RESEARCH METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION The rapidly growing number of vehicles here in the country are causing abrupt changes to the environment. These causes serious pollution in the atmosphere specifically in the air. The smoke emitted from every vehicle is making a contribution to the worsening condition of pollution. Through the worsening case of air pollution, general public specifically in Metro Manila are being affected in their health. The citizens are not aware of how important is air quality, and people are not educated enough that it can cause serious implications in their health when the air quality drops. The Philippine National Railway (PNR) as the main focus of the study will be assess on how it contributes to the air quality index of Metro Manila. Every aspect of the train will be examined to determine the contaminants it contributes to the air quality. Air Quality Index or AQI is a measurement of how clean or polluted our air currently and it also measures the extent of health effects a person can acquire. AQI can determine the associated health effects to the public depending on the level of air quality of a certain area. The AQI will be determined by using mathematical calculations, by direct observation and amendment of DENR, and data from observations and assessments. Statement of the Problem: Philippine National Railway (PNR) is a one-way stretch state owned transportation starting from the town of Alabang up to Tutuban. Over the years the PNR provided people with greater mobility, more economical transportation, and an easier access to both public and private institutions. However people are not aware about the negative environmental impacts catered by the PNR knowing that exposure to environmental pollution remain a major source of health risk. One of the major pollution contributed by the PNR that needs to be assessed is the air pollution; hence a study about the air quality index (AQI) should be conducted to provide data to the local authorities on how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become. Objectives of the Study: Main Objective: To determine how the Rail Operation affects the Air Quality Index of Metro Manila Specific Objectives: o To define the characteristics of Air Quality Index (AQI) and its impact to the environment and the public health o To determine fuel emission of Rail Operation o To identify the current condition of train locomotives. Significance of the Study: Technological significance: Our train in rail transport hasn’t been upgraded years ago and is being outdated. This study can be a guide on the advancement and improving of our rail transport system in terms of the locomotives and fuel used by our train. Academic significance: The study can be future references to young researchers who will pursue exclusive study of rail transport system in terms of its Air Quality Index. This can be a basis of the future researchers who would want to continue and further expand this research. Social Significance: The study will provide a significant and complete information to the society in the concept of Air Quality Index. This will provide the public with timely and easy-to-understand information on local air quality and whether air pollution levels pose a health concern. This study can be a way of educating the public oh how vehicles and other transport facilities affects the environment and the public Scope and Limitation of the Study: This investigation will be conducted in order to determine the Air Quality Index (AQI) of rail transport in Metro Manila. The focus of the study is on the air quality of our rail transport system considering the fuel that was used, the locomotives of the train, and all related aspects. The study will cover the air contaminants that contribute to the quality of air we breathe. The study will try to cover the adverse effects of air pollution to the community, environment and to the health of the people. This study have limited local sources since this will be a pioneering research in the country. The study will not cover other rail transportation related topics such as the service it provides to the commuters. This paper will not discuss about the problems encountered by the transport system itself. INPUT •laws governing air pollution •current situation of PNR •components of PNR •Profile of Survey PROCESS •Inspection of PNR •interview to professionals related to the topics •Experimentation of the air pollutants •Gathering the data, if words-relate it with related literature, if numbers-treat it statistically or in mathematical model OUTPUT •Proposed modification in railway trasport system •improved air qualtity •Better health of the public •Better condition of PNR Research Design: This study provides information to the public of what level of air pollution currently in our rail transport in metro manila through the determination of Air Quality Index or AQI. This study will also help the management on what to change or upgrade in our trains in order to lessen its contribution to the rising level of Air Quality Index (AQI). In this study a quantitative method was adopted to determine how worst is the pollution in the area where our rail transport is located with the use of mathematical models that will help the researchers to interpret the data that will be gathered. This mathematical model will be possible with the gathering of data through collecting of air contaminants and interpretation of it in a laboratory. In the conduct of the study, experiments will be executed to observe and collect data for analysis and creation of a mathematical model that will enable the researchers to interpret and make a conclusion. One of the experiments that are proposed is the white shirt exposure in the locations of the rail transport. The white shirt will catch air samples and leaves particles that are within the air. This shirts will be analyzed in a laboratory and interpret to collect data that will be used in the study Another experiment to be conducted will be the fuel efficiency testing. The test will enable the researchers to identify the quality of fuel the train is using. When the quality of fuel was identified the researchers then will decide of what to reduce and what to add to improve its quality. In addition to experimentations the locomotives of the train will then be inspected for the researchers to know the respiratory health of the train. The respiratory health contributes to the quality of emitted smoke by the train to the air. All the data will be gathered will be used in the process of analyzing the air quality index. The data will be the basis for the formulation of mathematical model in order to fully analyze the figure gathered from experimentation. Interpretation Tools The mathematical model that will be used in analyzing this study will be the atmospheric dispersion modeling. Dispersion modeling is a mathematical simulation of emissions as they are transported throughout the atmosphere. Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. It is performed with computer programs that solve the mathematical equations and algorithms which simulate the pollutant dispersion. The dispersion models are used to estimate or to predict the downwind concentration of air pollutants emitted from sources such as industrial plants and vehicular traffic. After coming up of a mathematical model, the level of air quality in a numerical data will then be created/produced. This unitless number will then identify how worst or how good the quality the area of our rail transport. CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter One an orientation of the research was provided. This study focuses on the needs and competencies of school sport managers. These are required for the sport management training of educators, in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). As a result of the problem statement referred to in Chapter One, the all-encompassing aim of this study is to develop a sport management programme for educator training. It is essential to analyse the existing knowledge, as a background to the current study. In this way, the researcher endeavours to generate new knowledge, which could make sport management and educator training more purposeful, efficient and sustainable. Consequently, this chapter strives to operationalise the theme of the research design and methodology in the current study, as well as to substantiate the choices made in the study. The research design is applied so that suitable research methods are used to ensure the attainment of the goals and objectives set out in Chapter One. Hence the reason (rationale) for a discussion of the research design and methodology: Firstly, this is to provide the plan or blueprint for the research. Secondly, this should enable the researcher to anticipate the appropriate research design, to ensure the validity of the final results. Nevertheless, it is important that different views are analysed; thereafter, the methodology will be discussed. However, first it is important to consider a theoretical framework for the research design. 5.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY One of the challenges facing the researcher is the difficulty in relating to and understanding the role and importance of theory in research. Consequently, the concept of theory necessitates some clarification. In this regard, Verma and Malick (1999:6) as well as Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler (2011:36) are of the opinion that the main role of theory is to help to guide the researcher. In the social sciences, it usually implies a set of statements describing and explaining the relationship between human behaviour and the factors that affect or explain it. Paraphrasing Best and Khan (2006:10), a theory could best be described as an attempt to develop a general explanation for some phenomenon. More specifically, a theory, according to these authors, defines non- observable constructs that are inferred from observable facts and events, and are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study. It further implies that a theory describes the relationship among key variables for explaining a current state or predicting future concurrences. 299 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Thus, one could easily come to the conclusion that a theory is primarily concerned with providing an explanation; and that it therefore focuses on determining cause-and-effect relationships. On the whole a theoretical framework, consequently, helps the researcher summarise any previous information and to guide the future course of action. Simultaneously, the formulation of a theory may indicate missing ideas or links and the additional data required to fully understand how things are connected, and to establish sets of propositions or generalisations (Henning et al., 2004:14). A theory is thus an essential tool of research for stimulating the advancement of knowledge (Inglis & Maclean, 2005:17; Kawulich, 2009:37). Theory should, consequently, drive the research process and should provide a framework for action and for understanding. The view of authors and researchers can provide the impetus, and endorse the view and rationale for a discussion of the research design and methodology chapter. Apart from a proper understanding of the concept of theory, the researcher also requires an understanding and knowledge of the related research philosophies that underpin the different principles of the research. In this study, the research philosophy that underpins the study is reflected in different principles, as outlined by different research paradigms. Thereafter, the different research paradigms are presented. 