing debate having one officer or two officers in a pale major unforeseen consequence of the shift to mo better. Typically, the larger urban departmen as New York, Chicago, Washington, DC ized patrol continues to haunts Motorized patrol Angeles have deployed two-officer cars. Mo urban and rural departments have preferred officer and since that allows them to better their limited number of officers. Since many service do not necessitate two officers, they they get more coverage this way. The theory if an officer goes to a dangerous callosen a dangerous situation, he or she will women have a backup dispatched or can call for backup a neighboring beat or zone. Having one of carallows departments to maximize their te and have the ability to respond to more calls for money. This advantage is especially relevant to ing officers and filling vacancies. Some agen with declining budgets and the difficulty in recru compromised by using primarily one-office supplemented by two-officer cars in high-che or during peak hours In a study of police officer attitudes toward one officer versus two-officer patrol, officers generally agreed that they would perform the same regardless of whether they were in a one or two-officer patel car; however, they believed that two officer unit should be used during the evening or midnight shift as well as in areas of the city where people mistrut the police, and that two-officer patrols are gener ally more effective. Many officers state that police departments are compromising officer safety in as effort to save money. They believe that officers are safer when working in pairs and that they are less likely to be assaulted or killed if there are two offi- cers present. Though there is some anecdotal evi dence to support this claim, the empirical research has been unclear. Some officers have related that it not for their partner being present, they would be dead or seriously injured. Others who have been injured have indicated that perhaps they would not have been assaulted or injured had they not been alone in a car with no backup immediately avail able. It can be difficult to ascertain the deterrent effect that seeing two officers together might have co One-Officer Versus Two-Officer Patrol Cars Along with the IACP recommendation mentioned above, O. W. Wilson's concept of random routine patrol by marked police vehicles included his insis- tence that the cars should contain one officer, rather than the two officers that were commonly used ear- lier. This was quite controversial at the time and remains so. Wilson believed that one-officer patrols could observe more than two-officer patrols, that one-officer patrols would respond more quickly to calls for service, and that officers patrolling by themselves were actually safer than were officers patrolling in pairs. someone who might consider assaulting an officer of trying to escape On the other hand, it is thought that when off cers work in pairs, they may become distracted by their conversation and not be quite as observant they might be on their own. They also may become 274 PARTS POLICE OPERATIONS using resources more effectively in the future. In 911 systems. A 311 system takes some demand of the 911 lines and keeps the w for true emergencies by allowing addition to the benefits to the department citizens are not unhappy with delayed response from police calls to be redirected to other relea departments when they are aware that there will be agencies, either by citizens directly can by 911 operators quickly rerouting the ate calls to 311. Baltimore and Dallas were led to determine how the addition of a affected the 911 system as well as officer The study found that when accompaniet effective public awareness campaign, & 31 noemergency calls for service or informat can greatly reduce the 911 call burden by me the queue and sending them to more app agencies. In these two cities, even though the tem appeared to free time for police officer officers did not notice an increase in discrete time. The researchers believe the system can be officers' free time but recommend to departments that, to have that occur, they should not have cers respond to 311 calls but simply transfer them to an alternate referral agency." adelay and the rationale is explained. Many citizens find the new options, including online reporting phone reporting, and referrals, more convenient for their busy schedules An example of this process is the trend for most cities to minimize the time and resources spent responding to false alarm calls. Not that long ago law enforcement responded to every alarm that went off whether it was one of 20 going off during a thun derstorm or at a residence with a faulty alarm system set off on a daily basis by the family pet. By legislat- ing ordinances and working with alarm companies, most departments have been able to decrease or at least keep the number of alarm calls constant even though the use of alarm systems has risen greatly. These efforts include ordinance development, reg. istration of alarms, graduated fine structure, new equipment standards, suspension of response to chronic abusers, and the use of enhanced call veri fication where the alarm company makes numerous phone calls before calling the police agency with what appears to be a needed response. In an effort to manage police resources as well as enhance offi- cer safety officers can develop a "false alarm" men tality that leads to injury or death on the real call). cities saw the necessity to change their response methods. The 911 system has evolved over the years to make police departments more effective and to assist their efforts to manage their resources. Traditionally, the 911 call has determined the police department priorities. When the 911 number was introduced by AT&T in 1968, the concept was very exciting. By 2000, 93 percent of all larger local law enforce- ment agencies participated in an enhanced 911 sys- tem where the caller's location could be identified automatically, an increase from only 57 percent in 1990. Calls to 911 have skyrocketed over the years because of the promotion and advertising regarding this number. Police departments strive to educate their citizens to use 911 only in true emergencies, and that is often the first question the call takers ask the caller. Unfortunately, when someone needs help but does not know who to call, 911 is often the num- ber the person remembers. In the mid- to late 1990s, jurisdictions began to introduce the 311 system to relieve overburdened Reverse 911 With the advancement in communications tech. nology as well as the progression of mapping abili ties, the use of reverse 911 systems has expanded This type of system allows police departments to call citizens in the entire