C A N A D A A S N AT I O N GGR202 CONCEPTS FOR THIS WEEK: • The Nation • White Settler Societies • Geographic Imaginaries • Terra Nullius • Sovereignty REVIEW: W H AT I S A N AT I O N ? N AT I O N A S POLITICAL PROJECT • “it is an imagined political community” (Anderson 1983, p.7) • The nation is a political project, not a thing • Based on social inclusions and exclusions • From: ‘What is a nation?’ to: ‘How is the idea of a nation used to what effects? Example 2 CANADA AS A WHITE SETTLER SOCIETY WHITE SETTLER SOCIETY Definition: “one established by Europeans on non-European soil” • “Dispossession and near extermination of Indigenous people” • “Continues to be structured by a racial hierarchy” Sherene Razack (2002: 1) W H I T E S E T T L E R S O C I E T Y: MYTHOLOGIES OF RACIAL INNOCENCE “In the national mythologies of such societies, it is believed that white people came first and that it is they who principally developed the land” “European settlers thus become the original inhabitants and the group most entitled to the fruits of citizenship.” Sherene Razack (2002:2) EXAMPLE OF WHITE SETTLER M E N TA L I T Y “We also have no history of colonialism. So we have all the things that many people admire about the great powers but none of the things that threaten or bother them.” • Stephen Harper speaking at the 2009 G20 meeting in Pittsburgh GEOGRAPHIC IMAGINARIES OF THE C A N A D I A N ‘ N AT I O N ’ TERRA NULLIUS (‘EMPTY LAND’) International law (stemming from Roman law) that states that empty land can be claimed by those occupying it IMAGINING THE LAND AS EMPTY • Originally, through actual emptiness of the land… • Then through religious, land use, and economic criteria (‘Highest and best use’) • Already inhabited nations “were simply deemed uninhabited if the people were not Christian, not agricultural, not commercial, not ‘sufficiently evolved’ or simply in the way” • (Dara Culhane, 1998) IMAGINING THE LAND AS EMPTY “Canadian national identity is deeply rooted in the notion of Canada as a vast northern wilderness, the possession of which makes Canadians unique and ‘pure’ of character. Because of this, and in order for Canada to have a viable national identity, the histories of Indigenous nations, in all their diversity and longevity, must be erased” (Bonita Lawrence, 2002: 23) G R O U P O F S E V E N PA I N T I N G S HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHIES O F C A N A D A A S ‘ N AT I O N ’ PA R T 1 : E S TA B L I S H I N G A N AT I O N • Before the United States’ revolutionary war, all of the British-claimed territory on the continent was considered part of the same project (according to the British, of course.) U N I T E D E M P I R E L O YA L I S T S L O YA L I S M “The ideology of Loyalism meant loyalty to monarch and empire and adherence to the beliefs and institutions essential to the preservation of a way of life different from that in the United States.” -J.L.Granatstein (1996) 1st phase of anti-American nationalism DURHAM REPORT (1839) “Such a union […] would form a great and powerful people, possessing the means of securing good and responsible government for itself, and which, under the protection of the British Empire, might in some measure counterbalance the preponderant and increasing influence of the United States on the American Continent…. If we wish to prevent the extension of this influence, it can only be done by raising up for the North American colonist some nationality of his own; by elevating these small and unimportant communities into a society having some objects of a national importance” BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT (1867) BNA Act: formal declaration of Canada as a nation-state • Consolidated several British colonies in North America: New Brunswick Nova Scotia the Province of Canada and Quebec) (Ontario C A N A D A’ S T E R R I T O R I A L E X PA N S I O N 1870: NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES • Rupert’s Land (Hudson Bay territories) and the North-Western Territory were transferred to the Dominion of Canada, and renamed the North-West Territories • Most of this land was only known to Europeans through the fur trade, not through settlement MANIFEST DESTINY • The idea, widely held and put into practice in the 1840s United States, that the US has a divine destiny to take over all the lands of the North American continent and to spread American ideals and technologies through settlement O R E G O N T E R R I T O RY • Treaty of 1818: Set the boundary between US and the BNA to the Rockies along the 49th Parallel • 1846: Oregon Boundary Treaty signed by Britain and the US, setting the boundary west of the Rockies to the 49th Parallel 1871: BRITISH COLUMBIA BC became part of the Dominion of Canada in 1871 • Created a bi-costal national space that posed problems for the gov’t: • US annexation • Distance from the East N AT I O N - B U I L D I N G ACTIVITIES C A N A D I A N PA C I F I C R A I L W AY • CPR as a nation-building technology • A promise for BC • Spatial consolidation of the nation: “from sea to sea” SETTLING THE WEST CANADA FIRST MOVEMENT • “The name and slogan of a movement to promote nationalist sentiment.” • Created the North-West Emigration Aid Society to encourage British immigration • Established the journal ‘The Nation’ WILLIAM GEORGE BEERS ( C A N A D I A N N AT I O N A L I S M M I D 1 8 0 0 ’ S ) Two things needed for national identity: 1) Foreign influence eliminated 2) National history/mythology consciously constructed He turned to a sport to portray the nation: Lacrosse The first ‘official’ sport of Canada S E L L I N G T H E N AT I O N A L G A M E “As cricket, wherever played by Britons, is a link of loyalty to bind them to their home so may lacrosse be to Canadians. We may yet find it will do as much for our young Dominion as the Olympian games did for Greece or cricket for our Motherland.” -Beers (1867) JOHN A. MACDONALD • 1st Prime Minister of Canada • Oversaw Railroad • Credited with bringing French and English Canadians together into single Canadian nation HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHIES O F C A N A D A A S ‘ N AT I O N ’ PA R T 2 : N E W N AT I O N A L I S M S T H E ‘ N E W ’ N AT I O N A L I S M • Mid-20th Century, being associated with the British Empire went out of fashion • And with it, Loyalism as Canadian Nationalism • At the time, anti-American rhetoric was building internationally • The U.S. was seen as a reactionary, right-wing, capitalist empire • Full of racists, criminals, religious fanatics, etc. New anti-American Canadian nationalism was developed by having more leftwing government policies – healthcare, social welfare, multiculturalism (2016) U N I T E D E M P I R E L O YA L I S T S C A N A D I A N P A C I F I C R A I L W AY • CPR as a nation-building technology • 15,000 Chinese labourers • At lease 600 died N AT I O N A L S P O RT Unapologetic appropriation of Aboriginal game: “just as we claim as Canadian the rivers and lakes