5.2.1 Research Paradigms Paradigms play a fundamental role in science. The origin of the term paradigm is to be found in Thomas Kuhn‟s book called: The structure of scientific revolutions first published in 1962 (Mouton, 1996:203).74 When Kuhn published the second edition of his book in 1970, the idea of a paradigm was already extant; and it drew particular attention to the role of paradigms in the history of the natural sciences. Researchers and authors, like Mouton and Marais (1990:150), Mouton (1996:203), Creswell (2007:19), Collis and Hussey (2009:55), Babbie (2010:33; 2011:34), De Vos and Strydom (2011:40), as well as Neuman (2011:94), were already using the term; and the supporting theory of paradigms has had a major impact on the philosophy and methodology of the social sciences. In general, a paradigm is best described as a whole system of thinking (Neuman, 2011:94). In this sense, a paradigm refers to the established research traditions in a particular discipline (Mouton, 74 For a detailed discussion, understanding and history of the development thoughts and problems addressed see: Kuhn, T (1962): The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 172 p; Kuhn, T. (1970): nd The structure of scientific revolutions (2 Enlarged Edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press 210 p and also Kuhn, T. (1996): The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd Edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 212 p. 300 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 1996:203), or a philosophical framework, as Collis and Hussey (2009:55) opine. More specifically, a paradigm would include the accepted theories, traditions, approaches, models, frame of reference, body of research and methodologies; and it could be seen as a model or framework for observation and understanding (Creswell, 2007:19; Babbie, 2010:33; Rubin & Babbie, 2010:15; Babbie, 2011:32). A paradigm is thus a basic set of beliefs that guide action. Thus, paradigms play a vital role in the social sciences. Nevertheless, different authors and researchers assign different meanings to the concept of paradigms [(cf. Creswell (2009) and Livesey, (2011a)]. Creswell (2009:6) has chosen to use the term as a worldview. Hence, the use of the concept paradigm is metaphorical when applied to the social sciences, as opposed to the natural sciences. In the natural sciences paradigms remain largely “hidden” in research work. But they affect the practice of research; and therefore, they need to be stated (Creswell, 2009:5). The roots of the qualitative (cf. par. 5.8, p. 328) and quantitative approaches (cf. par. 5.9, p. 333) extend into different philosophical research paradigms, namely those of positivism and post-positivism (Curtner-Smith, 2002:37; Rocco et al., 2003a:20; Henning et al., 2004:17,23; Druckman, 2005:5-8 ; Neuman, 2006:81; Cohen et al., 2007:16; Flick, 2007:11; Gall et al., 2007:16,31; Wisker, 2008:68; Collis & Hussey, 2009:55; Creswell, 2009:6,16; Gratton & Jones, 2010:23,26; Rubin & Babbie, 2010:37; Blumberg et al., 2011:16; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011a:1; Lincoln et al., 2011:117; Muijs, 2011:3,5). Post-positivism (post-modernism) is characterized by two sub-paradigms, namely interpretivism (constructivism) and critical theory (critical post-modernism), while realism is seen as a bridge between positivism and post-positivism (Blumberg et al., 2011:18; 6 & Bellamy, 2012:60). 5.2.1.1 Positivism Human beings are seen objectively, and as a result, social scientists look to different avenues to study human society (De Vos et al., 2011b:5). Babbie (2011:35) states that the roots of positivism can be traced to Auguste Comte, who saw human beings as a phenomenon to be studied scientifically. Thus, positivism may be seen as an approach to social research that seeks to apply the natural science model of research as the point of departure for investigations of social phenomena and explanations of the social world (Denscombe, 2008:14; 2010b:120). The natural sciences are suitable for the study of the social world; and hence, many researchers assume that the positivist approach is scientific. Naturally, one would ask the question: What is positivism supposed to comprise? In response, Glicken (2003:20); Denscombe (2010a:324) and Lincoln et al. (2011:107-108, 122) answer as follows: Positivism firstly entails a belief based on the assumption that patterns (trends), 301 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY generalisations, methods, procedures, cause-and-effect issues are also applicable to the social sciences. This view of positivism maintains that the objects of the social sciences, namely people, are suitable for the implementation of scientific methods. Welman et al. (2009:6) also link positivism directly to the scientific model. This model or approach strives to formulate laws applicable to populations. observable and measurable behaviour. These said laws explain the causes of The positivist researcher prefers working with an observable social reality; and such research would produce generalisations similar to those produced by the natural scientists. Positivists also believe that an objective reality exists outside personal experiences with its own cause-and-effect relationships (Remenyi et al., 1998:32; Saunders et al., 2000:85; Riege, 2003:77; Neuman, 2006:82; Babbie & Mouton, 2008:23; Saunders et al., 2009:113; Muijs, 2011:4). The positivist researcher maintains that it is possible to adopt a distant, detached, neutral and noninteractive position (Morris, 2006:3). A position such as this would enable the researcher to assume the role of an objective analyst, making detached interpretations about those data that have been collected in an apparently value-free manner. For the same reason, positivists prefer an analytical interpretation of quantifiable data (Druckman, 2005:5). The abstract ideas of the social relationship should, consequently, be linked to the precise measurements of the social world. Secondly, positivism entails a belief that valid knowledge can only be produced on the basis of direct observation by the senses; and this would include the ability to measure and record what would be seen as knowledge. Observation in this sense means accepting only empirical evidence as valid evidence. Valid evidence is thus produced through the senses of sight, smell, touch, taste and hearing. It would clearly mean that there is no place for phenomena which cannot be observed either directly, through experience and observation, or indirectly, with the aid of instruments. Moreover, it should be quite obvious that things that cannot be seen (observed), for instance people‟s thoughts and attitudes, cannot be accepted as valid evidence and knowledge. Thirdly, many accounts of positivism suggest that scientific knowledge is arrived at through the accumulation of verified facts. These facts feed into the theoretical edifice pertaining to a particular domain of knowledge. Thus, theory expresses and reflects the empirical research. Such findings are often referred to as laws pertaining to a particular field, namely empirically established regularities (Bryman, 2005:15). 302 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Fourthly, as De Vos et al. (2011b:6) remind us, scientific theories are seen by positivists as providing hypotheses, which are then submitted to empirical testing. This implies that science is deductive, as it seeks to extract specific propositions from general accounts of reality. Logically, this would entail the construction of a specific theory to explain the laws in a particular field. A hypothesis is thereby derived to enable the researcher to submit the hypothesis to rigorous empirical examination before rejecting, revising or accepting the hypothesis. Finally, positivism is also taken to entail a particular stance in relation to values. Consequently, the researcher would need to be purged of values, since these could impair the objectivity and so undermine the validity of knowledge. Positivism‟s position on values is to draw a sharp distinction between issues, statements and norms (Flick, 2007:12). While positivists recognize that they can investigate the implications of a particular normative position, they are unable to verify or disprove the position itself. In conclusion, regarding scientific theories, it may then be stated that the positivist is concerned first and foremost with the creation of laws applicable to all people at all times (Welman et al., 2009:192). Collis and Hussey (2009:58, 61-62) proceed from the previous argument when they clearly state that the purpose of positivism is to seek generalisations (theories). The said generalisations are, however, based on and grounded in the natural science laws, which are not necessarily applicable to social structures. In sum, positivism “equates legitimacy with science and scientific methods” (Scott & Usher, 2011:13); and as such, it involves a number of assumptions, (cf. paragraph 5.2.1.1, p. 301). In this thesis, generalisations are sought in Chapter Four, where the core contents of different sport management and educator training programmes are analysed to determine their common content. The positivist tradition however, has not met with approval and support by all scientists, since it has produced some serious problems as well as some questionable assumptions. Henning et al. (2004:17), Babbie (2010:41), Rubin and Babbie (2010:15) as well as Denzin and Lincoln (2011a:8) point out that early positivist social scientists assumed that social reality can be explained in rational terms, because people always act rationally. Babbie (2010:41) in particular states that people do not always act rationally. Nonetheless, even non-rational behaviour could be rationally understood and predicted. Babbie (2010:42) further alleges that everybody acts, thinks and interprets subjectively to a certain extent. This subjectivity is unique to any individual; and the endeavour for objectivity could best be obtained through the discovery of intersubjective interests between individuals. Inevitably, the positivist view would not agree with this approach. 303 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Following Babbie (2010:44; 2011:44), it was rather difficult to choose the best suitable paradigm among those presented in this chapter. Nonetheless, because this study does not focus on the natural sciences, it cannot be aligned entirely with the positivist paradigm (approach), as will become evident in the ensuing paragraphs of this chapter. It is nevertheless important to pay careful attention to Babbie (2011:44) when he implicitly warns against the total negation of the positivist paradigm, because each paradigm compensates for the other by suggesting complementary perspectives. The different paradigms should be seen as different arrows that could be used as the situation demands or requires. There are two more important principles of positivism: to isolate, analyse and understand the causes of human behaviour. For Livesey (2011b:3) the basic thought is that behaviour is caused (initiated) by something, which if understood, could be applied to explain and predict human behaviour. The second principle is concerned with objectivity. Gratton and Jones (2010:25) firmly believe that for the positivist, there would be an emphasis on methodology to facilitate replication and quantifiable observations for statistical analysis. Here, the researcher is independent of and neither affects nor is affected by the subject of the research. Welman et al. (2009:6) clearly state that the positivist approach underlies the natural scientific method in human behavioural research and holds that research should be limited to what can be observed and measured objectively. In relation to the current study, this implies that the generation of data should be independent of human opinions and judgment. The researcher distributed a questionnaire to school sport managers at selected schools in a diversity of South African schools, and he assumed the role as observer of phenomena in a natural setting. Qualitative methods of data generation would not fit easily within the positivist approach to research (cf. par. 5.8, p. 328). For this very reason, Curtner-Smith (2002:38) states that positivist sport pedagogy researchers specifically tend to use quantitative methods to gather measurable numerical data. In this way, their work is aimed at the provision of numerical illustrations of teaching or coaching (descriptive studies), discovering relationships between components of teaching or coaching (correlation studies), or attempting to change some aspect of teaching or coaching (experimental studies). Wisker (2008:65); Welman et al. (2009:9), as well Gratton and Jones (2010:25), also propose the use of quantitative methods, where control groups could be used, for the positivist approach. Muijs 304 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY (2011:3), as well as Thomas et al. (2011:19,21) also mention the use of experimental and survey methods to collect data; but they indicate that the use of these methods would not necessarily produce understanding, explanations and interpretations. Concurring with Gratton and Jones (2010:25), one could say that the positivist approach undeniably has strengths, notably in terms of precision, control and objectivity. Such sport-related theories naturally would be the result of statistical analysis, which removes the need for more individualistic or intuitive interpretation. Positivist research is also generally more straightforward in terms of planning, simply because the data are collected in one go, and the analysis of all the data takes place at the same time. Finally, it emerged during the literature review that in the early years of sport-related research, such research was dominated by the positivist approach. For reasons, which will be outlined below, alternative approaches are now becoming more widespread. One of these approaches is known as post-positivism. 