jurisdiction or limit calls to a particular neighborhood where something is occurring. The department can disseminate emer gency information to residents within minutes Reverse 911 is a valuable tool when there are in progress events or a pursuit or manhunt in a certain neighborhood The system can call the phone numbers of residents, the program also has been expanded to include cell phone numbers. The expansion of the system to cell phones was hastened by the Virginia Tech shootings, when it became apparent that such a notification system would have helped students know what was going on and respond appropriate The program has become widespread among col leges and cities where residents sign up to receive text messages or calls about crime incidents occur ring. This reverse 911 arrangement allows the com munity to work together with the police to solve innocent bystanders. This increased publica crimes as well as to minimize injury and death to ness allows the police to work more effectively and Atheir communities, musly to better serve the public and improve the CHAPTER PATROL OPERATIONS 275 prompt registered individuals to verify their infor: in every six months of the information will be deleted Smart911 Ma uctions across the country are now of MEIE This new system allows individuals to cated personal, medical, and disability infor voluntarily register their phone numbers and enter w into a secure website. When an individual 911 from that registered number, the additional will display at the Public Safety Answering PAP). This will allow addresses to be linked wireless phones that previously had no address Anformation attached. This technology will become congly important as more people do away with Allocation of Resources Considerations in the allocation of resources revolve round personnel, including the scheduling of off ers, and the use of vehicles ir landlines more quickly and more effectively based on the information individuals have chosen to provide. For when the person needing help can't communicate sample medical conditions will help responders Citizens create their own "safety profile on the i website and can choose to enter their vehi- die description, the number of people in the house, work and school addresses, or whatever informa Personnel department's budget. In this day of shrinking bud Personnel are the most expensive part of a police gets, agencies must allocate their personnel in the This can help first responders provide service most efficient way possible and consider nontradi- tional ways of doing things. Most departments have reexamined their roles and tasks and are question ing whether certain jobs need to be done, how they might be better done for example, over the phone or online and who should do them. Many depart- ments have increased their use of civilians for non- hazardous jobs such as evidence technician, accident investigator, property technician, call taker, and front desk attendant. This allows the sworn officers sistance. Photos can be attached, which could help ten they feel would help when they need emergency to be used for the more hazardous duties and puts more officers on the street in an effort to combat in a situation of a missing child or a person with Alzheimer's. Knowing how many people reside in a crime and keep the residents safe. house and, in particular, the number of children Scheduling officers is also a big issue. Depart- ments do not want to have too many officers on would be helpful in a fire department response. It duty at one time so they are climbing all over each can also expedite response: Responders can know other to respond to calls, nor do they want to be What type of car to look for when they get GPS infor- understaffed should a significant emergency occur. mation and know a location to head to when GPS Unfortunately, law enforcement is a very unpre- information is hard to get. Smart911 can also let dictable field. It can be extremely quiet and boring public safety personnel know if another language is one minute, but in the second it takes for an alert spoken, so they can expedite arrangements to bring tone to come over the radio, the day or night can the appropriate translators to the call. become crazy. Scheduling is especially important This service is backed by public safety person if the department wants to conduct directed patrol nel, community organizations, and municipalities, activities to address certain crime problems. and the cost is born by local municipalities. There Traditionally, departments used equal staffing is no cost to the individual subscriber. Though not for every shift. In other words, there were 10 officers all 911 centers are currently able to utilize this pro- on days, 10 officers on evenings, and 10 officers on file, as their equipment gets updated they will be midnights. Officers and administrators alike knew Public safety is encouraging the registration of this the workload was not the same, but it was difficult to quantify before computers. Now there is plenty Information even if local 911 centers aren't yet using of data available as long as departments know how as it will be helpful when traveling. The Smart911 to collect it and analyze it. Departments can deter- website provides all the information about the ser mine workload by types of calls and areas of the city, which can help them design beats or zones so that ces as well as a place to enter your zip code to see and where it is used in your area. The site will 272 PART) POLICE OPERATIONS of pe for n analysis and their experiences look ing at body worn cameras (Phoenix), video camera Washington), links between traffic violations and surveillance in order maintenance areas (Pullman vehicle crushes and other criminal activity (Shawnee Kansas, and York, Maine), and predictive policing (Cambridge, Massachusetts, and India, California). The Los Angeles Smart Policing Initiative known as Los Angeles Strategic Extraction and Restoration (LASER) program is particularly interesting as it incorporated both a chronic offender component and a chronic location component in some of the most violent neighborhoods in the city Results indicated that a reduction in gun crime was significant only in neighborhoods in which both components were utilized to address the problem The city reported a 19 percent decrease in violent crimes and attained an all-time low of 16 homicides in 2012 (compared to 36 in 2011). The assessments of these various strategies and continued research on other innovative tactics should help clarify the issue of addressing crime in the most effective and cost-efficient ways that will exist long after the fiscal challenges have subsided. Detalets that problem-solving teams can cars before they begin their