and land once owned exclusively by Indians, so we now claim their field game as the national field game of our dominion” -Beers 1867 • Turning Baggataway into Lacrosse • removal of spiritual aspects of the game, standardization of rules, uniforms, leagues TERRA NULLIUS… W H AT A B O U T T H E T R E AT I E S ? W H O S I G N E D T R E AT I E S ? • Representatives of sovereign nations • What is sovereignty? • a country's independent authority and the right to govern itself • What happened to the sovereignty of the ‘other’ nations? • Treaties complicate the story of ‘terra nullius’ U N D E R M I N I N G T H E T R E AT I E S : CREDIT RIVER UNDERMINING THE T R E AT I E S : INDIAN ACT KEY POINTS OF INDIAN ACT (1876) • It establishes how reserves and bands can operate • Sets rules for governing Indian reserves • Defines how bands can be created • Spells out powers of band councils • (bands don’t have to have reserves to operate under the act) • It defines who is, and who is not recognized as an ‘Indian’ • Creates legal distinctions between status and non-status ‘Indians’ "The great aim of our legislation has been to do away with the tribal system and assimilate the Indian people in all respects with the other inhabitants of the Dominion as speedily as they are fit to change.” John A. MacDonald 1887 NOTE ON LANGUAGE • Canada recognizes three groups of Indigenous peoples: Inuit Metis First Nations The term ‘Indian’ is still used in legal documents, but Indigenous (with a capital I) or the specific name of a tribe or band is preferred. I N D I A N A C T: C O N T R O L L I N G S PA C E RESERVE SYSTEM • “…to wean them by slow degrees, from their nomadic habits, which have almost become an instinct, and by slow degrees absorb them or settle them on the land. Meantime they must be fairly protected.” 1880 • “…..we have been pampering and coaxing the Indians; that we must take a new course, we must vindicate the position of the white man, we must teach the Indians what law is; we must not pauperise them, as they say we have been doing.” 1885 RESERVE S • 0.2% of land GOALS OF THE RESERVE (1) Promotion of private property “reserves were to be surveyed into individual lots that would be assigned by band councils to suitably qualified individuals who would hold location tickets in order to familiarize them with the concept of private property” GOALS OF THE RESERVE (2) Promotion of agricultural economies • Gov’t agents encouraged the development of agricultural systems within reserves to encourage ‘highest and best use’ of land • Sought to restrict and replace other economic activities, including fishing and hunting • Problems: • Much reserve lands unsuitable for agriculture • Permit system restricted ability of Aboriginal people to sell agricultural goods GOALS OF THE RESERVE (3) Restrictions on territorial and resource use • Reserves are NOT the same as the traditional territories of Aboriginal people • Often a small part of the larger traditional territory, though some reserves are outside • The ability to determine size of reserve rested on notions of ‘highest and best use’ GOALS OF THE RESERVE • A geography of dispossession: Not only limiting access to land but also trying to replace meanings of land with settler logics I N D I A N A C T: C O N T R O L L I N G C U LT U R E RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS • The goal of Indian residential schools was to assimilate Indians into society. • The Canadian government operated Indian residential schools in partnership with the Anglican, Catholic, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches, among others. • The Canadian government was financially responsible for Indian residential schools. • Indian residential schools operated in all Canadian provinces and territories except Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland. • Indian residential schools operated in Canada between the 1870s and the 1990s. • The last Indian residential school closed in 1996. • Children between the ages of 4-16 attended Indian residential school. • It is estimated that over 150,000 Indian, Inuit, and Métis children attended Indian residential school. A S M I N I S T E R O F I N D I A N A F FA I R S , M A C D O N A L D I N I T I AT E D T H E RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL PROGRAM • “When the school is on the reserve, the child lives with its parents, who are savages, and though he may learn to read and write, his habits and training mode of thought are Indian. He is simply a savage who can read and write. It has been strongly impressed upon myself, as head of the Department, that Indian children should be withdrawn as much as possible from the parental influence, and the only way to do that would be to put them in central training industrial schools where they will acquire the habits and modes of thought of white men." 1879 RCMP – CLEARING LAND, POLICING INDIGENOUS PEOPLE P O L I C E A S N AT I O N A L I C O N ? GENOCIDE • In a statement, the UN Human Rights Office said the inquiry uncovered “reasons to believe” Canada’s past and present policies, actions and failures to act towards Indigenous peoples amount to genocide under international law. Toronto Star, 2019 N AT I O N A L I S M A N D P U B L I C S PA C E Victoria, BC 2018 Kingston, ON 2013 Montreal, QC 2018 Kitchener, ON 2020 Toronto, ON 2020 Montreal, QC 2020 Nationalism D. H. Kaplan, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA & 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Glossary Banal Nationalism The everyday manner in which nationalism and national identity are expressed and permeate the lives of the citizens of a nation. Decolonization National independence of colonies from an empire. Diaspora Originally applied to the Jewish population, it has been used to refer to all national groups that reside, often in a dispersed fashion, away from their original homeland. Discursive Landscape A combination of textual and visual landscape elements including narratives, images of the landscape, and various symbols of national identity that are found on the land. Irredentist Nationalism Effort to secede from an existing state in order to join with a neighboring state. Nation In its modern usage, a territorially based community of people tied together by cultural similarity (whether ancestral or created), a shared historical legacy, and a sense of commonality. All nations either possess or seek to possess a political state. State Territorially based political entity that contains a government, a permanent resident population, sovereignty, and clearly delimited boundaries. Substate Nationalism Effort to create a sovereign state from a culturally distinct region. Supranational Referring to an international organization that includes several political states. Member states retain their sovereignty, but must abide by some of the decisions of the supranational organization, often made by majority vote. Is it possible to conceive of nationalism without