5.2.1.2 Post-positivism Dissatisfaction with positivism became increasingly widespread, thereby increasing the appeal of post-positivism (Teddlie & Johnson, 2009:68). Because of the increasing appeal of post-positivism, post-positivistic works gained credibility throughout the social science community. Teddlie and Johnson (2009:68) cite the works of post-positivists: Popper (1934; 1959), Hanson (1958), Toulmin (1960), Campbell and Stanley (1963), Hempel (1965), Kuhn (1962; 1970; 1996), Phillips (1987; 1990), as well as Phillips and Burbules (2000). Post-positivism will not be considered a distinct philosophical tradition in its own right. Creswell (2009:6) sees post-positivism as an extension of positivism, since it represents the thinking after positivism, challenging the traditional notion of the absolute and objective truth of knowledge in the social sciences. Gratton and Jones (2010:26-27) hold the view of post-positivism that in reality, it is not possible to gain understanding merely through measurement. Post-positivist approaches show a much greater openness to different methodological approaches, and often include qualitative, as well as quantitative methods. This allows for the development of alternative research strategies to find information in unlikely and creative ways (Glicken, 2003:28). Additionally, researchers in this paradigm normally believe in multiple perspectives from participants rather than a single reality (Creswell, 2007:20; 2009:7). Positivism contends that there is an objective reality out there to be studied, captured and understood, whereas post-positivists argue that reality can never be fully apprehended, only 305 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY approximated (De Vos et al., 2011b:7). According to Denzin and Lincoln (2011a:8), post- positivism relies on multiple methods for capturing as much of reality as possible. At the same time, emphasis is placed on the discovery and verification of theories. Traditional evaluation criteria, such as internal validity, are stressed, as is the use of qualitative procedures that lend themselves to structured (sometimes statistical) analysis. Computer-assisted methods of analysis that permit frequency counts, tabulations and low-level statistical analyses may also be employed. The post-positivist researcher focuses on the understanding of the study as it evolves during the investigation. The study begins with an area of study. conjectured before starting the study (Morris, 2006:77). A question and a hypothesis are Post-positivists believe that positivist research is often difficult and impractical for many forms of social research (Glicken, 2003:27). Emanating from any research, there are tendencies towards a specific notion which can – by repetition – bring valuable data to light. Post-positivists accept that the natural sciences do not provide the only model for social research. However, they do believe in an objective reality. Rather than focusing on certainty and absolute truth, the post-positivist will focus on confidence: How much can the researcher rely on his/her findings? How well can one predict certain outcomes? The proponents of post-positivistic research argue that research, even scientific research, is frequently a product of historically located practices. Post-positivism reflects a distrust of absolutes and foundational truths; following the correct method can no longer guarantee true results. Instead of only one truth, there are many. Truth is fundamentally dependent on language; and it is a socially constructed phenomenon. This distorts the reality on which positivism is built. Post-positivism provides the researcher with more subjective measures for gathering information. The degree of honesty of the researcher could be a problem in this kind of research. Could the subjectivity in a post-positivistic study influence the data negatively? Glicken (2003:29) is convinced that post-positivist research offers the social scientist the ability to do research on a small scale by using very creative methodologies. Thus, a mixed method of research was used (cf. par. 5.7, p. 321). The researcher employed in-depth interviews and questionnaires to collect the data for the investigation. The limitations of positivism have led to the development of an alternative perspective – a collection of related perspectives – those of interpretivism. 306 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.2.1.3 Interpretivism The interpretive paradigm is also called the phenomenological approach. This is an approach that aims to understand people (Babbie & Mouton, 2008:28). According to De Vos et al. (2011b:8) and Neuman (2011:101), interpretive social science can be traced to Max Weber (1864-1920) and Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911). Dilthey argues that there are two fundamentally different types of science: the natural sciences and the human sciences. The former is based on Erklärung, or abstract explanation. The latter is rooted in an understanding, or Verstehen, of the lived experiences of people (De Vos et al., 2011b:8; Neuman, 2011:101). Weber maintains that all humans are attempting to make sense of their worlds. In so doing, they continuously interpret, create, give meaning, define, justify and rationalise daily actions (Babbie & Mouton, 2008:28). Interpretivism thus focuses on exploring the complexity of social phenomena with a view to gaining understanding. The purpose of research in interpretivism is understanding and interpreting everyday happenings (events), experiences and social structures – as well as the values people attach to these phenomena (Collis & Hussey, 2009:56-57; Rubin & Babbie, 2010:37). Interpretivists believe that social reality is subjective and nuanced, because it is shaped by the perceptions of the participants, as well as the values and aims of the researcher. Gephart (1999:5) describes interpretivism as being directed on meaning, and understanding the social interactions between humans. Consequently, the mind interprets experience and events, and constructs meanings from them. Meaning does not exist outside the mind. Willis (2007:6), as well as Fouché and Schurink (2011:309) agree with Gephart (1999:5) when they reject the notion that the social sciences should apply research principles adopted from the natural sciences. Interpretivists believe that the subject matter of the social sciences is fundamentally different from that of the natural sciences. Consequently, a different methodology is required to reach an interpretive understanding or “verstehen” and an explanation that would enable the social researcher to appreciate the subjective meaning of social actions. Reality should rather be interpreted through the meanings that people give to their life world. This meaning can only be discovered through language, and not exclusively through quantitative analysis (Schwandt, 2007:314-317). Interpretivists further hold the view that the social world cannot be understood by applying research principles adopted from the natural sciences. The social sciences require a different research 307 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY philosophy. The three basic principles of interpretivism are (Wisker, 2008:69; Blumberg et al., 2011:17):  The social world is constructed and given meaning subjectively by people. Human beings are subjects that have consciousness, or a mind; while human behaviour is affected by knowledge of the social world, which exists only in relation to human beings;  The researcher is part of what is observed; and  Research is driven by interests. Interpretivists argue that simple fundamental laws cannot explain the complexity of social phenomena (Blumberg et al., 2011:17). Interpretivists claim that an objective observation of the social world is impossible, as it has meaning for humans only, and is constructed by intentional behaviour and actions. Livesey (2011b:4) explains interpretivism as a method that sees the social world as something that can only be produced and reproduced on a daily basis by people. Something that holds true for the moment (now) might not necessarily hold true tomorrow, or in another society (social environment). Knowledge is developed and theory is built through developing ideas from observed and interpreted social constructions. As such, the researcher seeks to make sense of what is happening. This can even generate findings beyond the common scientific knowledge (Rubin & Babbie, 2010:37; Blumberg et al., 2011:17). So, interpretivists attempt to understand subjective realities and to offer explanations, which are meaningful for the participants in the research. The cause-and-effect relationship of positivism is rejected; since social circumstances and conditions continuously change. A third principle identified by Livesey (2011b:4), takes possession of the relativity of happenings (events) and experiences. The social world of people is understood differently in different situations – and in different ways. Livesey believes that everything in the social world is relative to all other happenings (events) and experiences. The views of Gephart (1999:5); Schwandt (2007:314-317); Blumberg et al (2011:17) as well as Fouché and Schurink (2011:309) reiterate the view of Norbert Elias (1986:20) who argued, that positivist natural scientists believe that the method of natural sciences is the only legitimate method for scientific discovery. Elias (1986:20) states that it is possible to advance knowledge and to make discoveries in the field of sociology via methods very different from those of the natural sciences. In fact, it is the discovery, not the method that legitimizes research as being scientific. 308 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Interpretivists reject the notion that research is value-free; since the researcher‟s interpretation is also socially constructed, reflecting his/her motives and believes. Human interests not only channel our thinking, but also impact how the world is investigated, and how knowledge is constructed (Blumberg et al., 2011:18). Hence, the approach to social phenomena for the current study should also reflect the currently common construction of knowledge; it thus implies the following assumptions:  The social world is observed by seeing what meanings people give to it and interpreting these meanings from their viewpoint; and  Social phenomena can only be understood by looking at the reality. Gathering and measuring facts would consequently not disclose the essence of social phenomena; rather one would need to explore why different school sport managers and subject specialists (experts) have different experiences, and to understand how these differences result in the different constructions and meanings that people give to the social world. In this way, the researcher would be able to make sense of how different sport managers and other people interpret their social world. Thus, the researcher is required to dig into the processes of subjective interpretation, acknowledging the motivations, interests, intentions, beliefs, values and reasons, meaning-making and the self-understanding of the participants (Henning et al., 2004:20; Blumberg et al., 2011:18). In so far as research methodology is concerned, Henning et al. (2004:20) hold that the interpretive understanding is grounded in an interactive, field-based inductive methodology, which in turn is intertwined in the practice within a specific context. Livesey (2011b:4) proposes that the best methods within the interpretive research paradigm are those of observation and interpretation. As a reason, he advances that the researcher should understand how human beings experience and interpret their world. De Vos et al. (2011b:8) suggest the use of participant observation and field research techniques, where many hours and days are spent in direct contact with the participants. Transcripts, conversations and video-tapes may be studied, in order to gain a sense of subtle non-verbal communication or to understand the interaction in its real context (Neuman, 2011:101). The researcher engages in active collaboration with the participants to address real-life problems in a specific context; these are directed towards the offering and implementation of feasible solutions to the problem (Blumberg et al., 2011:17). 