tour and are The directed patrol assignments are crven prevent violence in chronic high maroon replace committed random patrol time and reduce calls for service in problematice ce duties that police commanders believe on crime analysis, specific problems, o effective Directed patrol assignments can be rond from the community in departe the community policing philosophy, para are odien given the freedom of determining and when their patrol efforts (often with the community should be directed based on A successful example of a directed put gram that achieved positive results was the of Maryland, the Kansas City, Missouri, dan City gun experiment. Working with the very Department focused extra directed patrol to gun crimes in a hot spot area that was dete by computer analysis. The goal was to determine whether vigorously enforcing gun laws coudre gun crimes. A special unit was assigned to the They did not respond to radio calls, but instead Personnel Deployment Police have responded to the challenges of smarter deployment of personnel in several ways, includ. ing the direction given to patrol officers as well as the differential response to calls for service by the agency as a whole. These innovative approaches to policing are designed to make better use of officers' patrol time and department resources. removed guns from citizens following searches incident to arrest for other crimes and other valid stop-and-frisk situations. During the 29.weel experiment, the gun patrol officers made thousand of car and pedestrian checks, traffic stops, and more than 600 arrests. The gun patrol efforts did affect crime rates. There was a decrease of 49 percent in gun crimes in the target area compared with a slight increase in a nontargeted area. Drive-by shooting and homicides decreased significantly. Interesting none of the seven contiguous beats showed a signifi cant increase in gun crime, indicating that there was little crime displacement effect (crime being moved to another area). Community surveys conducted before and afte the program was initiated indicated that citizens in the target area were less fearful of crime and more satisfied with their neighborhood than were res dents in companion areas. After the extra directed patrols were ended, crime rates went back to their normal levels. While directed patrol is designed so officers can pay particular attention to specific crimes and disorder while they are not on assignment from the police dispatcher, calls for service often interrup the performance of directed patrol assignments Directing Patrol Efforts An alternative to random routine patrol is directed patrol, in which officers are given specific direc- tions to follow when they are not responding to calls. directed patrol Officers patrol strategically to address a specific crime problem split-force patrol A method in which the patrol force is split; half responds to calls for service and the other half performs directed patrol activities Split-force patrol offers a solution to this prob lem. One portion of the patrol force is designated to handle all calls dispatched to patrol units. The rest 280 PART 3 POLICE OPERATIONS YOU ARE THERE everywhere the male has a knite a female is outside with cuts to her hand barricaded sub ject with a hostage King County Sheriff's Office (KCSO dispatch relaying information to responding deputes "There may be a loaded rifle in the house. "Drop the gun, Drop the guni" KCSO Deputy Erik Soderstrom and other responding deputies speaking to each other and then screaming at an armed young man prior to RADAR at the King County Sheriff's Office Come quick! Someone's lighting, there's blood in crisis. "We need more information, we need Soderstromated when responding to annou form with a high level of professionalismo options. Our communities expect officers to staff has an obligation to provide our others the tools they need to meet these expectation Would access to subject-specific de Ular scenario that Deputy Soderstrom found information have changed the outcome of the partie faoingIt's impossible to say for certain Howe when responding to our citizens in times of We at the king county Sheriff's Office exploring a three-pronged response to this chang with an effort we call "RADAR" Bisk bwareness, De-escalation, and Referral). RADAR Voluntary establishes channels of communication between challenged individuals (and/or their cOS) and local more information is always preferable to less tabing his life "Every call is a risk assessment you're doing it we need more in your head as you go there. information and more options. - KCSO Deputy Erik Soderstrom testifying at his shooting inquest As I watched Deputy Soderstrom testify in the shoot- ing inquest, I was reminded of how little information we have when responding to dangerous and unpre- dictable scenes. At the inquest we learned for the first time that in the weeks prior to his death, this now deceased young man had spoken openly to both his girlfriend and his family (what we refer to as his "circle of support about his paranoia of the police killing him and his preoccupation with suicide. Those who loved him had witnessed his mental health decom- pensate. All too often this dynamic of violence is repeated in counties and cities across our country, fre- quently ending in the same tragic result. Afterwards, we ask ourselves the same questions: How could this have been prevented? Why was this person not on our radar? How can we in law enforcement be better prepared to de-escalate this specific person and lessen the likelihood of use of force? If force is required, how can we best minimize the force used? Every day, law enforcement professionals are called to America's "front porches" in times of cri- sis. We accept that challenge-it's what we do. But as alluded to by Deputy Soderstrom in his inquest testimony, we must do everything in our power to increase the odds of safe, properly conducted, and effective response to those in crisis. As Deputy law enforcement who are tasked with safely and effectively responding to crisis events. Risk awareness is achieved by identifying there members of our communities that have demon strated an increased likelihood of being involved ina use-of-force encounter with police. The identification process may include documentation of previous use of force, assaultive behavior, threats, or complaints involving citizens with such challenges as severe or untreated mental illness, cognitive disabilities, or behavior management challenges as the result of chronic substance abuse. These individuals are brought to our attention through prior documented behavior, not their particular diagnosis. *Subject-specific de-escalation planning is achieved through a collaborative effort