BIO109
Short Paper Guidelines
1
Short Paper Guidelines
BIO109: Plants and People
These 4 short papers are designed to deepen your understanding of the relationship between plants and
humans and will allow you to further explore the associations that most interest you. The 2 questions
you must answer in these papers are:
1) How would human society be different if this plant was never domesticated / utilized by humans?
2) How would the appearance, biochemistry, and / or geographic range of this plant be different if it was
not associated with humans?
These papers are due on 22 February, 20 March, 10 April, and 3 May. All papers are due by 11:59 pm on
the dates indicated via Blackboard. REMEMBER that for every 30 minutes your paper is late, 10 points
will be deducted from your final grade. Thus, a paper that is > 2 hours late will automatically receive a
failing grade. NO EXCEPTIONS!
PAPER:
2-3 pages double-spaced (500 – 750 words), except for the references section, with 1 inch margins.
Please reference at least 2 outside sources for this paper. You will be penalized if your paper is
significantly over or under the word limit.
The paper must be submitted in .doc, .docx, .pdf, or .rtf format.
Please include the date, your name, my name, and the class call number single spaced in the upper
left hand corner of the first page
Provide page numbers in the upper right hand corner and provide your last name in the upper left
hand corner as headers on all pages
You should only reference scientific journal articles, books, dissertations and theses, and
government, university, or non-profit websites ending in .edu, .gov, and .org. Old student papers
posted on university websites do not qualify as appropriate sources.
Online dictionaries and encyclopedias are good starting points but should not be used as references
for these papers
You will be graded based upon the following 7 elements:
Topic selection
Structure and formatting
Scientific accuracy
Organization and coherence
Use of references
Style
Mechanics
BIO109
Short Paper Guidelines
2
Citations should be made in text for referenced articles using the following format (author last name
year) for example:
One author: (Wesson 2007)
Two authors: (Smith and Wesson 2011)
Three or more authors (Smith et al. 2008)
Be sure that the sources in your references section are listed in alphabetical order
Please note that even if you access scientific journal articles, books, and dissertations or theses
online, you must use the proper citation format below. DO NOT reference the digital library where
you found the source (i.e. JSTOR, Google books, Elsevier, Wiley, BioOne, etc.)
Use the following formats for the references section at the end of the paper:
Journal example:
Dondorp, A. et al. 2005. Artesunate versus quinine for treatment of severe falciparum malaria: a
randomised trial. Lancet 366:717-725.
Book example:
Eagleson, J. and R. Hasner. 2006. The Maple Syrup Book. Boston Mills Press, Ontario, Canada.
Dissertation or Thesis example:
Van der Werf, H.M.G. 1994. Crop physiology of fibre hemp (Cannabis sativa L.). PhD Thesis, Wageningen
University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Website example:
Vocke, G. and O. Leifert. 2012. Wheat: background. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Economic Research Service. http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/Wheat/Background.htm. Accessed
August 23, 2013.
Human and Plant – Climate Change
Lily
University
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
2
Introduction.
Over the past century, massive change in the climatic conditions has been witnessed. This
is evident due to the variations in the climatic patterns increase in the general temperature in the
globe and the occurrences of natural disasters such as tsunamis and hurricanes. The
considerations to the cause of these effects can be attributed to human activities on the earth.
Considering the various activities and their contribution to the global climatic change is an
essential part of identifying and devising the most appropriate measure and mitigation strategies
to use to address this issues. In the following part of this paper, the various activities that human
carry out and their contribution to the overall climatic changes would be discussed. Coupled with
the discussion of the effects is also the measures taken to address the issues in the society.
Discussion.
Fossil fuel use.
Humans have been using fossil fuels including petroleum, coal, and gas to run engines
and generate electricity for a long time now. This has played a significant role in the increase in
carbon level in the global atmosphere. Consequentially, this increase has resulted in the general
increase in the temperature around the globe contributing to the growth in snow melting on the
main mountains and also the Arctic regions (global warming, n.d.). This melting of the now
contributes to the rise in the water in the oceans and seas thereby resulting in flooding.
Previously unflooding regions have witnessed increase frequencies in the flooding level and
therefore increased losses and deaths.
The carbon increase results from the use of methane fuels which is the primary source of
carbon on combustion. The methane present in the methane gasses and petroleum fuels. This has
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
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led to the increase in the levels of the temperature and consequently, the gravity of the tsunamis
and flooding levels for the oceans and seas.