geography? Nationalism is a political ideology that is based on trying to transform national identity into some form of a political state. It is a territorial strategy because any political state requires some type of sovereign space that it can control and within which it can exercise legitimate force. Without territory a political state would be boundless, spaceless, and placeless – it would lose its rationale. Some common definitions of nationalism and national identity do not explicitly include the ideas of space, territory, or geography. One of the most succinct definitions of the nationalist doctrine holds that community is naturally divided into nations, that nations are known by certain characteristics which can be 248 ascertained, and that the only legitimate type of government is natural self-government. (Kedourie, 1960) The role of territory in this definition is undetermined. Medieval references to ‘nations’ were more likely to evoke ethnic groups, culturally distinct but not territorially based. Yet other definitions have clearly included the importance of territory or space in their ideas of nationalism. Sir Henry Maine in the nineteenth century argued that territory, along with kinship, undergirded political unions from the ancient or modern era, a reference to what might today be considered a ‘nationstate’. A modern scholar of nationalism, Anthony Smith, has argued that nationalist desires are based on the possession of land and any national cohesion requires the possession of territory. Geographers have long maintained that the nationalist project is fundamentally an ideology that seeks to construct a national space out of social space. The primary debates about nationalism have to do with the constitution of the nation itself. The key fissure is between those who see the nation as something of long duration and based on a longstanding ethnic identity – these are termed primordialists or perennialists. Those who see nations as socially constructed and of relatively recent duration are termed social constructivists. In fact, the distinction is one of emphasis since all but the most radical primordialists would agree that nations are not ‘essential’ human attributes and most social constructivists admit that national identity is a most durable identity that is normally based around some core elements. National construction can stem from things such as economic modernization, print capitalism, political instrumentalism, and other things. National identity is something that has to be continually maintained, and one of the goals of nationalism is to keep the flames of nationhood alive. Institutions facilitate this process. The national media can help to create a sense of unity and of difference with outsiders. Similarly literature can be a very important force for national unity as well. The educational system can help to inculcate young children in a common national history and national identity, and throughout this of course we can discuss how significant is language in creating a commonality as well. Geographic discussions of nationalism generally assume that it is a spatially implicit ideology and that territory is a vehicle which supports nationalist conceptions and nationalist actions. When you consider the language that nationalists use to describe their nation, the Nationalism vitality of space is evident. Terms such as homeland, territory, motherland, fatherland, even land itself – these are all geographically based. Even those nationalist groups who do not happen to occupy the same territory – for instance, diaspora groups dispersed far from their ancestral lands – are anchored to the prospect of some sort of territorial consolidation in the future. Perhaps the best-known example of this would be the Zionist movement formulated by Jews, most of who lived well beyond the territory that they sought to occupy and control. A strong territorial imperative imbues most and perhaps all nationalist movements. It is difficult to think of an exception. Nationalism can be examined based on a variety of geographic concepts. The purpose of this article is to show how certain geographic themes such as those of space, place, centrality and peripherality, landscape, and scale fit into geographic expressions of nationalism. Nationalism and Spatial Identities There exist a variety of different nationalisms. One common form of nationalism, termed substate nationalism, relates to efforts to create a whole state out of a particular culturally distinct region. Another form of nationalism, termed irredentist nationalism, seeks secession from an existing state in order to join with a neighboring state. The efforts of colonies to gain independence from a mother country or a larger empire is termed de-colonization. Yet another form may be to rework the national character of the state itself; in other words attempt to recreate the national identity and constitution of the state. This nationalism in situ can be a very powerful force in creating new types of politiconational identities. An example of this from recent times would be the nature of the Iranian revolution in which Iran went from a state with more modernist and pro-Western inclinations to a state that was essentially theocratic. One thing that binds these different nationalist movements together is the intrinsic importance of territory. In most cases, nationalist movements arise from groups that already occupy (but perhaps do not control) a particular chunk of territory. One example would be the Basque movement found within northeastern Spain and southwestern France. While Basques occupy this area, they do not enjoy as much control as they might wish. Yet the definition of a Basque homeland is up for debate. Their task lies in choosing which territorial conception forms the basis of a new Basque nation-state and the focus of their political goals. There are no obvious physical demarcations such as on an island nation. Quite the opposite since the Basque nation straddles a significant physical border in the Pyrénées Mountains, as well as an existing international border between France and Spain. Here the Basque spatial imagination has a lot to do with 249 various narratives, rhetoric, symbols, and practicality. So the conceived territorial extent of the Basque nation has shifted from the former Kingdom of Navarre – a large entity that includes the Basque heartland, as well as much territory where Basques are not in the majority – to Euskal Herria, a limited territory with a more substantive Basque population. Euskal Herria has been institutionalized as well, since it includes territory demarcated by past administrative boundaries, including six historical Spanish fueros and three historical Basque provinces in France. The international boundary further complicates how Basques conceive of their own nationalist goals. Spanish Basques have been radicalized by the excesses of the Franco regime and by the strength of the dominant Basque