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Biology Study Guide
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Biology Study Guide
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April 2017
Biology Study Guide
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Biology Study Guide
Part A- Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Que-1
➢ Single celled organism reproduce in order to keep their species in existence(species
continuity)
➢ Multi cellular organisms reproduce in order to grow, that is increasing the number of
cells of a species, maintenance of the cells existing and the repair of cells that are
damaged.
Que-2-Binary fission
It’s the process where prokaryotic cells divide into two offspring cells.
Que3-
This refers to that series of phases through which a eukaryotic cell progresses from its original
form/origin till the time it divides by mitosis process.
Que-4
Macromolecules elements of chromatin include DNA, RNA and protein elements. “During the
prophase of mitosis and prophase I and II of meiosis, chromatin usually condenses to from
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chromosomes”. This is essential since it enables the condensed chromatin to fit in the nucleus of
the cell thus facilitating cellular division.
Que-5
Somatic cells are body cells made up of diploid (2n) chromosomes number, they are produced
via the process of mitosis and an example is the stomach cell, nerve cell and muscle cell.
Gametes are sex cells that are made up of haploid (n) chromosomes number, they are produced
via the process of meiosis and an example is the sperm cell and egg cell.
The human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs while the human
gametes have 23 chromosomes.
Que-6
“The DNA is usually replicated and undergoes separation, thereafter through mitosis the nuclear
DNA of the cells is condensed to visible chromosomes.”
Que-7
“Cell division where the cell nucleus would divide into two nuclei made up of the same number
of chromosomes with the end result of two similar cells”
Mitosis is the process where the cell nucleus divides into 2 nuclei that is made up of a
similar number of chromosomes with the end result of 2 similar cells while Cytokinesis is is a
process that leads to formation of 2 nuclei, where chromosomes will appear as chromatin, it
basically marks the end of the mitosis process.
Que-8
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Interphase is the stage where chromosomes are replicated. The three sub phases of interphase
include:
1)
G1 phase. It is also referred to as the first gap; it is where the cell develops physically into
bigger, replica organelles, creating the molecular building blocks needed in subsequent stages.
2)
S phase. In S phase, the cell produces an entire copy of DNA in the nucleus. It also reproduces a
microtubule-organizing structure referred to as the centrosome. They assist divide DNA in M
stage.
3)
G2 phase-During the 2nd gap stage, or G2 stage, the cell develops more, creates proteins and
other organelles, and starts to restructure its components in preparation for the process of mitosis.
G 2 stage usually comes to an end when the process of mitosis starts.
Que-9.
Biology Study Guide
Mitosis is a four phase progression which results to similar cell form one original cell
Prophase stage: Longest phase of the process, the chromosomes will be visible while the
centrioles divide and move in different poles of the cell.
Metaphase stage: “At this phase the chromosome will line up across the center of the cell and
become linked to the spindle fiber at the centromere.”
Anaphase stage: The phase where the sister chromatids divide into single chromosomes and
pulled apart.
Telophase stage: The fourth phase where chromosomes come together at opposite ends of the
cell and lose their distinctive rod like shaped features. There will be formation of 2 new nuclear
membranes forming around the two DNA regions making the spindle fiber to vanish.
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Que-11
Cytokinesis in animal cells separate by a cleavage furrow while in cytokinesis in plants
separates via a cell plate which eventually converts to a cell wall. Cytokinesis in both
animals’ cells and plant cells need cell membranes and cytoplasm in order to occur.
Part B- Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
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A checkpoint in the cell series is a control spot where discontinue and advance signal can
normalize the sequence. (The signal is passed on inside the cell by the kind of indicator
transduction path. Animal cells normally have integrated discontinue signal that stop the cell
sequence at check points in anticipation of overridden by advance signals.
13.
•unalterable failure of the capability to separate
•reaction to DNA damage
•substitute to apoptosis
•linked to alterations related with aging
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It’s a planned cell death and occurs because the reaction to DNA is damaged.
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This refers to unalterable failure of the capability to separate and poor reaction to DNA due to
damage and is usually a substitute to apoptosis which is linked to alterations related with aging.
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A person with a habit of excessive smoking, being obese (obesity), sexually transmitted disease
(STD), x-rays, increased intake of animal fat and eating a lot of plant fiber in a single day.
Meiosis and Gamete Production
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A gene is a section of a chromosome while a chromosome is a genetic structure/make up.
A karyotype is a micrograph of an entire diploid set of chromosomes paired together and
has a decreasing order arrangement. Its key function is to identify the abnormalities in
chromosomes.
21.