309 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Gephart (1999:5) mentions that interpretivistic views tend to show a preference for methods, which do not only produce facts, but analyse and describe the meaning of the social world (situation). He proceeds to indicate that the primary analytical methods used in interpretative research are grounded theory and expansion analysis. The use of these methods points to the use of qualitative data-gathering methods, which suggest that the data are generated mainly through interactions like conversations and interviews. Regular (constant) comparative analysis provides an alternative for statistical analysis, which bears closer relation to the positivist views. According to Gephart (1999:6-7), interpretivists mainly use comparative analysis as an analytical process to examine all the data in different steps, namely:  Comparison of incidents relevant to the theoretical category;  Integration of different categories and their properties;  Delimiting the theory range; and  Formulation of theory. For many years the interpretive approach existed as the opposition to positivism (Neuman, 2006:94). Although some positivist social researchers accept the interpretive approach as useful in exploratory research, few positivists consider it to be fully scientific. Positivists place their emphasis on the individual‟s interpretation of social interaction (Gephart, 1999:5). The interpretivist research accepts the notion that knowledge and meaning are the results of interpretations. There is no objective knowledge which is independent of human thinking and reasoning. Central to all interpretivists is the concern with subjectivity, which in a sense seeks to show how variations in human meanings and sense-making generate and reflect differences in reified or objective realities, that is when one becomes detached from and lose sight of connections or relationship to something created by researchers (Neuman, 2006:97). In other words, the idea of subjectivity is acceptable to interpretivists, and is supported and endorsed amongst others by Gephart, (1999:5). In addition, the interpretive approach is the foundation of social research techniques that are sensitive to context, that get inside the ways others see the world, and that are more concerned with achieving an emphatic understanding than with testing legalistic theories of human behaviour. The conclusion could be drawn that quantitative methods of generating data are more suitable for the positivist paradigm, while qualitative methods are more suitable for the interpretive paradigm. 310 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The paradigm of realism also contributes significantly towards an understanding of the world of science, and more specifically the methodology and research design for the current study. 5.2.1.4 Realism Realism is a research philosophy sharing the principles of positivism and interpretivism (Blumberg et al., 2011:19). More specifically, realism accepts the existence of reality independent of human beliefs and behaviour. However, it also concedes that understanding people and their behaviour requires acknowledgement of the subjectivity inherent to humans. In the realists‟ view, there are social processes and forces beyond the control of humans, which affect their beliefs and behaviour (Saunders et al., 2009:114). These processes and forces operate at the macro-level. At the microlevel (i.e. at the level of individual human beings), subjective individual interpretations of reality are important for a full understanding of what is happening. These subjective interpretations are not unique, and people share similar interpretations, partly because the external forces at the macro-level influence everyone. Hence, research requires the identification of external factors, as well as the investigation of how people interpret and give meaning to their situations. Livesey (2011c:1-3) explains the social world in relation to three important interrelated, philosophical assumptions that underpin the different paradigms, namely: ontology (what do we believe); epistemology (the science of knowing) and methodology (the science of finding out). Firstly, according to Livesey (2011c:1), researchers who view their world realistically generally accept the basic principles of the natural and the social sciences to be the same. Empirical evidence serves as proof for valid knowledge, but in itself it is not sufficient. The main objective of realism is thus to go beyond a description of relationships and to discover how such relationships came to being. Realists believe and are convinced that the social world has to be understood in its totality. That is to say, all parts of the social world are affected by the other parts. In conclusion, Livesey (2011c:4) proposes the use of focus groups or in-depth interviews to collect reliable and valid data for a study, in accordance with the realism paradigm. What needs to be looked at more closely now is the Critical Approach. 5.2.1.5 The Critical Approach In Chapter Two, the critical approach (theory) was discussed in more detail (cf. par. 2.3.3.3, p. 56). In the following discussion, only the most important aspects of this approach will be touched on. 311 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Critical theoretical approaches place a strong emphasis on historical and social contexts, in order to make sense of social phenomena (Lincoln et al., 2011:99). This approach agrees with many of the criticisms that the interpretive approach levels at positivism, but it agrees with interpretive social science on some points. The main point of criticism levelled at positivism by the critical approach is the absolutising and idolisation of the objectivity principle. Cohen et al. (2007:26) and Neuman (2011:108) maintain that positivists are status-quo bound. Criticism against interpretivism centres around the emphasis placed on the feelings (opinion) – at the expense of broader trends. Critical researchers find interpretivism too subjective and relativistic (Neuman, 2011:108). The critical approach stresses that reason is the highest potential of human beings, and by using reasoning it is possible to criticize and challenge the nature of existing societies (Blaikie, 2007:135). Consequently, the critical theory admits to bias being present in every action of a human being and expects the findings to support that bias (Glicken, 2003:23). The researcher should continue to be as objective as possible, and must scrupulously conduct the undertaken research in a manner so that bias does not affect the findings. Patton (2002:130-131) adds that one of the most influential orientation frameworks is Critical theory. Critical theory seeks not merely to study and understand society, but rather to critique and change society. In other words, critical theorists, in questioning communal knowledge becoming a fetish, examine the process of gaining, maintaining and circulating existing power relationships. Influenced by Marxism, Critical theory provides a framework – of both philosophy and method – for approaching research and evaluation as fundamentally and explicitly political, and as changeoriented forms of engagement (Cohen et al., 2007:26-27; De Vos et al., 2011b:9). Critical theoretical views see the current community (society) as a specific phase in a long, continuous process (Henning et al., 2004:23; Lincoln et al., 2011:98,100; Neuman, 2011:109). Supporters (followers) of the critical approach consider facts as being continuously influenced and affected by social, political and cultural factors. Babbie and Mouton (2008:36) refer to the critical theory as the exposure or liberation from historical, structural and a value-basis of social phenomena. For them, the critical approach emphasises becoming part and parcel of the everyday life-worlds of the people to be studied. Participants should feel free and encouraged to give their own view of their own situation and the world in which they live. The focus of the critical paradigm is thus on an understanding and practical transformation of social circumstances for emancipation and reinforcement. Consequently, one needs to look at the early work of Jürgen Habermas, who 312 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY influenced the paradigm of critical theory, but was also the first to spell out the transformative and emancipatory motive in critical theory (Babbie & Mouton, 2008:34). The intention of the critical theorists is not merely to understand situations and phenomena, but rather to bring about change in understanding situations and phenomena by being personally involved. The purpose of research should be to emancipate people through a critique of ideologies that reinforce inequality, while a clear activist approach is detected in their approach to research. Some supporters (Skinner & Edwards, 2005:404-405) of the critical paradigm, prefer to support action research, but not all forms thereof. It may be said that for supporters of the critical paradigm, all research starts with a specific view; and to deny that a researcher has a point of view is in itself a point of view (Neuman, 2006:101; 2011:114). This study indeed makes use of empirical data yielded, arise from a questionnaire, but individual interviews were used to generate non-empirical data, which fall outside the scope of positivism (cf. par. 5.2.1.1, p. 301). Thus aspects of both the positivist and post-positivist views are present. It is also important to state that the critical theory cannot be disregarded. The purpose of the critical theory is to bring about a more just, egalitarian society in which individual and collective freedoms are practised. On the whole, the difference in philosophical paradigms raises the question of whether the research should be addressed by a single research approach or by more than one approach. The research problem, accompanying research questions and related research aims are of a multifaceted nature (cf. par. 1.1, p. 1; 1.3, p. 12). For this reason, both qualitative and quantitative approaches were selected for this research (cf. par. 5.8, p. 328; 5.9, p. 333). The combination of research approaches has led to the adoption of a pragmatic position in this research (Rocco et al., 2003b:596; Creswell, 2007:22-23; Creswell & Garrett, 2008:327; Creswell, 2009:10-11; Teddlie & Johnson, 2009:73-74; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009:7-8; 15; 86-88; 90-93; Creswell & Plano Clarke, 2011:26;40-44;78). The research design will be described in detail in paragraph 5.4 (cf. p. 315). The fact that some of the other paradigms are also taken possession of, is acceptable for modern researchers (Gephart, 1999:5; Morgan, 2007:57,59,63). The reason for choosing a pragmatic research paradigm is because this particular position is regarded “as the philosophic partner of mixed methods research”, provides a workable solution to multifaceted research problems and offers a practical, “middle ground” orientation in relation to post positivism and interpretivism (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004:17,18). Hence following this, the research design 313 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY will be described in detail in paragraph 5.4 (cf. p. 316). The fact that some of the other paradigms are also taken possession of, is acceptable for modern researchers (Gephart, 1999:5; Morgan, 2007:57,59,63). Mouton (2001:137) mentions that research problems are usually formulated in order to address “real-life” problems. These are problems related to everyday life in the social and physical world, like stress, unemployment, transformation, discrimination in sport, commercialization of school sport, violence, behaviour of sport fans, and many more. The next paragraph will analyse, describe and clarify the process of translating real life problems into research problems by means of a simple structure - The Three Worlds Framework. 