The mitigation of these activities includes the use of alternative sources of power and the
in particular generation of electricity through the use of water in the cases of hydro-electricity
generators. Addressing these issue includes even the use of solar energy and wind power for the
various activities of man’s life. By using solar power, for instance, the environment is left in the
same way it was initially which enables it to remain sustainable.
Most countries in the world are tending towards the use of geothermal and wind driven
turbines to produce electricity which is a safer approach to the environment.
Use of government policies to reach to the industries on the use of more reliable sources
of power is also an effect that most states are using to control the adverse effects of the fossil fuel
use on the globe and the environment. In so doing the governments and the legislature are
assisting in the efforts to reduce the climatic changes and control the adverse effect resulting
from the same.
Deforestation.
Deforestation is one of the leading causes of climatic change in the world today. This is
as a result of the wiping out of primary forests is the increase in the level of carbon in the globe,
and also it contributes to flooding and increase in the intensity of major occurrences such as
tsunamis (Ferraz, Vettorazzi, & Theobald, 2009). The increase in the sea level is as a result of
soil cover ending up being eroded to water sources the raising the water standards of the water
bodies which increase their chances of being dangerous in the events of flooding.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
4
The increase in carbon level has been known to cause the increase in temperatures in the
globe a condition known as global warming. The global warming effects end up disrupting the
natural climate and weather conditions of the various regions in the world. The unexpected level
of precipitation is noticed (Ferraz, Vettorazzi, & Theobald, 2009). These intermittent showers
include extremely high rainfalls or very low level, so the same rainfall is, therefore, disrupting
the human living condition negatively.
The change in the precipitation frequency and intensity is the main result indicating the
climatic change that has occurred.
Considering the increase in carbon that has led from deforestation, we have the concept
of trees using carbon in the process of photosynthesis. With the reduction of tree and the increase
in the use of fossil fuel, the repercussion is that nature is not able to balance the constituents of
the air and thereby one of them, carbon, exceeds the percentage it is supposed to be (Strassburg,
Turner, Fisher, Schaeffer, & Lovett, 2009). This increase in carbon forms an insulation to the
heat originating from the ground. This insulation causes and increases in the temperature in the
global area.
The increase in the temperature results into the irregular precipitations and increase in the
evaporation rates on the globe. This increased evaporation ten falls as rain causing flooding and
erosion.
Mitigation.
Various campaigns in the world have been carried out to ensure the regaining of the
vegetation and forest cover in the once forested regions. Campaigns to ensure the planting of
trees. These approaches are assisting the mitigation of the causes of deforestation. Other areas in
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
5
a word have discouraged the activities such as lumbering to only the licensed parties. This is to
ensure that the vegetation of these areas is maintained and in practice provide the creation of a
sustainable environment and influence and control the level of activities that would result in the
general climatic change. These efforts have however faced some challenges despite their good
intentions.
Education and creation of awareness on the necessity of forests to the general climate of
the place and the globe as a whole are also an excellent approach that assists in the reduction of
such activities as deforestation.
Industrialization.
Perhaps one of the principal causes of climatic changes in the word is the growth of
industries in the many regions in the powered (Deng, Huang, Rozelle, & Uchida, 2008).
Industrialization contributes to the climatic changes in various ways that will be discussed.
1.
Deforestation
To create room for industry set up, forests and the general vegetation of the regions
destroyed. This contributes and constitutes to the general deforestation process whose
repercussions are as explained initially. Increase in carbon and therefore increase in the overall
temperature of the globe.
2.
Fuels
Most of the fuels used in the industries to provide power include fossil constituent fuels
which result in an adverse effect when combusted they produce carbon as the waste which
impacts the environment negatively. Use of fossil fuels as discussed earlier results in the increase
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
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and release of other greenhouse gasses which in the overall lead to the increase in the global
temperature and also the case of acidic rainfall. The main greenhouse gasses are carbon, nitrogen
oxide, and methane which affect the temperature of the globe and result to it increasing. The
increase affects the rate of melting of the arctic circle ice, and as a result, there is an increase in
the level of Water in the oceans and seas which affects the intensities of such occurrences as
tsunamis and flooding cases.
3.
Gases
In the operation of the industries, major and adverse gasses are released into the
atmosphere and in the event contribute to the general climatic change around the globe. The
gasses released include the carbon II oxide and nitrogen oxides which are the major contributors
to the cases of increasing the overall temperature of the planet.
With the growth in industries also comes the increase in infrastructure and increase in the
motor vehicle industry. The increase in vehicles enhances a number of emissions from the
vehicles to the atmosphere which implies that this also contributes to the climatic change of the
globe. Most of the vehicles use fossil fuel constituents such as diesel which have high emissions
of methane and carbon oxides. As seen earlier these gasses increase the global temperatures of
the globe and in so doing result in the change in the climate of the place.