Pre-birth- Zygote - consequence of combination involving sperm & ovum, day one to
five.
Blastocyst - outcome of zygote separating -collection of cells –day four to ten
Embryo - outcome of cells separated + quick development, day ten to thirty
Fetus - from finish of initial month in anticipation of birth
Birth- following forty weeks of growth, totally developed, set to go out the female’s
uterus and join humanity.
Infancy- lasting since birth all the way through 1st year of existence. Infant exit female’s
Biology Study Guide
uterus. It is able to inhale and exhale, the heart beats, the organs function normally, but
still reliant on parents for continued existence.
Childhood- ages one to ten. Earliest two years, the baby is identified as a toddler.
Newborn become capable of walking, talking, and likely independent. It is the Building
block phase.
Adolescent- ages twelve to eighteen. Phase where puberty occurs. Start to divide from
parents additionally they turn to be self-sufficient
Adulthood- between ages eighteen to death, it is the longest phase. Fully grown humans who
can reproduce a species of their own. The body disintegrates and ends in death as the ultimate
point.
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This is the process where sex cells are developed. It is the gamete creation phase. Meiosis
process creates haploid cells that are dissimilar to each other and the parent cell.
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Haploid -1 set of chromosomes present in a cell (gametes)
Diploid-2 sets of chromosomes present in a cell (somatic)
Somatic cells are ordinary body cells-diploid
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Similarity- both undergo the process of cell separation, meiosis in PMAT cause cells to separate
into 2. One to two cells Meiosis two 2nd divisions of all cells w/ 1 strand DNA/chromosome (24)
Meiosis and Genetic Variation
26Gene mutation involves the change in one or few nucleotides while chromosomal aberration
alters the structure of a chromosome thus changing the entire chromosome.
Mendelian Genetics
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Dominant trait refers to the trait that is likely to occur or happen while recessive trait refers to
traits that are less likely to occur or happen and are usually regarded as the hidden gene. Those
traits that would disappear in the first generation and then reappear in the 2nd generation when
parents with dissimilar traits are bred.
Genotype-Combination of genes for one or more specific traits while Phenotype refers general
appearance of an organism and any other deductible characteristics.
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A gene is a single set of instruction on a DNA strand for an inherited characteristic while an
allele is one of the alternatives types of a gene that governs for a particular trait.
A homozygous genotype has two similar alles for a gene while heterozygous genotype has two
dissimilar alles for a gene.
28Monohybrid crosses-It is a cross between two species that totally differ in one character.
Dihybrid crosses-This involve the mating of parental varieties that differ in two traits
A test cross refers to a cross between organisms with genotypes that are unknown with an
organism which has a homozygous recessive for a specific characteristic.
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Ratio;
“F1: All PP (purple)”
“F2: 1PP, 2Pp, 1pp”
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Based on the ratios, Mendel’s reasoning was that every plant had two duplicates of a gene, one
from the female species and one from the male species thus coining the terms recessive and
dominant and eventually developed the law of segregation.
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“Would the genes for the seed color and the seed form be passed on from parent to the offspring
as a package or would they be hereditary independently?”
“F1: All round and yellow”
“F2: Yellow and round-9, yellow and wrinkled-3, green and round-3, green and wrinkled-1.”
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“It indicated that the genes for the seed color and the seed form would be hereditary
individually.”
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“It is the law of autonomous assortment.” “In metaphase 1 the pairs of alleles in different
chromosomes assort autonomously to each other during gamete formation in the meiosis
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stage.” “This implies that a specific gamete may wound up containing maternal copy of
gene A but a paternal duplicate of gene B.”
Inheritance Patterns
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Complete dominance is where the Phenotype of heterozygote is identical as homozygous
dominant; can’t differentiate the heterozygous offspring from homozygous dominant infant.
An example in human is the freckles.
Incomplete dominance is where “2 alleles for a single gene are neither completely dominant
nor totally recessive to each other.” “That implies that, the heterozygote has a transitional
phenotype.”“An example is the r allele codes for no pigment.”
Codominance refers to where “2 alleles for a gene are both completely expressed when present
together.” “An example is the type AB blood IAIB.”
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In a pedigree a half shaded shape would represent a carrier, a shaded shape represents existence
of disease, a square represents a boy and a circle represents a girl.
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Multiple alleles are where some genes contain more than two version or alleles. An example is
the blood type
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Polygenic inheritance refers to a single trait that is controlled by two or more genes. An
example is the skin color.
Pleiotropy refers to a condition where one gene controls several traits or characteristics that are
totally unrelated. An...