5.3 THE THREE-WORLDS FRAMEWORK Contemporary problems formulated as research problems, can be described by means of the “Three-Worlds Framework” developed in 1996 by Mouton (Babbie & Mouton, 2008:6). Subscribing to the view of De Villiers (2003:24), who applied the model specifically to sport management, the researcher will also apply the model of Mouton to sport management in the current study. The current study will use the model more specifically in relation to the management of school sport. In the Three-Worlds model, the first distinction is made between the world of everyday life and knowledge (World 1); and the world of science and the search for truth by means of scientific research (World 2); while the final and last world is concerned with meta-science (World 3). 5.3.1 World 1: The world of everyday life and lay knowledge Botes (2002:8) and Thomas et al. (2011:5) mention that the first world is directed to the world of everyday life. Botes specifically cites examples to be applied to sport management. In the current study, the focus is on sport management; this is the terrain of school sport management. The way (method or approach) in which research should be conducted acts as catalyst or determinant for research decisions and knowledge. In the management of school sport, lay knowledge would thus be seen as knowledge acquired through learning, experience, self-reflection, insight and wisdom and applied to solve problems, reach consensus, gain insight in everyday life at school and sport participation. Therefore the idea is essentially for the researcher to analyse, evaluate and test interpretations. The researcher needs to adopt a pragmatic interest that underlies knowledge production and utilisation in everyday life. 314 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.3.2 World 2: The world of science and the search for truth by means of scientific research The second world of Mouton‟s framework is the world of science and scientific research. The second level is the level whereby the researcher actively functions (Second Order). The researcher is thus co-responsible for the school sport management practice. Mouton (2001:138) and Thomas et al. (2011:5;16-17) quite clearly distinguish between different “levels”. In short, the first world focuses or adopts a pragmatic approach, while the second world focuses on and is directed towards the epistemology (truthful knowledge). So far a clear distinction has been made between the world of everyday life (World 1) and the world of science (World 2). There is one more world, the world of meta-science that should be added to the picture. 5.3.3 World 3: The world of meta-science In the previous paragraph, it was hinted that the third world introduces the concept of metascience. This third world (meta-science) then has its origin in the prevalence and application of critical interest and reflection by scientists (practitioners). Scientists (researchers) constantly submit their decisions to quality checks, in order to attain to truthful and valid results. This has led to the formation of various meta disciplines (Mouton, 2001:138). Meta-disciplines developed over time include aspects like philosophy, ethics, methodology, sociology and history. Botes (2002:8) refers to this development of meta-sciences as a paradigmatic perspective. According to her, it implies a commitment to a collection of convictions or beliefs which are meta-theoretical (ontological), theoretical (epistemological) as well as methodological. Mouton (2001:141) offers a schematic presentation. To apply this Three-World Framework specifically to the current study, it can be said that the three worlds are interactive and interrelated. The first world‟s real-life actions are internally influenced by outsiders. These actions are influenced by the methodological approaches or perspectives of the second world. Ultimately, the methodological approaches are based on and informed by the third-world‟s (meta-science) philosophical paradigms or approaches, as explained and described in paragraph 5.2.1 (cf. p. 300). It is important to realise that this research cannot be done haphazardly, but is bound to the actions of all three worlds. It could be said that the Three-Worlds Framework illustrates close linkages between different forms of human knowledge – ordinary, scientific and meta-scientific knowledge. Over and above the 315 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY linkage between different forms of knowledge the said framework clearly indicates the close linkage between the different motives and interests that underlie the different forms of knowledge (the pragmatic, the epistemic and critical interests). It should nevertheless be stressed that The ThreeWorlds Framework is a tool that helps one to organise one‟s thinking about the practice of scientific research. In the final analysis, the framework of Mouton is only as good as the use one makes of it. 5.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Information obtained from the identification of management practices in schools should be used to develop a sport management programme for educator training in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools. In this regard, Yiannakis (2000:119) and Thomas et al. (2011:3,11,17) state that researchers should be prepared to put their research to the test outside the academic world. This would enable the researcher to determine a possible gap in the sport management competencies school sport managers should have (possible) and currently have (actual) (cf. Ch. 6, 7). For this reason, it is imperative for the researcher to be absolutely sure as to which approach or method would provide the information required (Druckman, 2005:46; Clough & Nutbrown, 2010:29,35). The research design should be scientifically grounded, as well as trustworthy and reliable (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2002:410,710,796,812-814; Bassey, 2003:116-119; Churchill & Iacobucci, 2005:410,710,796,812-814; Moss, 2007:470,475; Drew et al., 2008:158; Iacobucci & Churchill, 2010:58,254; Cooper & Schindler, 2011:138-139). 5.4.1 Research Design A research design focuses on the end-product and all the steps in the process to achieve that outcome. In this sense, a research design is viewed as the functional plan in which certain research methods and procedures are linked together to acquire a reliable and valid body of data for empirically grounded analyses, conclusions and theory formulation. The research design thus provides the researcher with a clear research framework; it guides the methods, decisions and sets the basis for interpretation. Bless, Higson-Smith and Kagee (2006:71) define research design as “… operations to be performed, in order to test a specific hypothesis under a given condition”. Research design, according to Welman et al. (2009:46), is best described as the overall plan, according to which the respondents of a proposed study are selected, as well as the means of data collection or generation, while Babbie and Mouton (2008:74) describe research design as a plan or 316 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY blueprint for conducting the research. The research design also entails a detailed plan, according to which research is undertaken. According to Mouton (1996:107), the main function of a research design is to enable the researcher to anticipate what the appropriate research decisions are likely to be, and to maximise the validity of the eventual results. The relevant data are collected, which in the context of the current study focus on the management competencies of the school sport manager and the implications thereof for educator training, in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). The research design should be seen as a mixed-bag approach that implies choosing from different alternatives and options to ensure that the research purpose and perspective are clarified and achieved. The research problem will determine the methods and procedures: the types of measurement, the sampling, the data collection and the data analysis to be employed for the proposed research (Zikmund et al., 2010:66). For the purposes of this study, the researcher will use an empirical study, involving a survey, interviews and phenomenology to gain insight into the typical experiences of the participants in order to arrive at sound conclusions. Leedy and Ormrod (2010:141) reveal that a phenomenological study is one that attempts to understand people‟s perceptions, perspectives and views of a particular situation. By looking at multiple perspectives on the same situation, the researcher can then make some kind of generalisation on what something is like from an insider‟s perspective. The phenomenological approach aims to understand and interpret the meaning that participants give to their everyday life. Creswell (2007:57) regards a phenomenological study as one that describes the meanings that the lived experiences of a phenomenon, topic or concept have for various individuals. In the current study, the research was conducted by means of a literature study and empirical research. The nature and complexity of the research problem, research questions and related research aims called for a purposeful research design to meet the requirements of these research intentions. For this reason, a mixed methods research design was chosen to conduct this research. A mixed methods research design was adopted to increase the scope and range of the research, in order to address the research problem and the related research questions. The research design utilised for the current study is illustrated in Fig. 16. 317 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY (Adapted from Sekaran & Baglie, 2010:99-100) Figure 16: Research Design 5.4.2 Research methodology Leedy and Ormrod (2010:12) agree with Babbie and Mouton (2008:74) that research methodology refers to the researcher‟s general approach in carrying out the research project. Mouton (2001:56) views research methodology as focusing on the research process and the kind of tools and procedures to be used. The point of departure would be the specific task (data collection) at hand, the individual steps in the research process, and the most “objective” procedures to be employed. In essence, as Carter and Little (2007:1317,1320) express, methodologies justify methods, which produces data and analyses, and methods produce knowledge, so methodologies have epistemic content. Put simply, the research methodology in this research thus refers to the approach adopted to follow in gathering (cf. par. 5. 8.4, p. 330; 5.9.3, p. 339) and analysing data (cf. par. 6.2, p. 355; 6.3, p. 431). 318 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This research was conducted by means of a literature study (cf. par. 1.4.3, p. 14; 5.5, p. 319) and empirical research (cf. par.1.4.4, p. 14; 5.6, p. 320). In this study it was assumed that programme development was a process and as such different programme development models were looked, before an integrated, adapted programme development process structure that consisted of five stages (phases) was selected (cf. par. 7.3.2, p. 537; 7.4, p. 545; Fig. 17, p. 326). In this thesis an explorative mixed method was therefore used in order to determine the needs and competencies required by educators to manage school sport effectively in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). For this purpose a semi-structured interview (qualitative method; cf. par. 5.8, p. 328) and a questionnaire (quantitative method; cf. par. 5.9.3, p. 339) were used to collect data. Data were connected in that the results of the qualitative section in coherence with the literature review (cf. Ch. 2-4) were used to develop a measurement instrument, namely a questionnaire (quantitative method) to determine the needs and competencies required by educators to manage school sport. In this way an attempt was also made to ensure triangulation of data.75 In the following paragraph the literature study will be introduced and the role thereof explained to gather information and form a contextual and theoretical framework for the empirical section of the current research. Subsequently the empirical research will come to the attention (cf. par 5.6, p. 320). 