political party. French Basques view their situation differently as part of a centralized French state. Different segments of a single nation carry strikingly different ideas of what a nationalist project should entail. Within Israel, so-called neo-Zionists see the West Bank territories now occupied by Israel as an essential part of the Israeli spatial identity. In fact, some of these settlers would consider any pullback from such territory as tantamount to a national dismemberment. For other Israelis, the vast majority, this territory is liable to negotiation. These post-Zionists are concerned with the integrity of the Israeli state and see the state and nation as coterminous, but they are willing to concede some territory in order to secure greater degrees of security and peace. Does this mean that they espouse a nationalism that is not territorial? Not really, but they do offer a view of national territorial identity that is more permeable, and more flexible. The core identities placed in Israel proper are more important here than those identities forged at the borderland. Boundaries of National Identity In geography, there is a long legacy of research that looks into borderlands and of how borderlands can be constructed. Geographers were involved in Southeastern Europe after World War I carving a network of boundaries that would best reflect the nature of the region’s ethnic geography. More recently geographers have focused on how boundaries can operate at a number of different levels. For example, we might think about boundaries as something that clearly distinguishes between those who are part of the nation and all outsiders. In that sense, boundaries become something of a wall. However, we also need to think about how these walls are built and how they are perceived. Boundaries are things that become a big part of what has been described as ‘a discursive landscape’. Consider boundary crossings. In some situations a crossing can be a major event, involving the presentation 250 Nationalism of official documents and perhaps even a series of background checks. In other situations, a boundary crossing may go unnoticed. The Schengen Agreement replaced a series of European border crossings with nothing more than signs, making travel between signatory states completely effortless. At the same time, the elimination of physical boundary crossings between various European states augmented the significance of the boundary surrounding the European Union itself. Geopolitical circumstances have quite clearly changed the meaning of boundaries in this respect. A good example of how this might work at a more meso-scale would be to consider the boundary between Finland and what now is Russia. This boundary straddles an area known as Karelia, found on both sides of the present-day boundary and which contains a distinct regional group. When Finland was a part of the Russian Empire during most of the nineteenth century this boundary was fairly open. In 1939, the boundary was moved sharply west, forcing the inhabitants to evacuate behind the new Finnish–Soviet line. For the next several decades, it became highly militarized and difficult to cross. According to Paasi, Finnish Karelia was a boundary region loaded with nostalgia for past unity and the utopianism of a lost future. Now, changing geopolitical circumstances have enabled the boundary to open up again to cooperative endeavors and to increased border crossings, and have enabled former residents to visit their ancestral towns and villages on the Russian side. Yet the boundary here now carries another meaning as it also represents the increased divisions marking off the relatively wealthy European Union from the much poorer countries on the outside. Many nationalist goals focus around the boundary because this is the line that demarcates one state from another. However, it is more than simply a separation of political entities. It reflects the level to which nationalists have aspired to possess a certain extent of land. It also shows how nationalists seek to heighten the differences between their nation and those of others who live outside the boundary. This can take several different effects. Nationalists may attempt to enforce cultural homogeneity within the boundaries of areas that they control. So, for example, Mussolini inherited a larger Italian state after World War I – including areas that were not culturally Italian – but he worked aggressively to nationalize the entire territory by forcing a series of name changes, language changes, place name changes, or even outright evictions in order to promote national uniformity. Minority groups fight back by offering rival versions of the boundary. Irredentism, covered in another article in this encyclopedia, seeks to move the international boundary to allow minorities in one state to join up with their brethren in the state next-door. Of course boundaries can also be places of accommodation and even cooperation. These are areas which reflect a kind of common cause between different national communities as demonstrated in the promotion of cross-border crossings, institutions, and symbols of mutual interest. Within Europe a series of Regios or Euroregions have been established around state borders which legitimize this level of cooperation. Outside of Europe, we see more informal aspects of cross-border community. The border between the United States and Mexico, for example, has long been an area where the two national cultures seem to blend together. Evidence of Mexican culture is particularly evident in those areas along the Rio Grande River, which play host to American born Latinos (some who have occupied the area for generations), new Mexican immigrants, and the Anglo population. This ‘MexAmerican’ region blends ethnicity, culture, and even national identity (see Figure 1). Landscape and Nationalism Within core regions, nationalism shines most vividly through the presence of distinctive landscape types. Such landscape elements reflect the changing nature of nationalism over time and the contested nature of particular nationalist symbols. Political geographers are always interested in how various attitudes, ideologies, thought processes are manifested spatially and tangibly. For instance, Edensor has produced an exhaustive list of different national elements as present in British everyday life. Along with such grand structures such as London’s Big Ben and the Tower Bridge, there are also elements like canals, fish and chip shops, hedgerows, and other elements that communicate Britishness in different and often changing ways. A fascinating study of nationalist monuments in Moscow asks how nationalist monuments constructed in one political era are dealt with in subsequent political eras. How does post-Soviet Russia handle monuments that were constructed during the Soviet period, and which in many cases were intended to legitimize and glorify a different and even derogated society? There are clear