Walden University ScholarWorks Frank Dilley Award for Outstanding Doctoral Study University Awards 2011 A Summative Program Evaluation of a Systemic Intervention on Student Achievement and AP Participation Kristal Dawn Ayres Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dilley This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the University Awards at ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Frank Dilley Award for Outstanding Doctoral Study by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact ScholarWorks@waldenu.edu. Walden University COLLEGE OF EDUCATION This is to certify that the doctoral study by Kristal Ayres has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made. Review Committee Dr. Marlene Munn-Joseph, Committee Chairperson, Education Faculty Dr. Louis Milanesi, Committee Member, Education Faculty Dr. Michelle Brown, University Reviewer, Education Faculty Chief Academic Officer David Clinefelter, Ph.D. Walden University 2011 Abstract A Summative Program Evaluation of a Systemic Intervention on Student Achievement and AP Participation by Kristal Dawn Ayres M.Ed. in Reading Education, University of Central Florida, 1992 B.S. in Elementary Education, University of South Florida, 1989 Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education Administrative Leadership for Teacher Learning Walden University December 2011 Abstract Previous research demonstrates that a rigorous instructional environment positively impacts student achievement. Literature also documents that differential access to advanced curriculum is influenced by early development of core reading skills. A problem exists with enrollment patterns in the College Board’s Advanced Placement (AP) courses within a moderately sized school district where disproportionately low numbers of minority students enroll in AP courses. The district implemented the SpringBoard curriculum as a systemic intervention to address the need for more equitable enrollment within advanced courses; however, little empirical evidence exists to assess the efficacy of the program. Guided by evaluation theory, a summative program evaluation investigated to what extent standardized FCAT reading scores, AP participation rates, and AP performance scores increased over the 4 year implementation period of the SpringBoard curriculum when matched to a historical comparison group. Archival pre/post intervention data for 5,059 students were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and one-way ANOVA to test for a significant interaction between the intervention and minority status on student performance criteria. Results indicated significant intervention effects and group X minority status interactions for FCAT reading scores and AP participation. It was concluded that SpringBoard program goals were largely substantiated through this program evaluation. The study positively impacts social change through empirically validating programs designed to increase academic achievement and college participation among minority students. A Summative Program Evaluation of a Systemic Intervention on Student Achievement and AP Participation by Kristal Dawn Ayres MS in Education, University of Central Florida, 1992 BS, University of South Florida, 1989 Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education Administrative Leadership for Teacher Learning Walden University December 2011 UMI Number: 3487029 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI 3487029 Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 Dedication This capstone project is dedicated to my loving family who was patient with me during the doctoral journey process. Thank you to my husband, Jon, who provided the time that I needed to devote to the process and ensured that the family was cohesive and fully functional while I was obtaining this degree. I truly love, respect, and admire you for your unselfish actions and support. To my children, Tommy and Saira, thank you for your affection and encouragement as we did our homework together and became accountable to one another with the completion of our assignments. Hopefully, you are able to understand that perseverance is a necessary trait to obtain and possess in life. I love you very much and am grateful that we experienced this opportunity together. Furthermore, I appreciate the love, care, consideration, and support of my parents as well. Thank you for raising me with the knowledge that all things are possible through our Lord, Jesus Christ and that all of my dreams and aspirations can be fulfilled with determination, hard work, and self-assurance. You are the wind beneath my wings. I love you all very much and appreciate the unselfishness of your actions that allowed me to focus on one of my aspirations. I am forever grateful to all of you. Acknowledgements I am indebted to my committee members for their dedication and commitment to my doctoral journey. First, I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my amazing methodologist. Dr. Milanesi rescued this damsel in distress while at residency over one year ago. You listened to my project study and were able to envision the quantitative analyses necessary to conduct this program evaluation. Truly, you have been the captain of my ship and navigated me through unchartered waters with precision. Thank you, O’ Captain My Captain, for steering this vessel towards the completion of this doctoral study and inspiring me to fulfill my passion for educational research. I immensely appreciate the generosity of your time, as you spent hundreds of hours educating me in utilizing the SPSS software to input, export, analyze, and report the findings. Thank you for listening when I was frustrated and finding solutions to every obstacle. Without your expertise, this study would not have been possible. Dr. Marlene Munn-Joseph has been a tremendous asset with all aspects of the project study. Thank you, Dr. Munn-Joseph for the numerous hours that you spent reading through the literature review and providing direction, focus, and clarity. I appreciate your willingness to talk on the phone and provide thoughtful contributions for each section, so that the study was on target. I am grateful for your guidance, leadership, and patience with me as I pursued this expedition at a rapid pace. Additionally, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Michelle Brown, my URR committee member. You provided phenomenal feedback with each review that guided and narrowed the study with meticulous precision. Your expertise and suggestions assisted me in refining and enhancing the study. With your proficiency, we were able to move this study throughout the various stages of the process in a short period of time. Table of Contents List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii Section 1: The Problem… ....................................................................................................1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................1 Definition of the Problem ..............................................................................................2 Rationale ........................................................................................................................3 Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level ........................................................... 