normally initiated by law enforcement to engage the subject and/or his COS in a candid conversation to identity violent behavior triggers and inhibitors. Every indi- vidual that law enforcement encounters behaves in his or her own distinctive manner. Our de-escalation approach is based on research that indicates that "people's pre-existing views (of police) shape their perceptions of future encounters." It is our respons bility as community caretakers to put forth the time and effort required to build trusting and empathete relationships with these behaviorally challenged in viduals and reshape negative preexisting views to positive ones CHAPTERS PATROL OPERATIONS 279 The predominant models of these SPR include the Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) and the responder model. The first law enforcement based Amore specific type of saturation patrolis down, which generally targets a specific Vio of the law. Although these crackdows can Aces such as drugs or pronon, they minuty, be used for traie vielations wachas Ofnding on the organization and the needs of and impaired driving we wat belt violations, construction to Vio Turation patrols as an option in address Nationwide police agencies continue to con aucothes in an effort to make arrests and detet CIT program waarted in Memphis, Tenne In 1935 en er billede person with mental winess. This was designed to alety during the encounter by mers with problems such As narcoties, robberies, burglaries, cial activity Specialized Policing Responses to Individuals with Mental illness ty in general is providing for these individu The sue of mental illness in the population, how and more specifically, how law enforcement is ponding to calls involving the mentally ill has Income a major issue. For the last few decades sation has failed the mentally ill after shutting down many mental institutions and reducing the availabil de escalation techniques and providing community alternatives to incarceration. Los Angeles and San Diego use the coresponder model, in which offi cers and treatment professionals respond together to calls for service in an effort to connect the mentally ill individuals more effectively with community-based treatment. Many jurisdictions around the country use these two models or versions of them with adjust ments made to better match their community needs. Some agencies have developed programs using aspects of both approaches. The Houston Police Department instituted a program in 2007 that over hauled how they dealt with mentally ill people after some police encounters ended tragically. Their pro- gram is often held up as a model as it combines a CIT program with a coresponder program, called the Crisis Intervention Response Team (CIRT), ty of community mental health programs. This has which partners a police officer and a licensed mental health professional. The vast majority of calls related living on the streets or in the community with loved Jed to an increase in untreated mentally ill people to individuals with mental illnesses are handled by CIRT officers." mentally ill people on a more frequent basis, often cais. Police officers now come into contact with The King County Sheriff's Office in Washington when they are in crisis and out of control. This has has taken response to another level: They focus on resulted in some tragic incidents. These tragedies the individual as well as the response through their RADAR program. The office identifies individuals have led to outrage by both the community and at risk for future contacts and encourages voluntary law enforcement; these groups have begun to come sharing of information during a noncrisis time that together to address the issue of the mentally ill popu- will follow the individual regardless of where he or lation and attempt to come up with a solution to keep she is in the area and facilitate the most appropriate more tragedies from happening. Some communities response by law enforcement. The more information have come up with some very innovative responses officers have, the more options they have in respond Specialized Policing Responses (SPRS) to the ing to future incidents and the less likely they will mentally ill population involve training respond have to respond to a situation with force. crs in crisis de-escalation and prioritizing treatment All jurisdictions working on this problem and over incarceration in order to improve the outcomes implementing the various solutions hope to contrib- in these encounters. These responses tailor specif- ute to solving this raging problem of untreated indi- ies to the local community depending on its unique viduals roaming the streets without the help they needs, resources, and limitations. The responses vary depending on whether the community is rural crackdown An enforcement effort targeting a specific violation or urban, if the community has a high percentage of homeless people, and the resources and facilities the Specialized Policing Responses (SPR) A tailored law enforcement response to individuals with mental illness that community has available. The process starts with involves trained first responders and prioritizes crisis de escala tion and treatment over arrest and incarceration of the law. comprehensive planning, involving a wide variety of stakeholders. patrol officers, most law enforcementen though trat stops are one of the primary we have trate units that spendentral on and enforcement. The traffic it is o the offices in that it work closely with yasagned to the same bute or divisions med patrol officers. Usually there are not hadic officers to handle all traitic incidents cated and serious incidents they can lend expertise and handle the more Traffic incidents can place a significant demand cerstime, consequently, departments are way to prevent incidents from occurring. As exploring better ways of handling them as ering and signage can help prevent accidents, Hawking with city departments to improve traffic and working with the public information office, if cute the public can also help to reduce accidents en one, or community groups directly to edu. sing new techniques and equipment to address traues can make things work more smoothly and efficiently fic function as well as the importance of sharing The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) realizes the importance of the traf information among police agencies. The IACP has a Highway Safety Committee that works closely with the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NHTSA) and offers numerous publications. An article by the chair of the IACP Highway Safety Committee addressing the top 10 trends in traffic enforcement provided the following list of concerns for law enforcement in 2005: Speed