distinctions made between those monuments. Some glorify an aspect of nationalism that can be shared by all regardless of ideology. This would include many monuments to World War II heroes (see Figure 2) and to the ‘Great Patriotic War’ that transcends ideological dissonance. There are other monuments which have been disavowed, particularly those that speak to the glory of the Soviet economic system. And then there are those monuments which are contested: some groups, for example, still honor Nikolai Lenin whereas he symbolizes a discredited system to others. A similar level of ambivalence surrounds Japanese wartime monuments, especially the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo. Some Japanese still seek to glorify Japan’s imperial past and to honor the soldiers Nationalism 251 Figure 1 Charro Days, held annually in Brownsville, Texas has been held since 1938 and is intended to highlight the Mexican culture of the region. From http://www.pbase.com/lahuasteca/image/75245072. Figure 2 A photograph of the Victory Park monument in Moscow. Shows a monument to the Soviet effort in World War II that has been co-opted by the Russian and Moscow governments. From http://www.nterra.ru/ index.php?page ¼ 1&lang ¼ eng&path ¼ mos_id&id ¼ 46. who fought during World War II. Others see the shrine as an example of rampant militarism that has no place in the ideology of modern Japan. Landscape elements show up clearly between nationally distinct portions of a particular state. Many countries in the world, while appearing in some respects as singular entities, are in fact divided between different national groups and the territories they possess. When this occurs, these divisions are manifested by differences in the landscape, and often these differences have a lot to do with the particular goals and aspirations of national groups. The island country of Cyprus shows how this might work on the ground. While Cyprus has long been divided between Greek- and Turkish-speaking Cypriots, the separation before 1974 was more localized. In 1974, Cyprus was invaded by Turkey who carved out a distinct territory on the northern third of the island (see Figure 3). Greek Cypriots were forced to leave this territory, whereas Turkish Cypriots who lived south of the new partition line were enticed to move into much of the land vacated by the Greek Cypriot population in the northern third. Today the differences between these two areas are stark. For one thing, each section has been required to replicate institutions that at one point were shared by the entire country. Airports, roads, seaports, and other facilities are duplicated on both halves of the island. At the same time, landscape elements reflect separate nationalist objectives of Turkish and Greek Cypriots. For the Greek Cypriots their national goal is simply a reunification of the island dominated by the Greek-speaking population. They have not altered many 252 Nationalism United Nation buffer zone British sovereign bases Highway National water carrier Airports Dams and storages Refugee neighborhoods Port installations Power plant Kyrenia Turkish-Cypriot Area Lefka Nicosia Famagusta Verosha Dhekelia Trodos Mt. The Republic of Cyprus Larnaca Agia Napa Paphos Limassol Akrotiri Figure 3 Map of the Cyprus partition from Kliot, N. and Mansfield, Y. (1997). The political landscape of partition: The case of Cyprus. Political Geography 16, 495–521. aspects of the Turkish landscape, instead choosing to retain place names, monuments, and other types of elements that profess Cyprus’s continued biculturalism. Within the Turkish half of the island however, all Greek evidence has been eradicated. The notion is that here we have a new society, a Turkish Cypriot society, that is ethnically homogeneous in every way. And the landscape reflects that. Nationalism and Scale Geographic scale is particularly relevant to the phenomenon of national identity. National identities are nested to a considerable extent, such that a smaller identity may be contained within a larger identity and that identity may in turn be contained within a yet larger identity. This violates the political agenda of nationalism which demands absolute loyalty to a single national entity at a single geographic scale. However, political geographers have come to recognize that identity and loyalty operate in more complicated ways. Identities and loyalties at several spatial scales may operate harmoniously, but quite often they create tension and potential conflict. They may also be asymmetrical in the sense that the identity of one group may be at a different spatial scale than the identity of another group. The situation of Cyprus, mentioned above, is one example. Another example would be the ‘double vision’ in the spatial identities of East and West Germans at the height of the Cold War. Just as East Germany was seeking to reconstitute itself as a new, distinct nation, West Germany continued to adhere to an identity that included the East German territory, as well as onceGerman lands given over to Poland and the Soviet Union. This was not a case of aggression – eventual German unification was a peaceful process and all claims further east had ceased to be represented – but it does show the extent to which parts of a separated or partitioned country can evince starkly different spatial views. We can also see this happening in the case of many substate nationalisms that emerge in the world. It is estimated that there are some 5000 putative nations. Yet, there are only 200 or so states. That means that there are many potential national movements that have not been successful. One result of this can be a national separatist movement, in which a substate national group predominates within a particular territory and seeks to form their own state. In the case of Québec, this distinction in identities and in nationalist agendas is clearly apparent. Within the last 40–50 years, the French-Canadian population has become vested in the province of Québec itself. Before that, identity was much more fixed on religion and to some extent, language. Today, the province of Québec has assumed many of the functions of a Nationalism sovereign state. However, outright separatism has been stymied by the presence of several groups who would rather see Québec continue as part of Canada. Along with the ever diminishing Anglophone population and the substantial immigrant population, this includes populations of indigenous peoples. Ironically, these indigenous peoples have argued that, should Québec secede from Canada, they would secede from Québec. Such cases reflect challenges to nationalism emerging from a lower spatial scale. Then what of challenges that come from above? Globalization, for example, has led some scholars to describe the end of the nation-state. In light of the recurring importance of nationalism in people’s lives, this claim seems overblown. However, it is possible to conceive of how certain supranational entities