5.5 THE LITERATURE STUDY (REVIEW) Primary and secondary literature resources were studied to gather information to provide a theoretical overview (framework) in Chapters Two, Three and Four. Chapter Two is primarily concerned with school sport in the South African education system; while Chapter Three deals with sport management for educator training; and Chapter Four provides a literature overview of some current sport management-training programmes – both locally and globally. Particular attention has been given to the history of South African sport in general, but also school sport in particular – to provide the impetus and to contextualize the current role of school sport, given South Africa‟s past. 75 Although the design of the measurement instrument was not seen as the all- encompassing aim of this study, it can also be regarded as a significant contribution the body of knowledge in sport management and can be used for subsequent studies in a similar context as school sport. Cf. also footnote 71, p. 288 319 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.6 THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH An empirical investigation was undertaken for the current study, using qualitative and quantitative methods to obtain data that would strengthen the trustworthiness and validity of the research. The term empirical refers to knowledge derived by the process of practical and scientific experience, experiments and inquiries (Skager & Weinberg, 1971:4). An empirical investigation involves a planned process of collecting and analysing data – in a way that is systematic, purposeful and accountable (Isaac & Michael, 1997:2). The purpose of this empirical investigation is, therefore, to obtain reliable and valid data, in accordance with the research problem (cf. par.1.1, p. 1) and the accompanying research aims (cf. par.1.3.2, p. 12). It would seem appropriate to deduce that the empirical research section of any research would play an important role; and as such, it would go a long way to provide appropriate, reliable and valid data to support the research problem and the accompanying research questions (Gorin, 2007:456; Mislevy, 2007:463). Hence, turning the focus to the current study, the purpose of the empirical section of this research report is to describe an applicable research design as a scientific process to obtain reliable and valid data concerning the research problem and the accompanying research questions (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). The information obtained from the empirical research of a study serves to support and provide evidence for the stated problem and the accompanying research questions. The research problem involved the development of a sport management programme for educator training, in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools (cf. par. 1.1, p. 1), while the research questions included inquiries about the context of school sport within the educational system, the current role of the school sport manager within the education system, and to determine the extent of the use and application of sport management programmes used as part of international and national educator training (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). The following research aims are required:  An understanding of the nature of school sport within the educational system;  A conceptual framework for the management of school sport;  Preconditions for the implementation of a school sports-management programme for educator training;  A sport management model for managing school sport; and  Related review aspects. 320 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY An analysis of the data, as well as information from the extensive literature overview, led to the development of a sport management programme for educator training, in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools (cf. par. 7.5, p. 547). For any research process to be complete, an applicable research design to obtain reliable and valid data has to be described. Hence, the relevant research design for the study that would meet the expectations and requirements of the researcher, as well as the research intentions related to the research problem, research questions and related research aims, is called for. The research design should enable the researcher to justify that the research was undertaken – only after careful considerations regarding the enquiry. Based on the scope and complexity of the research problem, the researcher decided on a mixed methods research design to conduct this research. A mixed methods research design will be explained and examined further in the next section. 5.7 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH Mouton and Marais (1990:59;164-165 ); Kumar (2005:12); Creswell (2007:37-39; 2009:4); Leedy and Ormrod (2010:96), as well as Kumar (2011:13,20), are of the opinion that the quantitative approach is highly formalized, as well as more explicitly controlled than the qualitative, with a range that is more exactly defined, and that is relatively close to the social sciences. In contrast, qualitative approaches are those in which the procedures are not as strictly formalized, while the scope is more likely to be undefined, and a more philosophical mode of operation is adopted (Mouton & Marais, 1990:59;164-165; McRoy, 1995:2009-2015; Delport & De Vos, 2011:266). Prospective researchers should orientate themselves to the differences between these approaches, and decide whether a combined quantitative/qualitative approach, also known as the mixed methods approach (Bergman, 2008a:1; Bryman, 2009:15) might be appropriate. Both approaches (quantitative and qualitative) have apparent strengths, but also weaknesses. Human sciences research often utilises both qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Fouche & Delport, 2011a:66). The following paragraphs review several preliminary considerations before designing a mixed methods study. The next section addresses:  Understanding what mixed methods research means;  Rationale and purpose;  Value; and  Specific mixed methods research designs. 321 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.7.1 Definition Creswell and Plano Clarke (2011:5) feel that a definition for mixed methods should incorporate many diverse viewpoints, which in this spirit according to the authors rely on a definition of core characteristics of mixed methods research. The authors continue to say that it combines methods, a philosophy, and a research design orientation, which ultimately seems to highlight the key components that go into designing and conducting a mixed methods study. An analysis of descriptions about mixed methods research in literature clearly reveals an agreement, irrespective of the focus of the definition, to a great extent among proponents of this particular type of research (Hunter & Brewer, 2003:577; Rocco et al., 2003a:19; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003:711; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004:17; Collins et al., 2006:69; Creswell & Plano Clarke, 2007:5; Ivankova et al., 2007:261; Johnson et al., 2007:123; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009:7-8; Creswell & Plano Clarke, 2011:5). So, the following definition of mixed method research can be formulated, according to the descriptions from literature. Mixed methods research is the kind of research where the researcher combines quantitative and qualitative techniques, methods and concepts in a single study or series of related studies during single or multiple phases within a pragmatic philosophical worldview (paradigm) and theoretical lenses that direct the plan for conducting the study (cf. par. 5.2.1, 300; 5.3, p. 314). De Bosscher, Shibli, Van Bottenburg, De Knop and Truyens (2010) used a mixed method design to develop a method for comparing the elite sport systems and the policies of nations. 5.7.2 Rationale and purpose According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004:14), the goal of mixed methods research is not to replace either the quantitative or qualitative approaches to research, but rather to draw from the strengths of these approaches and to minimise possible weaknesses. Nau (1995:1) suggests that “blending qualitative and quantitative methods of research can produce a final product which can highlight the significant contributions of both”. Henderson et al. (1999:253) note with reference to their study of physical activity and culture that the linking of data provides a way to use statistics, the traditional language of research. The driving motivation behind mixed methods is the desire to get the whole story (picture), as much as possible. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003:99) and Saunders et al. (2009:153) state that there are two major advantages to employing multi methods in the same study. Firstly, different methods can be used for different purposes in a study. This would give the researcher confidence having 322 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY addressed the most important issues. The second advantage of using multi-methods approach is that it enables triangulation to take place. Thus, it may be concluded that the combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods offers the advantage of the respective qualities of both approaches (Shank & Brown, 2007:190; Thiétart, 2007:82). The rationale for choosing a mixed methods research design for this research was to:  Gain data about a wider range of interests;  Understand more fully – and thus get a fuller research picture;  Generate deeper and broader insights;  Enhance the significance of interpretation;  Enhance the convergence and collaboration of findings;  Allow for unexpected developments;  Clarify underlying logic;  Facilitate both outsider and insider perspectives, thereby improving research;  Facilitate a better understanding of the relationship between variables;  Allow appropriate emphases at different stages of the research process; and to  Explain idiosyncratic circumstances, approaches, opinions and practices of different respondents. Additionally, Scott and Morrison (2007:158) share the belief of advocates of mixed method research, who argue that:  A combination of methods enhances triangulation;  A combination facilitates both outsider and insider perspectives; and the research is thus improved;  A combination may facilitate a better understanding of the relationship between variables; and  A combination allows appropriate emphases at different stages of the research process. Advocates of mixed methods research also argue that quantitative and qualitative methods of measurement and accompanying analyses are compatible, and complementary to each other in a mixed method research design. The purpose of the mixed methods research design in the context of this research is to (Mingers, 2001:244; Rocco et al., 2003a:22,23; Johnson, 2004:264,265): 323 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY  Increase the validity of the research by the convergence of the different methods of research, because mixed methods research is regarded as a form of triangulation;  Widen the scope of the research in that expansion calls for the use of mixed methods research to increase both the “breadth and range of a study”; and to  Complement different facets of the inquiry because of the “overlapping” that occurs between the different methods. 5.7.3 Value (Advantages) The value (advantages) of employing a mixed methods design for this research can be summarised (enumerated) as follows (Creswell & Plano Clarke, 2011:12-13):  An apparent weakness of quantitative research is that it is often perceived and seen to be weak in understanding the context or setting in which people talk and the voices of respondents are accordingly not directly (verbally) heard. On the other hand, qualitative research is seen as deficient, because of the personal interpretations and the involvement of the researcher that may lead to bias.  Mixed method research provides more comprehensive evidence for studying a research problem than either qualitative or quantitative research alone.  