3 Evidence of the Problem from the Professional Literature ..................................... 4 Definitions......................................................................................................................6 Significance of the Problem ...........................................................................................8 Guiding/Research Question .........................................................................................15 Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................17 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 18 Historical Context ................................................................................................. 21 Students at Risk..................................................................................................... 23 Advanced Placement ............................................................................................. 29 SpringBoard .......................................................................................................... 31 Programs with Similar Approaches ...................................................................... 34 Equivalent Programs to Advanced Placement ...................................................... 36 Instructional Strategies.......................................................................................... 39 High School Connections to Create AP Access ................................................... 41 i Instructional Delivery, Intelligence, and Multicultural Education ....................... 43 Implications..................................................................................................................48 Summary ......................................................................................................................48 Section 2: The Methodology..............................................................................................50 Introduction ..................................................................................................................50 Research Design and Approach ..................................................................................51 Description of the Setting and Sample.........................................................................53 Instrumentation and Materials .....................................................................................56 Data Collection and Analysis.......................................................................................58 Assumptions.................................................................................................................62 Limitations ...................................................................................................................62 Scope ..........................................................................................................................63 Delimitations ................................................................................................................63 Limitations of the Evaluation.......................................................................................64 Participant Protection ...................................................................................................64 Descriptive and Correlational Analyses.......................................................................65 Analyses of Middle School ................................................................................... 65 Analyses of High School ..................................................................................... 70 Inferential Analyses .....................................................................................................82 Preliminary Analyses for First Hypothesis Testing .............................................. 83 Inferential Analyses for Hypothesis #1 ................................................................ 89 Preliminary Analyses for Second Hypothesis Testing.......................................... 95 ii Inferential Analyses for Hypothesis #2 ................................................................ 95 Inferential Analyses for Hypothesis #3 .............................................................. 106 Summary of Analyses ......................................................................................... 112 Section 3: The Project ..................................................................................................... 114 Introduction ................................................................................................................114 Description of Project ..........................................................................................114 Goals ........................................................................................................................115 Rationale of Project Genre ...............................................................................................116 Rationale of Problem .......................................................................................................117 Review of Literature ........................................................................................................118 Analysis of Research and Theory about Project Genre .......................................118 Analysis of How Research and Theory Supports Project ...................................121 Resources, Supports, Barriers .............................................................................125 Proposal for Implementation ...............................................................................126 Roles and Responsibilities ..................................................................................127 Project Evaluation Plan ....................................................................................................128 Type of Evaluation ..............................................................................................128 Justification .........................................................................................................129 Goals of the Project .............................................................................................129 Evaluation of the Goals .......................................................................................130 Stakeholders ........................................................................................................130 Implications .....................................................................................................................131 iii Social Change .....................................................................................................131 Local Stakeholder and Larger Context ...............................................................132 Section 4: Reflections and Conclusions ..........................................................................136 Project's Strengths in Addressing the Problem ....................................................136 Project's