that – while they may not supersede the significance of the nation-state – have the capacity to fundamentally transform it. Certainly, empires played that role in past ages, but these prevailed mostly in a prenationalist era. The best example of this within the modern world would be the development of the European Union. The idea of Europe includes national and local loyalties, but also promotes an overarching sense of European identity. While the European Union continues to grow and to assume more authority, it is still true that a majority of people in most member states feel far more identity with their country than with Europe as a whole. Yet the idea of Europe will continue to present at least a friendly challenge to the national identities and nationalisms contained within it. It may even facilitate the expression of a variety of substate nationalisms, which can flourish in a time when national sovereignty is weakened and when the European Union as a whole provides a protective umbrella for all manner of small nation-regions. Currency is a good way to reflect national sentiments, since it often presents the types of icons and symbols that the entire nation can feel proud of. Money puts a country in its best light. It is also part of what has been described as ‘banal nationalism’. So what of the euro, a symbol of nations agreeing to sublimate their monetary symbol to a higher organization? While the euro became the primary currency for most members of the European Union in 1999, it was only in 2002 that the euro entered everyday life in physical coins and bills. All members of the European Monetary Union exchange the same currency. However, the insignia on the individual coins and notes is customized for individual countries. While all euro coins and notes are able to circulate among all member states of the European Monetary Union, within each country most of the currency tends to bear the national insignia. In this way, the balance between supranational European identity and individual national identities are neatly manifested in a very common everyday object. 253 Conclusion Discussions of nationalism often involve debates regarding the nature of nationalism. Questions relate to defining nations and nationalism and whether nationalism emerged long before the present age or is a relatively new phenomenon. Categorizations of nationalism, from questions of a civic nationalism, to an ethnic nationalism, to the more pernicious forms of nationalism representing some of the worst excesses of our era, are also explored. An additional issue involves whether nationalism is a peculiarly ‘Western’ phenomenon that arose in Europe and which was then imposed on the rest of the world, or whether indigenous forms of nationalism outside of the West may be identified. These debates must be understood by geographers seeking to investigate nationalism and the websites listed below should help provide a good start to this broader investigation. This article focuses more on the particular contributions and concerns of political geographers – and these tend to revolve around how nationalism conceives of and manipulates space. Space is a vital aspect of nationalism, but is also quite problematic. This contrasts with the spatial nature of a political state. Political states are fixed, at least at a particular moment in time. A boundary is neatly marked and crossing is made difficult or easy depending on the political relations between the adjoining countries. There is usually a designated capital where the state apparatus is contained. In the case of nationalism there is no clear delimitation. National conceptions may be coterminous with the extent of the state – and nationalists may act as if the matter is settled – but nations are usually surrounded by much messier boundaries and contain land that is subject to a variety of different interpretations. The role of narratives, landscape elements, and such banal items as currency reflect these different conceptions. In fact, they are often introduced as a way to cement a preferred version of nationalism. Other symbols may be evoke a rival conception of nationalism, perhaps that of an unfulfilled national group. But because nationalism is something that stems ultimately inside peoples minds, its definition will always be fairly fluid. It has been the task of geography within the last 20 years or so to make sense of that fluidity and how it creates the national spaces we all must share. See also: Borderlands; Critical Geopolitics; Diaspora; Fatherland/Homeland; Geopolitics; Governmentality; Irredentism; Landscape Iconography; Nation; National Spatialities; Political Boundaries; Scale; Sovereignty; Territory and Territoriality. Further Reading Beck, J. M. (2006). Geopolitical imaginations of the Basque Homeland. Geopolitics 11, 507--528. 254 Nationalism Edensor, T. (2002). National Identity, Popular Culture and Everyday Life. Oxford: Berg. Forest, B. and Johnson, J. (2002). Unraveling the threads of history: Soviet era monuments and post-Soviet national identity and Moscow. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92, 524--547. Häkli, J. (2001). The politics of belonging: Complexities of identity in the Catalan borderland. Geografiska Annaler B 83B, 111--120. Herb, G. (2004). Double vision: Territorial strategies in the construction of national identities in Germany, 1949–1979. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94, 140--164. Herb, G. and Kaplan, D. (eds.) (1999). Nested Identities: Nationalism, Territory and Scale. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Kaiser, R. J. (2002). Homeland making and the territorialization of national identity. In Conversi, D. (ed.) Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and a Study of Nationalism. London: Routledge. Kaplan, D. (1994). Two nations in search of a state. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84, 585--606. Kedourie, E. (1960). Nationalism. London: Hutchinson. Kepka, J. and Murphy, A. (2002). Euroregions in comparative perspective. In Kaplan, D. & Häkli, J. (eds.) Boundaries and Place: European Borderlands in Geographical Context, pp 50--67. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Kliot, N. and Mansfield, Y. (1997). The political landscape of partition: The case of Cyprus. Political Geography 16, 495--521. Newman, D. (2001). From national to post national territorial identities in Israel–Palestine. Geojournal 53, 235--246. Paasi, A. (1996). Territories, Boundaries and Consciousness: The Changing Geographies of the Finnish–Russian Border. Chichester: Wiley. Raento, P. (2004). Striking stories: A political geography of Euro coinage. Political Geography 23, 929--956. Storey, D. (2001). Territory: The Claiming of Space. Harlow: Prentice-Hall. White, G. (2004). Nation, State, and Territory: Origins, Evolutions, Relationships, Vol. 1. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Relevant Websites http://www.fordham.edu Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Nationalism, Fordham, University (some good links and references). http://en.wikipedia.org Nationalism, Wikipedia (a comprehensive definition). http://www.tamilnation.org Tamil Nation and Beyond (for an interesting justification of how nationalism applies to this one group). http://www.nationalismproject.org The Nationalism project (the primary website on the topic). http://www.aag.org The Online Center for Global Geography Education, Association of American Geographers (course module on nationalism). Class will start at 1:10 Canadian Separatism Cont’d Canada’s Confederation Timeline Manitoba Northwest Territories Prince Edward Island 1870 1873 Alberta Saskatchewan Nunavut 1905 1999 1867 1871 1898 1949 New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Quebec British Columbia Yukon Newfoundland Canada’s Confederation Timeline Nation-states are always evolving  Centripetal forces: any factor that supports the internal unity of a country  Centrifugal forces: any factor that disrupts the internal unity of a country Questions to keep in mind:  What are the motivations for Canada as a nation-state to stay together/separate?  What are the motivations for individual provinces/territories to stay together/separate?  What are the motivations for Indigenous populations to stay within Canada/separate?  Political forces  Economic forces  Social forces Recap from last week Review Questions Centripetal Forces Political Economic Social/Cultural Centrifugal Forces Where else in Canada have there been talks of succession? The Domino Effect - Saskatchewan In the event of Quebec seceding from Canada: • Saskatchewan may have left Canada • Saskatchewan may have formed an alliance with Alberta and British Columbia to leave Canada • Saskatchewan may have joined the US Canada’s Confederation Timeline Manitoba Northwest Territories Prince Edward Island 1870 1873 Alberta Saskatchewan Nunavut 1905 1999 1867 1871 1898 1949 New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Quebec British Columbia Yukon Newfoundland Newfoundland - Atlantic Confederation Conferences  Newfoundland not invited to Charlottetown Conference (assumed to not be interested)  Newfoundland invited to Quebec Conference – but only as observers  By the time of the London Conference (confederation) – Newfoundland was fully on the outside  Pro-confederation government tried to negotiate inclusion, but the terms were not as good as for the other colonies Charles Fox Bennett Anti-confederation movement  Played on anti-French sentiment  Warned of high taxes  Fear of fighting far-off battles  Undermining local political control Pro-Confederation Movement World War II  Newfoundland key position for war in the Atlantic  US set up military bases  Canada didn’t like US interest – reopened negotiations for confederation Video Clip from :50 to 9:00  Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949….after a referendum that passed by 52% “Newfoundlanders think of themselves as Newfoundlanders first, and then, they suppose, Canadians…But you won’t find separatists in the bars of George Street. Canada doesn’t matter much to many Newfoundlanders. Canada is there like God might be there, sensed only when it brings harm.” Dawn Ray Downton Discussion Questions Centripetal Forces Political Economic Social/Cultural Centrifugal Forces Canada’s Confederation Timeline Manitoba Northwest Territories Prince Edward Island 1870 1873 Alberta Saskatchewan Nunavut 1905 1999 1867 1871 1898 1949 New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Quebec British Columbia Yukon Newfoundland Cascadia Pacific Northwest / Cascadia Video Clip 4:11 (whole thing) BC conflict  Vancouver Island Party secessionist movement wanting to separate from B.C. to become Canada’s 11th province in 2021 Discussion Questions Centripetal Forces Political Economic Social/Cultural Centrifugal Forces Canada’s Confederation Timeline Manitoba Northwest Territories Prince Edward Island 1870 1873 Alberta Saskatchewan Nunavut 1905 1999 1867 1871 1898 1949 New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Quebec British Columbia Yukon Newfoundland Western Regionalism  News clip Federal vs. Provincial Responsibilities Provincial Federal  defense  municipal government  foreign policy  education  interprovincial trade and communications  health  natural resources  property and civil rights  highways  currency  navigation  criminal law  citizenship Shared: agriculture and immigration Alberta Separatism Equalization and Transfer Payments Discussion Questions Centripetal Forces Political Economic Social/Cultural Centrifugal Forces Mid-term Logistics  Available Monday, Oct. 25 at 1pm  Due Wednesday, Oct. 27 at 1pm  You can take the mid-term alone or with a partner If you take it with a partner, put both names on mid-term, but only one submits  5 questions (answers 1-2 paragraphs in length) You will be expected to: Cite from readings Make connections between different course materials Analyze new examples using the tools from class Example  William Shatner Sings O Canada  (514) William Shatner Sings O Canada – YouTube  Watch first 4(ish) minutes  What is the story of Canada that Shatner is promoting?  How does this connect to other nation-building projects?  Why would this be promoted by the National Film Board and Canada’s Governor General? Links Newfoundland: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOAPmvE3UHk (:50-9) Cascadia: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wCHdb4lCcow Alberta historical: News clip (0-4:15) Alberta contemporary: (4:30) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwdJiSfzz9c Equalization: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXA0Mfz7ECw William Shatner sings O Canada https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tRTwPyIzY4A KEY CONCEPTS Previous Weeks This Week • Nation • Secessionism • Nationalism • Centripetal forces • White Settler Society • Centrifugal forces • Geographic Imaginaries S E C ESS I O N I S M : THE CASE OF QUEBEC S E C E S S I O N – W H AT I S I T ? Secession is a declaration of independence for part of a state's territory by a group present there; most secessionist movements are based on ethnic differences with the population of the rump or metropolitan state. -O’Loughlin, 2009 (In the case of Quebec, the term separatism is often used and implies a similar meaning to secessionism) N AT I O N S A N D S TAT E S A R E A L W AY S E V O LV I N G • Centripetal forces: any factor that supports the internal unity of a country • Centrifugal forces: any factor that disrupts the internal unity of a country FOCUS ON QUEBEC R AV E N S B E R G E N HODGINS Seven Years War (French and Indian War) War between the British and the French in North America 1754–1763 60,000 French settlers vs. 2 million British settlers A C A D I A N P O P U L AT I O N D E P O R TAT I O N O F A C A D I A N S T H E G R E AT U P H E AVA L • Expulsion of Acadians from