enforcement. Speed is involved in one of every three fatalities in the United States. • Dangerous work zones. Every year, highway workers are needlessly killed or injured because of inattentive drivers. Fatigued or distracted drivers. Many drivers are sleep deprived, and many others are multitask- ing using driving time to talk on cell phones, read the paper, put on lipstick, or eat chili dogs. Part of the effort to reduce this problem includes keeping rest areas safe with high-visibility patrol, so drivers view them as an alternative when tired. Sleep-deprived officers. Because of court appear ances, overtime, and extra jobs, police offi- cers are often sleep deprived. Combating this CHAPTERY PATROL OPERATIONS 285 problem would include policies and procedures work restricting the amount of overtime officers can Safer traffic stop. Many officers are injured or killed while writing citations, speaking with drivers, or working accidents Departments must educate officers in the newest techniques to minimize their chances of being hurt • New laws and tactics. Keeping up to date on court decisions and the newest techniques and procedures for safe and legal enforcement is challenging and time-consuming New types of vehicles. Hybride and electric vehi cles pose new safety concerns. • Drugged drivers. A significant number of driv ers that police encounter are under the influence of drugs or alcohol. Departments should have an adequate number of officers certified as drug recognition experts (DRES). Traffic officers and homeland security Officers must know how to recognize suspicious activi ties or information while on traffic stops. Incident clearance. Interdisciplinary traf. fic teams should be formed with all agencies involved in traffic incidents in order to develop protocols for responding quickly and effectively and minimizing the disruption to the public. The proliferation of cars, motorcycles, and trucks in the United States has been accompanied by a tremendous number of traffic fatalities, injuries, and property damage. In 2012, there were 33,561 traffic fatalities, an increase of 3.3 percent from 2011. The fatality rate for 2012 was 1.13 fatalities per 100 million vehicle miles traveled (VMT), up from a historic low 1.10 fatalities per 100 million VMT in 2011. The NHTSA attributes the decrease in traffic fatalities to the safety features in cars and to the use of seat belts. Currently, the NHTSA estimates seat belt compliance to be over 85 percent nationwide. States have enacted numerous laws dealing with vehicle use, and it falls upon the police to enforce those laws. Police investigate accidents and identify their causes, identify traffic hazards and attempt to neutralize them, and strive to educate the public. States and police agencies use the statistics that the NHTSA gathers to determine where their efforts would best be directed. The effort in many states is on seat belt enforcement, as the data indicate that CHAPTER PATROL OPERATIONS 281 contacto ATS the realmeharing or and de-escalation planning Information with law enforcement and aid personnel. This Seved via a web-based 11 system that allows indirst responders and patchers media to preplanned, cooperatively designed specin de-escalation strategy le information sharing systems, RADARIS patrorm designed to allow est respond- meability to share timely and subject specific scalation information among themselves. CADAR becomes a force multiplier in terms of build and sharing positive interpersonal relationships Den the challenged individual, the COS, and wworcement. These relationships are built on a foundation of trust and empathy-one officer one Through outreach by both conventional and social media, RADAR is encouraging families and loved ones of our challenged populations to step forward and work with local law enforcement to breakthrough natural tensions and demystify each other's role in addressing an event Deputy Soderstrom voiced the need for more Information and more options. We believe RADARIS the right tool to meet those needs Captain Scott D. Strathy King County Sheriff's Office Shoreline, Washington e Sandy Hook Elementary School shooter, the Cafe od Hopefully, the attention these efforts are raising around the country will result in preventing future tragedies like the movie theater shooter in Colorado, Racer killer in Seattle, the Naval Yard shooter in Washington, DC, or the woman shot by police after trying to ram the barricades by the White House. Decoy Vehicles Although individuals have been used as decoys for years, typically by investigations units but some times by and with the assistance of patrol, another type of decoy operation has also been used with success and involves no danger to officers. Its pri- mary goal is preventing crime violations, rather than catching criminals. This decoy operation, which involves using unoccupied marked police vehicles in strategic locations to give the perception of omni- presence, has been used successfully to address less serious but demanding crime problems and traffic violations in the least resource intensive way. Police agencies may park a marked vehicle on a roadside where there is a problem with speeding. Drivers see the unit in the distance and slow down. Even if they see that the vehicle is unoccupied, it serves as a reminder that it could have been occupied that post the speed limit and show drivers their speed. It allows police agencies to address traffic problems without tying up an officer for extended periods. This idea can be and has been expanded upon. When faced with numerous and persistent "smash and grabs" at exclusive women's clothing stores, the Boca Raton, Florida, Police Department had a problem. There was no discernible pattern to these burglaries, which were occurring throughout Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach counties, yet store own- ers were outraged by repeated victimization that occurred over many months. With a limited num- ber of midnight shift officers, many square miles of territory, and a high number of women's clothing stores, the police department had to come up with a method to address this problem and reassure the community that they considered it a priority. They started parking unoccupied marked vehicles in front of some of the more vulnerable targets. The hope was that the offender driving on the main roadways looking for a target would bypass these stores, think ing that there was an officer in the car, in the store, or in the area. Unfortunately, as is common with law enforcement efforts at crime prevention, it was dif- ficult to measure success. However, businesses with police vehicles in the area were not broken into and store owners appreciated police efforts. Although this decoy strategy