Mixed method research helps to answer questions that cannot otherwise be answered.  Mixed method research is “practical”, as the researcher is free to use relevant methods, skills and thinking to address a research problem.  Mixed method research enables the use of an all-encompassing paradigm, such as pragmatism. It is imperative for the researcher to decide on the specific mixed methods design that best addresses the research problem. Hence, the specific mixed methods for this research will be elaborated upon. 5.7.4 Specific design Once a mixed methods approach has been decided on, the next step is to decide on the specific mixed methods research design that best addresses the research problem (cf. par. 5.7.4.2, p. 325). 324 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.7.4.1 Procedural consideration Three strategies for mixing qualitative and quantitative methods are identified by Creswell (2009:207-208), namely merging, embedding and connecting the datasets. For the current study the researcher made use of the mixing strategy proposed by Creswell and Plano Clarke (2011:67) to connect the qualitative data, in order to “build” or develop the subsequent quantitative data.76 More specifically, the data are connected in that the qualitative results (cf. par. 6. 2, p. 355) were used in collaboration with the literature review to design a measurement instrument, namely a questionnaire (cf. Fig. 16, p. 318; 18, 327; par. 6.2.3, p. 372; Annexure D, on CD). 5.7.4.2 The mixed method exploratory research design The mixed methods exploratory research design or exploratory sequential research design consists of two distinct phases (Creswell et al., 2003:227; Creswell & Plano Clarke, 2011:86). In the research design, a researcher collects and analyses the qualitative data as phase one. In the second quantitative phase (cf. par. 5.9, p. 333; Fig. 16, p. 318; 18, 327; par 6.3, p. 431), the researcher builds on the results of the qualitative data. The established theoretical framework subsequently presented the researcher with the opportunity to identify topic-specific themes and variables for further investigation. The exploratory research design has become a widely accepted and efficient tool for use in multi-phase research (Creswell, 2009:212). Despite typically emphasising the qualitative aspect, the inclusion of a quantitative component seems to satisfy and convince quantitative biased audiences of the relative value and advantages of the use of the exploratory sequential mixed methods research design (Creswell & Plano Clarke, 2011:89). Challenges associated with this research design involve the requirement of considerable time.77 The next step is to decide on the specific model or variant of the chosen mixed methods research design as proposed by Creswell and Plano Clarke (2007:77; 2011:90). Based on the preceding, the instrument development model78 was selected as described by Creswell and Plano Clarke (2011:77). The instrument development model is illustrated in Figure 17 (cf. p. 326 below). 76 Although the purpose of this research was not to develop a questionnaire for school sport management, the developed measurement instrument, namely the questionnaire, can also be seen as a valuable contribution to the existing body of knowledge to school sport management and future research 77 The researcher can attest to challenge concerning time, in the sense that the questionnaires could only be finalised after the interview schedule was completed, an analysis of the interviews was done and an extensive literature review was completed to develop a theoretical framework. 78 Cf. also note, 71, p. 288 325 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Creswell and Plano Clarke, 2007:77 Figure 17: The instrument development model of the exploratory sequential mixed methods research design The combination of research approaches led to the adoption of a pragmatic position (cf. par. 5.2.1.5, p. 311; 5.3.1, p. 314) to conduct this research, as this provided a workable solution to the multifaceted research problem (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003:696; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004:17-18; Creswell, 2009:11-12; Thomas et al., 2011:375).79 The results provided the researcher with a clear and complete picture of the current sport management programmes for the training of educators, according to the diverse needs of schools in South Africa (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12, research aim 5). 5.7.4.3 A mixed methods research model A model of the instrument-development variant of the exploratory sequential-mixed methods research design is depicted in Figure 18 (cf. p. 327 below). 79 Cf. also par. 5.2.1.5, p. 311 326 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Figure 18: The mixed methods research model 327 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.8 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative writing tends to be rich with quotation, description and narration, as researchers attempt to capture conversations, experiences, perspectives, voices and meanings. This is research with words instead of numbers (Willis, 2008:40). As such, a qualitative study is concerned with nonstatistical methods and small samples, often purposively selected (Delport & De Vos, 2011:65). The characteristics of qualitative research are (Kumar, 2005:12; Jones & Kottler, 2006:83; Bogdan & Biklen, 2007:3-8;40-41; Ivankova et al., 2007:257; Creswell, 2009:175-177; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010:94-97; Kumar, 2011:13,20,104-105):  It is usually conducted in natural settings. Natural settings (such as classrooms, schools and sports fields) are the overwhelming preference for qualitative studies.  The extensive use of descriptive data. Qualitative researchers are likely to describe a phenomenon with words, rather than with numbers.  The emphasis is on process rather than on product.  It is often based on inductive logic: going from the specific to the general.  The search for meaning is often evident. The search for meaning focuses in qualitative research on how people try to make sense of their lives. How it is may be nearly as important in a qualitative study as how the participants think it is. 5.8.1 Study population A study population is the aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selected. For the current research, the researcher chose topic-specific experts in the field of study as participants – based on their specialised expertise and close involvement in school sport management as the study population for the qualitative phase of the proposed research. The study population of the qualitative phase comprised departmental officials in the position of Education Specialist: School Sport (Department of Basic Education) (DBE) and academics from HEIs presenting sport management as part of educator training. 5.8.2 Sampling Sampling refers to the selection of a subset of persons or things from a larger population, also known as a sampling frame (Scott & Morrison, 2007:219), with the intention of representing the particular population (Gall et al., 2007:166; Neuman, 2011:246). A non-probability sampling procedure (Cozby, 2009:139,140) was used for the selection of knowledgeable and experienced 328 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY participants. For this reason, a purposive sample was used to select an Education Specialist: School Sport from each of the following provinces: a northern province, with metropolitan areas (Gauteng Province); a southern province with metropolitan areas (Western Cape Province); and a province with mainly rural areas (North-West Province) (cf. Annexure N, on CD). The participants of this research phase were purposefully selected based on their involvement in sport management in schools. The number of participants is further viewed as being sufficient. It is based on the saturation principle of diminishing returns – the notion that each additional unit of information would supply less new information than the preceding one: until new information dwindles to nothing (Thiétart, 2007:166). In this study the saturation principle holds true and it can be confirmed the number of participants were sufficient and enough information was provided to enable the researcher to compile a questionnaire for this study that was reliable and valid (cf. par. 5.9.4, p. 342; 5.9.5, p. 346). 5.8.3 Reliability and validity Reliability and validity and implications thereof will be described in detail in the quantitative section of this research report (cf. par. 5.9.4, p. 342 and par. 5.9.5, p. 346). Some qualitative researchers have begun to question the relevance of the term validity in qualitative research. Some suggest that terminology such as credibility, dependability, confirmability, trustworthiness, verification and transferability be used instead of validity. Scholars like Huberman and Miles (2002:38) and Tobin and Begley (2004:388,389) are of the opinion that it is inappropriate to transfer terminology across paradigms. Inevitably, the authors suggest alternative ways to demonstrate reliability and validity outside the linguistic confines of a quantitative paradigm. The trend that rather emphasises the use of rigour to ensure reliability and validity in qualitative research was followed in this section of the research (Tobin & Begley, 2004:389,390; Twycross & Shields, 2005:36; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007:239). Rigour refers to the demonstration of integrity and competence in qualitative research by adherence to detail and accuracy to ensure the authenticity and trustworthiness of the research process. The rigour of the qualitative section relates to the overall planning and implementation to ensure the authenticity and trustworthiness of procedures, according to the following criteria (Tobin & Begley, 2004:391,392; Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006:49,50; Roberts et al., 2006:43; Freeman et al., 2007:28,29): 329 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY  Credibility: Engagement with the data (recordings, notes and transcripts) was done intensively to demonstrate clear links between the data and the interpretations. Regular discussions were held and adjustments were made in accordance with suggestions and recommendations.  Dependability: According to Riege (2003:81), dependability is analogous to the notion of reliability in quantitative research (cf. par. 5.9.4, p. 342). The purpose of this test was to show indications of stability and consistency in the process of inquiry. Care was taken to ensure that the research process was logical, traceable, and clearly documented in a reflexive manner by giving a detailed account of the research process.  Authenticity: The development of the question items was based on a substantial theoretical basis as described in Chapters Two, Three and Four. The interview schedule was first carried out during the pilot test to ensure the yielding of reasonable, unbiased and valid data (cf. par. 5.9.4.1, p. 343).  Confirmation: An audit process was implemented by working forward, as well as backward through the research process, to ensure that the data and interpretations of the findings were sound and confirmed findings. The intention during the interpretation process was not to generalize findings to a population, but to identify accepted principles and trends related to the research topic (cf. par. 5.6, p. 320; 5.8.1, p. 328). The trustworthiness of this research phase was ensured by applying the following criteria: credibility, dependability, authenticity and confirming. The description in the qualitative research process of: What was done; how it was done; and why it was done – as well as adherence to the identified criteria for qualitative research, ensured the authenticity and trustworthiness of this research phase. 5.8.4 Qualitative data collection To yield data for the qualitative investigation, different measuring instruments were employed. Measuring instruments include different types of interviews (standardized open-ended, semistructured and structured), observations and content analysis or review of documents (Cooper & Schindler, 2011:183; Thomas et al., 2011:357). Given the extent and purpose of this research (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12), interviews were used to collect the data. Hence, an Education Specialist: School Sport from each of three different provinces (Gauteng, Western Cape and North-West Province) (cf. Annexure N, on CD), in addition to an academic from each of three HEIs presenting sport management as part of educator training, were requested to participate in an interview to contribute to the achievement of the stated research aims (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12). 