New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island • No distinction was made between those who fought for France and those who were neutral • 11,500 of the 14,100 Acadians were deported (many died in the process) Monument to Acadians in Louisiana, USA LEARNING ABOUT THE A C A D I A N S AT S C H O O L T R E A T Y O F PA R I S - 1 7 6 3  New France becomes part of British Empire Royal Proclamation of 1763  New France becomes known as Province of Quebec 7 Y E AR S WAR R E ME MB E RE D BY D O R O T H Y C A M P B E L L ACT OF UNION - 1840 • Merged Upper Canada (southern Ontario) and Lower Canada (southern Quebec) • Main factors driving unification: • Upper Canada was near bankruptcy (lacked stable tax revenues) • Attempt to swamp the French vote by giving both provinces an equal number of seats in parliament – despite the larger population of Lower Canada C O N F E D E R AT I O N : 1 8 6 7 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec Factors leading to Confederation: • Political Factors • Great Britain viewed colonies as burden • Constant government crises in United Canada • Economic Factors • United Canada was in huge debt • Union of colonies would open more markets • Security Factors • Concern about US retribution for supporting the southern states in the civil war • Concern of US expanding interests • Factors related to the Railway • Needed more money A N T I - C O N F E D E R AT I O N SENTIMENT • Antoine-Aime Dorion, Liberal leader of Canada East (Quebec) • Concern over loss of independence of provinces • Concern that inclusion of Maritime colonies would be a financial burden • Concern that the senate could impede the will of the people by being able to block progressive legislation • Wrote a manifest in 1866 against confederation which was signed by representatives of 1/3 of ridings in Lower Canada • ‘Parti bleu’ – supported by the Catholic clergy – supported confederation and pushed it through. TENSIONS IN QUEBEC BUILDING OVER THE NEXT C E N T U RY … • Control of social life by the Catholic Church • Political marginalization • Economic marginalization • Most natural resources were owned by foreign investors • Profits mostly in hands of Anglos and/or shipped out of province TWO SOLITUDES “Northwest of Montreal, through a valley always in sight of the low mountains of the Laurentian Shield, the Ottawa River flows out of Protestant Ontario into Catholic Quebec.” Today: How do you make a million bucks? JUMP TO…THE QUIET REVOLUTION QUIET REVOLUTION (~1960’S) K E Y AT T R I B U T E S O F T H E QUIET REVOLUTION • Secularization of Quebec Society • Secularization of Education • Hydro-Quebec • Caisse de depots et placements • Quebec Feminism • Rise of Quebec Nationalism HOW DO YOU BANK? CHARLES DE GUALLE – 1967 “VIVE LE QUEBEC LIBRE!” GROWING SUPPORT FOR S E PA R A T I S M … • 1968 several separatist groups merged to form the Parti Québécois • 1970 Parti Québécois won 23% of the popular vote, translating to seven seats. RISING TENSIONS – OCTOBER CRISIS (1970) • Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) kidnapped British diplomat James Cross, as well as kidnapped and murdered Québec labour minister Pierre Laporte.  In response, the Canadian federal government under Trudeau instituted the War Measures Act, dispatching the army to the streets of Montréal in an attempt to increase security. This Act also, however, suspended civil liberties, allowing authorities to randomly arrest intellectuals, labour leaders and political activists S P E A K W H I T E T O D AY Q U E B E C : TA L K S O F SOVEREIGNTY 1970-80S • 1976: Parti Quebecois wins government in Quebec (71 of 110 seats) • Parti Quebecois Mandate: provide Quebecers with good government and then, during its first term, hold a referendum to obtain the mandate to begin negotiations on achieving the ultimate goal: sovereigntyassociation • The Threat of Isolation • More than half of the goods produced in Quebec were being exported • Industrial workers protected by customs and tariffs Q U E B E C : TA L K S O F SOVEREIGNTY 1980S Referendum Question on Sovereignty-Association • The Government of Quebec has made public its proposal to negotiate a new agreement with the rest of Canada, based on the equality of nations; this agreement would enable Quebec to acquire the exclusive power to make its laws, levy its taxes and establish relations abroad — in other words, sovereignty — and at the same time to maintain with Canada an economic association including a common currency; any change in political status resulting from these negotiations will only be implemented with popular approval through another referendum; on these terms, do you give the Government of Quebec the mandate to negotiate the proposed agreement between Quebec and Canada? • May 20, 1980: 40% voted yes, 60% voted no Quebec: Talks of Sovereignty 1990s • How things were different from the 1980 referendum • Quebecers were asked to authorize their government to achieve sovereignty • A bill defined in clear and simple terms the road map to sovereignty and the transition measures… delivered to all homes in Quebec Quebec: Talks of Sovereignty 1990s • October 30, 1995 • “Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership within the scope of the bill respecting the future of Quebec and of agreement signed on June 12, 1995” • 49.4% Yes, 50.6% No 1995 REFERENDUM REACTING TO THE REFERENDUM • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ztd8DRhvZP8 • Based on this video, how would you describe Parizeau’s perspective on Quebec sovereignty and what happened with the 1995 referendum? “MONEY AND ETHNIC VOTE” https://www.macleans.ca/politics/forget-sovereignty-a-new-political-divide-is-ready-to-split-queb https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/12/how-did-quebecs-nationalist-movementbecome-so-white https://www.cbc.ca/news/opinion/ethnic-nationalismquebec-1.3960340 WHO E LS E WAS L E FT OU T ? • Francophones in other parts of Canada • Indigenous groups GEOGRAPHIC IMAGINARIES R E I M A G I N I N G S E PA R AT I S M IN QUEBEC • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFsJfUZHUaM (3:10-5:47) TWO SOLITUDES?... OR THREE? OR MORE? THINGS TO THINK ABOUT… • What are historical examples of the Quebecois being made to feel like they were not a core part of the Canadian nation? • How do different institutions contribute to the construction of the idea of Quebecois nationalism? • How does (anglo-)Canadian nationalism get produced through institutions here in Ontario? KEY CONCEPTS Last Week This Week • Nation • Secessionism • Nationalism • Centripetal forces • White Settler Society • Centrifugal forces • Geographic Imaginaries LINKS • FLIP video • https:// www.dropbox.com/s/ulpve0ulor1ni0t/Failure%20Across%20Disciplines_Fall2021.mp4?dl=0 • Lea: • https://youtu.be/n41PHRFBshM • Referendum: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ztd8DRhvZP8 • Quebec Solidaire: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFsJfUZHUaM
Purchase answer to see full attachment