alone would not solve all crimes, in this instance if a surveil. lance effort were put into effect at the remaining stores, the criminals might be displaced to those and they could have gotten a ticket. This technique Sens drivers become more aware of their driving habits, slows them down, increases awareness, and cates drivers, much like the portable radar devices maddenly or tailgating awhide the devet OUTERS METROL OPERATIONS 280 sa moving too slowly. If the other deve to adapt this behavior as well, a verbal the which is now appeche confrontation at a traffic light can grily increased the other Sometimes drivers are just frustrated with tral They put several coaches and will do whatever they feel will help them faster, such as passing can quickly changing The pred driver the car and wide or tailgating to intimidate other drivers • The chased vehicle crashes into a tutt anging lanes. Inappropriately passing vehicles and the driver and counts we apprehended. nanging such a greve driving in an effort to Lased in fatal head-on crashes. Many states Aprende billed The chased vehicle crashes into another chi de crashes and make the road safer somewhat recent phenomenon that might be cle with or without injuries to the driver and other occupants in the chased vehicle or another ed as a type of aggressive driving is motor whide These have been described by some • The vehicle being chased strikes a pedestrian of the newest urban public safety threats (with or without injuries or death ovlarge groups of people who take to major The police use some level of force to stop the was and busy streets on motorcycles for the pursued vehicle, including firearms, roadblocks o torto do stunts. This is a brought to Tamming, bumping, boxing, and so on tanton of the public when the media focused • The police car crashes (with or without injuries horrific example in the fall of 2013 as one of to officers or civilians) Shams was caught on video. A driver in an SJV was attacked and beaten with his family in the Not all of these possible outcomes are acceptable for ar after allegedly causing a biker to crash. the police or innocent civilians Motorcycle swarms are difficult to police as A current debate questions whether the police her smaller, nimbler vehicles can easily elude should pursue fleeing vehicles, especially when such a pursuit could risk injuries to the police or innocent police. Furthermore, officers cannot use the same civilians. Certainly, no one wants officers or civil tactics to stop these motorcycles that they might use ce other vehicles driving aggressively and threaten ians injured. However, people on the other side of the debate say that if the police do not pursue fleeing ingly to stop their progress and place them under drivers, they are sending a message to violators that amest. The public finds these swarms intimidating they can get away with traffic violations by fleeing and frightening; they impede the public's move sent and in fact pose a danger or threat in many STUDIES INVOLVING POLICE PURSUITS instances. Large groups of motorcyclists can mate- Studies have been conducted to determine what mialize quickly and massively with the help of social happens in a rapid pursuit. This information may media States are struggling with how to curb and help police administrators establish policies on rapid prevent these dangerous gatherings. pursuits A review by the California Highway Patrol of nearly 700 pursuits on its highways during a six- Police Automobile Pursuits month period revealed the following about the typi- The police practice of using high-powered vehicles cal pursuit: to chase speeding motorists, or police pursuits, has Tested in numerous accidents, injuries, and deaths . It occurs at night to innocent civilians, police officers, and the pursued • It covers only a mile or so drivers. Geoffrey Alpert and Patrick R. Anderson daracterize the police high-speed automobile pur- wat as the most deadly force available to the police. police pursuits The attempt by law enforcement to apprehend Alpert and Anderson define a high-speed pur- as an active attempt by a law enforcement officer perating an emergency vehicle to apprehend alleged nals in a moving motor vehicle, when the driver It starts as a traffic violation alleged criminals in a moving motor vehide when the driver is trying to elude capture and increases speed or takes evasive action the lookout" (BOLO) alarms 290 PART POLICE OPERATIONS Metro-Dade Police Department and the It takes approximately two minutes to resolve Miami Police Department. The research • It involves at least two police cars that 35 percent of the purested . It ends when the pursued driver stops his or her dent. 17 percent in injury, and 0.7 percent Of the 160 pursuits with injury, 30 de vehicle It results in the apprehension of more than cent bystander, and 113 involved injury to the to the police officer, 17 involved injury to three-fourths of the pursued drivers It ends without an accident 70 percent of the Dunham also concluded that 54 percent of the ng driver or the passengers or both. Mpen uits were initiated for traffic offenses, 2 percent The study also revealed that drivers failed to stop for reckless driving or impaired driving, 33 percent the following reasons based on the judgment of the serious criminal activity, and 11 percento pursuing officer To avoid an arrest for driving while intoxicated 44 percent of pursuits resulted in accidents, and A study conducted in Minnesota indicated (DWT) or a drugarrest (19 percent) percent resulted in injuries. The causes of the To avoid a summons for a traffic infraction suits included traffic (76 percent), suspicion (14 percent ing under the influence (6 percent, and son Because the driver was driving a stolen vehicle a felony (16 percent) (12 percent • To avoid an arrest for a low violation (11 percent) a study conducted by two researchers at the In 2004, the University of Washington Harborvice Medical Center's Injury Prevent • Because of unknown or miscellaneous reasons, and Research Center. The researchers cute! such as the driver being afraid of the police, dis- liking the police, or enjoying the excitement of all traffic fatalities in the nation from 1994 the the chase (44 percent 2002 and found 2,654 fatal crashes with 3,146 deres resulting from police pursuits. Of those deale The California Highway Patrol study concluded that although there are risks in high-speed pursuits, 1,048, or one-third, were not people in the flere vehicles. They were drivers or occupants of the the pursuits are worth the risks vehicles, pedestrians, or bicyclists: 40 were police Attempted apprehension of motorists in violation of what appear to be minor traffic infractions is necessary for the preservation