Mitigation.
The case of industries using fossil fuels as the sources of power to run most of the
processes has been addressed by providing them with a cheaper electrical power which is
environmentally friendly. Industries have also employed the use of other sources of energy and
electricity such as wind-powered engines. This assists in reducing the level of emissions from
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
7
such sectors. Other manufacturers are employing methods of treating the emissions before they
are released into the atmosphere to reduce the pollution level incurred.
The transport industry being a major player in the pollution and release of greenhouse
gasses has also employed the use of safer fuels where some of the vehicle manufacturing sectors
are creating electric and solar powered cars which are to reduce the pollution effects of the
transport sector. Al these are to reduce the pollution and the climatic change.
Use of public transport is also employed to lessen the number of emissions since the uses
of private motor vehicles result in increased emissions whereas public transport can assist in
reducing the number of emissions since it accommodates more people.
Other forms of transport have also been employed to reduce the effects and emissions resulting
from the industry.
Use of chlorofluorocarbons.
Modern societies have begun the use of aerosol sprays in their homes and daily activities.
This aerosol emissions and compounds (Sivasakthivel & Reddy, 2011). The chlorofluorocarbons
are major players in the greenhouse effect and have long lasting effects on the environment and
also they remain for more extended periods on the atmosphere thereby causing long-lasting
effects on the destruction of the ozone layer thereby resulting from increased penetration of
ultraviolet rays of the sun to the earth’s surface increasing the temperature.
Mitigation.
The environmentalist has discouraged the use of aerosol sprays. This is to reduce the
effects on the ozone layer that the gasses cause. Other organizations are employing the use of
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
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safer sprays to work in the same cases where the aerosols would function. This assists in the
effort of reducing the climatic deprivation due to their usage.
Educating the people on the effects of the aerosols is also a better way to reduce the
effects on the environment. By creating the awareness of the users of the aerosol products in the
daily activities, the effects can be reduced and thereby control the pollution and the effects of the
products on the globe.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
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References
Deng, X., Huang, J., Rozelle, S., & Uchida, E. (2008). Growth, population and industrialization,
and urban land expansion of China. Journal of Urban Economics, 96-115.
Ferraz, S. D., Vettorazzi, C. A., & Theobald, D. M. (2009). Using indicators of deforestation and
land-use dynamics to support conservation strategies: a case study of central Rondônia,
Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management,, 1586-1595.
globalwarming. (n.d.). Causes of Global Warming: the Human impact. Retrieved from global
warming: http://globalwarming-facts.info/causes-global-warming-human/
Sivasakthivel, T., & Reddy, K. S. (2011). Ozone layer depletion and its effects: a review.
International Journal of Environmental Science and Development,, 30.
Strassburg, B., Turner, R. K., Fisher, B., Schaeffer, R., & Lovett, A. (2009). Reducing emissions
from deforestation—The “combined incentives” mechanism and empirical simulations.
Global Environmental Change, 265-278.
Running head: DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
Domestication of Plants
Lily
University
Gao 1
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
2
Domestication of Plants
In the history of human evolution, domestication of plants was one of the most important
transitions that have ever taken place. South East Asia is known to be one of the regions that
pioneered domestication of plants in the world due to the fertility of that region. Initially, the
human population was so little and would settle in the forests. However, as the population
continued to multiply through reproduction, people were too squeezed up to live in forests, and
this called the need for cultivation of land to create settlements (Purugganan & Fuller, 2009).
Therefore, some community members would be in charge of hunting and gathering from the
forests to be able to survive. There, however, arose a risk in unpredictable food supplies that
could be found in the forests. Changes in climate, as well as the evolution of plants, greatly
contributed in man becoming innovative to ensure that there was a constant food supply. With
time man began transporting some of the wild plants especially cereals from their natural habitats
to the settlements for planting (Diamond, 2002). Additionally, some of the plants were
domesticated unknowingly, and people eventually cultivated them.
A good example of plants that were domesticated includes wild wheat. The wild wheat
would bear their seed on top of a particular stalk, which dropped them on the ground; hunters
and gatherers would harvest the seeds, and some would spill on the ground where they
eventually germinated (Diamond, 2002). Therefore, within the settlement camps, there was
wheat that was germinating due to deliberate action while some grew on the paths. Due to a
change in the natural habitat, wheat adapted to the new environment and had some slight
variations from the wild version of the plant. The domestication of wheat brought about a
tremendous change in the life of human beings.