330 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.8.4.1 Interviews The interview is a social relationship designed to exchange information between the participant and the researcher. The quantity and quality of information exchanged would depend on how astute and creative the interviewer is at understanding and managing the relationship (Monette et al., 2008:178). The interviewers are deeply and unavoidably implicated in creating meanings that ostensibly reside within the participants (Greeff, 2011:342). The goal of any qualitative research interview is therefore to see the research topic from the perspective of the interviewees, and to understand why they have a particular perspective (King, 1994:14). To meet this goal, the author (King) lists the following general characteristics of a qualitative research interview: a low degree of structure imposed by the interviewer; a preponderance of open questions; a focus on specific situations and action sequences in the world of the interviewee – as opposed to mere abstractions and general opinions. The role of the interviewer is a demanding one as they have to ask questions, record answers and try to keep the interview session interesting and worthwhile for the interviewees (Powney & Watts, 1987:7,42; Verma & Mallick, 1999:122). The circumstances in which a qualitative research interview takes place are highlighted below:  Where a study focuses on the meaning of particular phenomena to the participants;  Where individual perceptions are to be studied prospectively;  Where individual historical accounts are required of how a particular phenomenon developed: for instance a new shift system;  Where exploratory work is required before a quantitative study can be carried out; and  Where a quantitative study has been carried out, and qualitative data are required to validate particular measures or to clarify and illustrate the meaning of the findings (King, 1994:16). Research texts typically highlight three types of interviews used in educational research: standardised open-ended, semi structured and structured (Fontana & Frey, 2005:697,698; Erikson & Kovalainen, 2008:80; Scott & Usher, 2011:116,117), depending on the nature of the event as determined by the researcher who initiates the interview (Greeff, 2011:347). For the purposes of this research, interviews were conducted according to a semi-structured interview schedule, as proposed by Greeff (2011:151,152). This specifies predetermined questions and sequences for the interviewer. The interview will, however be guided by the schedule (cf. Annexure B, on CD). 331 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.8.4.2 Semi structured interviews Interviewing as a data-gathering method was used to:  Clarify vague statements;  Permit exploration of topics; and to  Yield a deeply experiential account of the extent of the management of sport in a diversity of South African schools. Interviews can yield rich material unobtainable in any other way, which can support or be supported by other data from questionnaires and standardised test responses. The interview is wonderfully adaptable and flexible (Verma & Mallick, 1999:128). The interviews afforded the researcher the opportunity to obtain perceptions of role players in school sport regarding the problems currently being experienced by educators in the management of school sport. 5.8.4.3 Observation The following aspects were included in this section of the research:  The socio-economic situation (status) of the community;  Physical location and surroundings;  Reception at office;  Impression of office setting; and  Relevant comments. The purpose of the observation list was to provide a brief account of the context of the source of the data, in order to facilitate an understanding of the setting in which the respondents work and to provide information about the climate in which the interview took place (Huberman & Miles, 2002:54; Creswell, 2003:8; 2009:177; Scott & Usher, 2011:106). 5.8.4.4 The Interview schedule80 For the purposes of this study, the structured part of the interview was developed according to the research aims (cf. par. 1.3.2, p. 12), the theoretical framework for the management of school sport 80 Cf. par. 5.8.4.4, p. 332; Annexure B, on CD 332 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY (cf. par.4.9, p. 296; Fig. 15, p. 289) and the current sport management programmes for educator training (cf. Chapter 4). The interview questions included the following topics:  Understanding of school sport management;  Fundamental principles in managing school sport;  Perspectives on multicultural education;  Perspectives on the current state, status and demands of school sport;  Best practices for managing school sport;  Problems in managing school sport;  Positive experiences in relation to the management of school sport;  Needs to manage school sport;  Views on the current and future competencies required to manage school sport;  Importance/necessity of sport management training for educators;  Problems, if any, encountered during practical training of students;  Shortcomings of sport management programmes as part of educator training; and  General comments. A semi-structured interview was chosen to allow more clarifying, probing and cross-checking questions. 5.8.4.5 The Interview procedure In order to ensure that the responses were recorded, a digital voice recorder and back-up recorder were used to record the responses of the participants. All the interviews took place in the offices of the education specialist and academics from HEIs respectively. A copy of the interview schedule and the contact detail of the researcher were provided to each interviewee for possible future enquiries. In addition to the qualitative component of the empirical research, quantitative research methods in the form of a structured questionnaire were also used in combination with the semi-structured interviews as part of the mixed methods research design (cf. par. 5.7, p. 321). 5.9 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH The quantitative section deals with the statistical analysis and numerical data to provide quantitative information (Lund, 2005:128; Thiétart, 2007). Quantitative research requires 333 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY objectively evaluating the data which consist of numbers, trying to exclude bias from the researcher‟s point of view. Typically, the quantitative method makes use of a questionnaire. Quantitative research always involves the numerical analysis of data gathered by means of some kind of structured questionnaire. 5.9.1 The survey as research method Interviews require the researcher to elicit information from respondents and provide the researcher more insight into the meaning and significance of what is happening. As such, it thus substantiates why survey researchers (Scott & Usher, 2011:93) choose to concentrate on a group of seemingly similar cases, such as for example, secondary schools in a locality or country. 5.9.1.1 Rationale and purpose An empirical survey serves as an opportunity to obtain data on the current and desired competencies of school sport managers. 5.9.1.2 Strengths and limitations The following strategies were employed to minimise the occurrence of possible shortcomings (Williams, 2004:94,99; Fink, 2006:35; Adams et al., 2007:138; Maree & Pietersen, 2007c:157; Fowler, 2009:89,108,110,177; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010:223; Rubin & Babbie, 2011:404):  Clear and consistent instructions to respondents for the completion of questionnaires;  Questionnaire items were scrutinized for content that promotes bias, e.g. presupposed and leading items;  Reporting of observational factors that describe the contextual situation of the data; and  Follow-up actions to non-respondents of questionnaires. To make a sound judgment of the content- and context-specific sport management training of educators in a diversity of South African schools, the survey presented a unique opportunity to obtain data on the competencies of school sport managers. It is imperative to define the study population for the quantitative section of this study (Babbie & Mouton, 2008:174). 334 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.9.2 The Study population In this study, the total population consists of 24 979 public and 1086 independent schools, making a total of 26 065 schools (Department of Education, 2009:4).81 The total of 26 065 schools comprised the following: 15 358 primary schools, 5 670 secondary schools, and 5 037 combined and intermediate schools. KwaZulu-Natal (6 057, or 23%) and the Eastern Cape (5 834, or 22%) had the highest and second highest number of ordinary schools; while the Northern Cape (613, or 2%) had the smallest number of ordinary schools in South Africa. Each province consists of a number of districts and each district of a number of areas (cf. Annexure N, on CD). The reference to study population in this research refers to the members of a group of people defined as respondents to whom the research measurements refer by reported results, findings and inferences (Keeves, 1997:427,428; Hittleman & Simon, 2002:91,92; Babbie & Mouton, 2008:174; Babbie, 2010:199; Rubin & Babbie, 2010:139; 2011:359,361). 5.9.2.1 Selection and sampling The study population of the quantitative research consisted of a non-probability, purposive selection of 108 schools from all nine provinces of South Africa (cf. Annexure N, on CD). Sampling refers to the process of selecting a sample as a small portion or subset from a defined population – with the intention of representing the particular population (Black, 2002:48; Gall et al., 2007:166; Hoy, 2010:51; Monette et al., 2011:13; Neuman, 2011:241). However, the purpose of this research was not to make use of a sample to generalise the findings to a particular population, but to develop a sport management programme for educator training, in accordance with the diverse needs of South African schools. A non-probability sampling procedure was accordingly selected for the identification of schools, because the researcher had no guarantee that these schools were either representative of the population of schools (public and independent/private)82 in South Africa, or that they had an equal chance of being selected for this particular study. 81 The total number of schools seems to differ according to the source. The data on ordinary schools were collected th via the 2007 SNAP survey conducted on the 10 school day, based upon approximately 94% of open ordinary schools having submitted the survey forms. The figures provided are final after the preliminary figures that appeared in the DoE’s report School Realities were updated (Department of Education, 2009:4). According to Blaser (2008:341) there were 26 099 public and independent schools in 2007, while in 2009, there were 24 693 public schools and 1 174 private schools, thus a total of 25 867 (Burger, 2011:149). In statistics released in February 2012 by the DBE the number of ordinary schools had decreased to 25 850. Of these 25 850 schools, 1 397 were independent schools and 24 453 were ordinary public schools (Department of Basic Education (DoBE), 2012:3) 82 Cf. also par. 1.2.1.4, p. 4 335 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY A purposive sample was selected from different schools, because the identified schools were accepted as the study population (target population) to determine general trends of school sport managers together with related aspects to manage school sport in a diversity of South African schools (Fogelman, 2002:99,100; Grinnell & Unrau, 2008:153; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010:206; Strydom, 2011b:232). According to Welman et al. (2009:69), purposive sampling is the most important type of non-probability sampling. Researchers rely on their experience, ingenuity and/or previous research findings to purposely obtain units of analysis in such a manner that the s...
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