of order on the highways of California.... One can imagine what would happen if the police suddenly banned pursuits. Undoubtedly innocent people may be injured or killed because an officer chooses to pursue a suspect, but this risk is necessary to avoid the even greater loss that would occur if law enforcement agencies were not allowed to aggressively pursue violators? Alpert and Roger G. Dunham studied 952 pursuits in Dade A patrol car is abandoned in the middle of an intersection County, Florida, by the area's two major police departments, the in Grand Rapids, Michigan, after it was involved in a pursuit subsequent to a shooting incident. The report did not determine how many OUTERS TO OPERATIONS 291 Porces do not end in deaths on the officers there who led the chose Albert hat police chase fatalities make up 1 percent of all for the pursuits, but the researchers did we fund the officers chasing spects experience adrenaline ich that can lead to the doce orchade-related deaths in the United St This is a serious safety issue for police and vece che hoch up with the fine that requires further intensive study In 2007, the US Supreme Court ruled on the ne ofrece in wing foto terminat THE EVOLUTION OF PURSUITS Departments purit. The com Mariedade mang their long-standing policy of actively pursuing Harris and timely ramming the back anyone who fails to stop for a police officer of his vehicle to get him to stop (This case is dis The purus cause a lot of injury, death, damage cussed in Chapter 13.) This action caused Harris bunal pain, and economic costs. With today's to lose control of his vehicle. His vehicle left the chalog offenders can often be apprehended in roadway, rolled, and crashed, causing injuries that resulted in Harris becoming purplegic. Harris sod The number of accidents and injuries result Deputy Scott, alleging that excessive force was used from police high-speed pursuits has led many against him in violation of his Fourth Amendment rights. The case made its way to the U.S.Supreme pursuit policies (policies regulating the circum- US police departments to establish formal police Court, and the Court issued an opinion that held that police officers may use potentially deadly force sances and conditions under which the police to end a high-speed chase of a suspect whose action id pursue or chase motorists driving at high risk the safety of other drivers and pedestrians." peccamined this issue closely in the last few years, and in a dangerous manner). Most departments Though this ruling would seem to strengthen law enforcement's position in pursuits, departments still and many have come to the conclusion that the dan prefer to avoid these kinds of situations if at all pos Ders to officers, citizens, and even the individual sible. Consequently, as mentioned earlier, the vast bees pursued often indicate that pursuits are not an majority of departments have some restrictions in diective tactic and the dangers far outweigh the ben- their pursuit policies des Police pursuit policies provide clear guidelines One of the best alternatives that departments so officers and supervisors about what their roles are. are exploring is the use of technology. Law enforce Some departments are even telling their officers to ment air units commonly assist in pursuits and Escontinue a pursuit under certain circumstances track the offender to a stopping place, often with the In 2003, nearly all departments had pursuit policies added element of video. Many departments have of percent of local police agencies had a restrictive good working relationships with the TV media and pursuit policy (restrictions based on speed, type of can request this kind of monitored assistance. Many effense, and so on): 25 percent of departments hada departments also use tire deflation spikes in appro- priate situations, and some are exploring emerging judgmental pursuit policy, leaving it to the officer's GPS tracking systems discretion; and 6 percent discouraged all vehicle Pursuit policies can cause conflicts between departments in neighboring towns or countries when Other Police Operational pursuit that crosses a boundary into another juris. Units diction where officers will not pursue. Agencies need to communicate their policies and plan how to Other operational units that are part of today's handle any conflicts that arise. police department include SWAT teams, police Considering the widely televised beatings of paramilitary units, and K-9 units ndividuals after pursuits, a proposal by Alpert, a professor of criminology at the University of South Carna, seems to make a great deal of sense. In a police pursuit policies Policies regulating the circumstances 1996 study of police pursuit policies, Alpert recom- and conditions under which the police should pursuit or chase bended that suspects be apprehended by backup motorists driving at high speeds in a dangerous manner trained and have more experience 292 POUCE OPERATIONS SWAT Teams and Police Most departments are too small to Paramilitary Units * SWAT composed of officers with time SWAT team such departments SWAT teams we created as du in the 1900 ally reporters and ents throughout the department similar disturbances. The first SWAT team w have their regular assignments, but when the Philadelphia Police Department 100 office callout occurs, they respond from whereve SWAT quad, which was organised in 1964 in areness a city is very large and buy. response to the growing number of bank robberies not enough SWAT calls to justify having a throughout the city SWAT team are commonly used around the country but sometimes have other unit. Some departments have difficulty having a SWAT team even when it is names. Some people believe that the name SWAT officers on other job assignments. In the sounds a little too aggressive and militaristic and on the departments in an area may some cities have chosen variations of the title for the same type of team such a special response unit to form a regional SWAT team, with office (SRL) or special response team (SRT) ing from several departments. The most import e in this situation is determining who has Police paramilitary unit (PP) is a term made popular by Peter Kraska and Victor Kappeler in the trol of the unit and who is in charge. There 1990s to refer to units within police departments no confusion regarding command on a SWAT No matter how the SWAT team or PL that are organized in a more militaristic manner with their primary function to threaten or use force a PPU is expensive, primarily because of the the formed, training is of utmost importance. Den collectively and not necessarily as a last resort. The term includes units, also referred to as SWAT teams ing requirements. The members of these or special