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
One of the consequences of domestication of wheat was the change of the way of life of
most communities (Diamond, 2002). Initially, some community members would be assigned the
role of hunting wild animals and gathering of foods, which mostly comprised of wild wheat.
However, since the wheat was readily available and could be harvested from the areas that were
specifically cultivated, it meant that the practice of migrating to hunt and gather for survival
ceased and man became more confined to one specific area. If the wild wheat was not
domesticated, it would mean that man would still be practicing gathering as a way of life and
therefore getting food would be difficult due to the variation in the availability of the wild plants.
Additionally, there would be a high possibility of human beings lacking food in extreme weather
conditions and therefore contribute to famine and death.
The hunting and gathering way of life meant that birth intervals for women were spaced
at intervals of four years where a mother shifting between camps could only be allowed to
breastfeed and wean one child at a go (Diamond, 2002). Therefore, this meant that the
reproduction rates were very low since women were only allowed to ensure that their toddlers
were grown enough to be independent before they could have another child to make it
convenient to regularly migrate. However, since the main source of starch, which was wheat,
was available within the homestead at any time made it possible for mothers to reproduce more
regularly. This situation greatly contributed to the upsurge in the human population. If wheat, as
well as other plants and animals, were not domesticated, the rule on an interval of four years
before giving birth would still be applicable and the human population would be significantly
lower.
In conclusion, domestication of wheat completely altered the way of life of man.
Although man would initially engage in hunting and gathering as a way to survive and would
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DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
keep on migrating from one place to another, it proved unreliable and a risk. The creativity of
bringing the seeds of wheat from the forests to the designated areas for settlement proved a
reliable way for a man to survive without struggling. The consequence of domestication was the
change of way of life from gathering to farming and being confined in one place. The fact that
food was readily available made it possible for women to be able to narrowly space birth and
therefore the human population increased with a significant margin. If wheat was not
domesticated, the human population and way of life of man would still be confined to the forest.
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DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
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References
Diamond, J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication.
Nature, 418(6898), 700-707.
Purugganan, M. D., & Fuller, D. Q. (2009). The nature of selection during plant
domestication. Nature, 457(7231), 843-848.
Running head: RELATIONSHP BETWEEN HUMAN AND PLANTS
Relationship Between Human and Plants
Lily
University
Gao 1
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
Relationship Between Human and Plants
The plants that wheat is produced using are not all the same. There are diverse types of
wheat, all making up the same chemical compositions although of different versions (Gepts P.,
1998). Once upon a time, we used to expend antiquated assortments like Emmer, Einkorn and
Kamut. Be that as it may, the greater part of the wheat eaten today is high return predominate
wheat, which was created by cross-rearing and unrefined hereditary control around the year 1960
(Zeder M, Hesse B., 2000). Predominate wheat has shorter stems and a substantially more
prominent yield. In this manner, it is a whole lot less expensive than the more seasoned
assortments and all the more monetarily possible. The advantages of a high return harvest are
self-evident, yet we are currently discovering that there were some significant drawbacks to this
also. In particular, present day wheat has some unpretentious yet imperative contrasts in its
supplement and protein organization (Zeder M, Hesse B., 2000).
The development of plants, both wild wheats and invasive wheats, is a subject of
expanding interest. Plants that have developed from trained precursors have certain focal points
for study. Due to their monetary significance, trained plants are for the most part very much
described and promptly accessible for Eco genetic correlation with their wild relatives (Ayal S,
Levy AA., 2005). In this manner, the transformative history of product relatives can possibly be
recreated in some detail. Moreover, developing product ancestors with their hazardous relatives
in a typical domain takes into consideration the recognizable proof of huge transformative
contrasts that correspond with obtrusiveness. We battle that the other noteworthy speculation is
that there is much to gain from these frameworks. With couple of special cases, our rundown is
just a describing of studies that join information from hereditary markers with ethnobotanical
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DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
history to build up that issue plants advanced from tames (Ayal S, Levy AA., 2005). Indeed,
even information with respect to the qualities that make these plants tricky are to a great extent
shallow.
Before 10,000 years back, man carried on with a roaming way of life as a seeker gatherer
depending on the chasing of wild creatures and gathering wild plants for his sustenance. At that
point, the Neolithic unrest occurred where the seeker gatherer lifestyle was supplanted by an
agrarian way of life. This was a vital defining moment in mankind's history and profoundly
affected life from there on (Asplund L, Hagenblad J., 2010). The principle contrasts between the
wild types of wheat and trained wheat are that tamed structures have bigger seeds with frames
and a non-shattering rachis. At the point when wild wheat is ready, the rachis, the stem that
keeps the wheat shafts together- - smashes so that the seeds can scatter themselves.