response units, that are "distinguished be constantly training and working together on the by power and number of weapons. These units are any action they take will be appropriate and come highly trained as use of force specialists defensible The number of PPUs has grown tremendously Most of these units were created in the 1965 since the 1970s, when fewer than 10 percent of and 1990s, and their use has become more prevale police departments had them; in 1995, 89 percent due to the increasing violence in our communitie of departments had such a unit. The use of these and the use of more lethal weapons by criminal units over the years also has changed from handling Their effect on the organizational culture of depers the occasional dangerous situation callouts to being ments is unknown, but Kraska and Kappeler believe involved on a more routine basis in such things as this interaction should be closely scrutinized. The serving high-risk search warrants and arrest war- effect of these paramilitary units can be particular rants. Kraska and Kappeler found that 20 percent relevant when they are seen patrolling the streets of the departments they surveyed used PPUs for with all their militaristic equipment or are presente patrolling urban areas on a somewhat regular basis. Members of these teams are carefully chosen public gatherings or demonstrations, as in the recent and trained in the use of weapons and strategic inva- "Occupy" movement around the country, sion tactics. They are used in situations involving Some critics believe that use of paramilitary hostages, serious crimes, airplane hijackings, and and military-like equipment is becoming more prea prison riots, as well as in other situations requiring lent and is resulting in cases of unnecessary force and specialized skills and training. When serving war the intimidation of residents. However, law enforce rants, it is safer to use these highly trained officers ment would rather overreact in terms of resources than to make the entry than using the narcotics investi- have someone get hurt. In fact, in some cases, police gators who may be working the case and getting the departments have been criticized when they served what should have been perceived as a high risk we police paramilitary unit (PPU) Ampopularized in the late rant without using one of these highly trained 1990s to refer to police units organized in a more militaristi and it resulted in someone getting hurt or killed manner such as SWAT teams with their primary function to threate or use force collectively SWATTING Unfortunately, a prank activity becom ing more prevalent in recent years is now leading CAT deployment Swetting is OTS OPERATIONS 293 by SWAT team. Typically the technology to make appear that the These calls are commonly made Dicas precepty offenders were have been aged when the cal that love and the someone to the perpet of these types of all to when they Setting calls can have very dangerous or hear about the dramatic respons The FBI has arrested several individuals K-9 Units crime, although local agencies tend to Most departments today my mind and process most incidents themes with Talented des have been used by the police for many part from the FBI when necessary years, but during the last few years, their roles Ce of the eart watting conspiracies began expanded and the need for the grown 104 when 14 year-old Mathew Wegman con Traditionally, Knits have wplemented the da 911 operator that he was holding a girland patrol function by responding to burglary calls or ther at point in the home in Colorado open doors where a premises search is needed. The pa SWAT call. Wegman had met the id dogs can search more safely and accurately than bruch an online chat room, and be cosal to pa human officers, particularly when the area to be in phone sex with him prompted his wat searched is large or difficult to reach, such as a real al Wiegman later began operating as a phone space. This aids in the effort to keep officers safe backer in Washington state; he pulled off dozens The dogs also have been used for tracking when crime has just occurred. They can help officers know ployees and manipulating phone systems until he ang calls by scamming telecommunications the direction of travel of a suspect or if the suspect got in a vehicle. In the best-case scenario, the dog arrested in 2009. Wegman, then 19, wassen will lead officers to the suspect's home, vehicle, or ed to more than 11 years in federal prison hiding place. K s also can assist in convincing as Not only do these calls divert significant resources pect to surrender. People know they cannot reason Frete other needed responses and duties, it is only a er of time before one ends in tragedy. There have with a dog, so when a dog is set loose to appechend them, they may be more likely to give up peacefully ready been several close calle: Whenever numerous This can save an officer from getting injured trying officers and units respond to a potentially dangerous to take a no compliant suspect into custody. sergency call, the risk of accidents and injuries en Dogs have been a big asset in the war on drugs, route is high. The officers respond to swatting calls sniffing vehicles and packages and signaling if drugs with the expectation that there is a violent suspect on are present. Since September 11, 2001, there has been the scene or that victims are in life-threatening dan an increase in the demand for dogs that sniff bombs per Once they arrive, unsuspecting residents might and explosives. These dogs are used routinely at air try to defend themselves, raising the possibility for ports, train stations, ferry terminals, ports, subways. serious injuries and deaths. Some residents have suf- highways, bridges, and tunnels ced heart attacks as a result of the fear and scare The dogs are also a public relations asset anda Testing from the SWAT unit's arrival. The worst great tool for bridging the gap between the commu- nity and the officers at special events. Departments case scenario would be a misunderstanding with the that cannot justify having their own dog often have responding officers using deadly force against those arrangements with other local agencies or the county they suspect are offenders or state to have a dog respond when needed Although there are no nationwide statistics on atting incidents, an estimated 100 calls are made per year. There have been swatting incidents target- swatting A growing and dangerous trend of making a hoax major sporting events, hotels, and public gather- call to incite SWAT deployment or other law enforcement spaces. A recent trend is celebrity swattings with Baton Kutcher, Justin Bieber, Clint Eastwood, and sponse
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