Obviously, if ranchers gather wheat when they trust it is prepared, they just get the wheat
that remaining parts on the rachis: that wheat is the thing that the agriculturists plant and in the
process, chose wheats with rachis that didn't get to be distinctly weak at collect time (Asplund L,
Hagenblad J., 2010). Different attributes obviously chose for incorporate spike measure,
developing season, plant tallness, and grain estimate. Archeological discoveries demonstrate that
wheat initially happened in parts of Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, the Levant, Israel, Egypt and
Ethiopia (Asplund L, Hagenblad J., 2010). Significantly, it was demonstrated that in these types
of wild wheats the phenolic mixes, especially the uncommon lignans, go about as imperative
germination controllers. Since these phenolics are water-dissolving germination inhibitors they
may go about as characteristic 'rain gages'. This angle is particularly essential for the germination
of wheat and comparable products at the fitting time in those species possessing dry areas or
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DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
deserts – a property created amid the training of the wild species to the developed structures
(Asplund L, Hagenblad J., 2010).
The Broadbalk Wheat Experiment is one of the longest running logical reviews ever.
Since the year 1843, the researchers have developed distinctive strains of wheat and investigated
different components, including supplement arrangement (Smith B D., 1998). From 1843 until
around 1960, the supplements in wheat didn't change much. In any case, from the year 1960,
which concurs with the presentation of current wheat, the supplement content begins inclining
downwards. Groupings of Zinc, Copper, Iron and Magnesium were 19-287% in the years 19682005, contrasted with 1845-1967 (Smith B D., 1998). In the meantime, there was no
confirmation that the dirt had changed. In this way, it is unmistakably something about the way
of current wheat that makes it less nutritious than the more established assortments. Another
review that likewise looked at changed strains of wheat found that the more established
assortments contained essentially more Selenium. Given how across the board wheat utilization
truly is, it is anything but difficult to perceive how this may have added to supplement
inadequacies.
Many individuals accuse cutting edge wheat as though by one means or another wheat
has changed its hereditary structure and has definitely changed from what we would now call
"legacy wheats" of the past. The facts may prove that a few parts of this "cutting edge wheat" is
entirely different from when it was initially tamed. It can be shorter, have higher yields and
bigger heads. In any case, there is no harvest plant in the created world – from grasses to
blossoms to nourishment items – that is the same as when it initially existed when the Earth was
framed. What's more, nor are the situations in which it was first developed. I've said before that
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DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
Agriculture is a regularly evolving industry. There are no assurances and nothing is ever the
same.
Through choice for particular attributes, polyploid wheats were conceived or wheats with
more than one genome. Tetraploid wheats have two genomes (four arrangements of
chromosomes) and are assigned as AABB (Asplund L, Hagenblad J., 2010). Two regular
tetraploid wheats are emmer and durum. Emmer wheat is not what we call free-sifting. The
grains are firmly encased in a husk (or glume) that is hard to expel. Durum wheat is a free-sifting
wheat as the seeds are effortlessly discharged from the husk (or glume). The principle wheat
amid the season of the Roman realm was emmer and has as of late made a rebound in gourmet
cooking as farro (Asplund L, Hagenblad J., 2010). Durum wheats are still delivered today,
chiefly in North Dakota and parts of Montana, for pasta. Durum has a high protein content
around 12.0 to 15.0 percent (Asplund L, Hagenblad J., 2010). At the point when the durum is
processed, the endosperm is ground into a granular item called semolina. Durum is likewise still
to a great degree normal in Italy and some Mediterranean nations.
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DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS
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References
Asplund L, Hagenblad J. (2010). Re-evaluating the history of the wheat domestication gene
NAM-B1 using historical plant material. Journal of Archaeological Science 37(9):23032307.
Smith B D. (1998) The Emergence of Agriculture (Scientific American Library, New York).
Zeder M, Hesse B. (2000) Science and History of Wheat Biology; 287:2254–2257.
Gepts P. (1998) in The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication, eds Damania A. B,
Valkoun J, Qualset C O. (Genetic Resources Conservation Program, Univ. of California,
Davis), pp 198–209.
Ayal S, Levy AA. (2005) Wheat domestication and de-domestication – What are the odds? In:
Gressel J, editor. Crop Ferality and Volunteerism. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. 167–
173.
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