Weaknesses in Addressing the Problem ...............................................136 Recommendations ...............................................................................................137 What was Learned About Scholarship ................................................................138 What was Learned About Project Development and Evaluation ........................138 What was Learned About Leadership and Change .............................................139 What was Learned About Being a Scholar ..........................................................140 What was Learned About Being a Practitioner ...................................................141 What was Learned About Being a Project Developer .........................................142 Reflection on the Importance of the Work .........................................................143 Implications, Application, Directions for Future Research ................................144 References ........................................................................................................................147 Appendix A: Evaluation Report ......................................................................................170 Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................237 iv List of Tables Table 1. National and Local Population Percentages ........................................................54 Table 2. Mean Reading Scores by Condition Groups for Eighth Grade ...........................66 Table 3. Mean Reading Scores by Ethnic Groups Eighth Grade .......................................68 Table 4. Pearson Correlation Between Condition Codes for Eighth Grade ......................69 Table 5. Mean Reading Scores by Experimental Condition Groups for 12th Grade ........71 Table 6. Mean Reading Scores by Ethnic Groups for 12th Grade.....................................73 Table 7. Pearson Correlation Between Condition Codes for 12th Grade ..........................74 Table 8. Number of AP Courses for FY10 12th Graders by Condition Code ...................75 Table 9. Mean AP Performance Scores for FY10 12th Graders by Condition Code ........77 Table 10. Number of AP Courses for 11th Graders by Condition Code ...........................79 Table 11. Mean AP Performance Scores for FY10 11th Graders by Condition Code ......................................................................................................................81 Table 12. Tests of Normality for Condition Codes and Grade Levels ..............................88 Table 13. Means of Condition Code, Minority Status and Grade Levels ..........................89 Table 14. Multivariate Tests for FCAT Scores, Gender, Minority, and Condition Code ......................................................................................................................91 Table 15. Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for FCAT, Gender, Minority Status, and Condition Code ...............................................................................................93 Table 16. Tests of Between Subject Effects ......................................................................94 Table 17. Number of AP Courses by Grade, Minority Status, and Condition Code .......102 Table 18. Multivariate Tests for AP Participation, Minority and Condition Code..........102 v Table 19. Within Subject Tests of AP Participation, Minority Status, and Condition Code ....................................................................................................103 Table 20. Tests of Between Subject Effects for AP Participation, Minority Status, and Condition Code .............................................................................................103 Table 21. Multivariate Tests for Junior and Senior AP Participation ..............................104 Table 22. Within Subject Tests of Junior and Senior AP Participation ...........................105 Table 23. Independent Samples t Test and Condition Code ............................................111 vi List of Figures Figure 1. Histogram of fifth grade FCAT scores with condition codes.............................84 Figure 2. Histogram of sixth grade FCAT scores with condition codes ...........................85 Figure 3. Histogram of seventh grade FCAT scores with condition codes .......................86 Figure 4. Histogram of eighth grade FCAT scores with condition codes .........................87 Figure 5. AP participation of ninth grade by minority status ............................................96 Figure 6. AP participation of 10th grade by minority status..............................................96 Figure 7. AP participation of 11th grade by minority status..............................................97 Figure 8. AP participation of 12th grade by minority status..............................................97 Figure 9. Total AP participation of ninth through 12th grades by minority status ............98 Figure 10. AP performance for ninth grade by condition code .......................................107 Figure 11. AP performance for 10th grade by condition code ........................................107 Figure 12. AP performance for 11th grade by condition code ........................................108 Figure 13. AP performance for 12th grade by condition code ........................................108 Figure 14. Junior and senior AP performance patterns....................................................109 vii 1 Section 1: The Problem Introduction One of the most unrelenting challenges confronting higher education nationally and locally is college participation among racial minority groups (U. S. Census Bureau, 2010). Florida’s population has diversified over the past 2 decades. In 1980, the total population comprised 14.7% racial minority subgroups; in 2010, these subgroups were 37% of the total population (United States Census Bureau 2010). Theoretically, educational programs should reflect similar enrollment statistics. However, according to Spencer (2006), because minority students are historically placed in lower ability tracks than majority students in high school, they are unprepared to successfully participate in college. According to the Florida Department of Education (2010), a disproportionate number of minority students are enrolled in the rigorous courses of Advanced Placement (AP); statistically, fewer than expected racial minority students are participating in AP courses. The numbers of AP tests have increased, the scores on the AP tests have increased, but the participation rate among minority and majority students continues to be disproportionate and exposes a racial gap for minority students’ involvement in taking AP courses (Supiano, 2008). Minority student enrollment in advanced course work and college is a national issue because education is correlated with socioeconomic status (SES; Delgado, 2006). SES describes an individual’s or family’s hierarchical ranking. Unequal representation in AP among minority students directly effects student achievement and may have future socioeconomic implications for the minority subgroups 2 because college graduates have more earning potential (Forsyth & Furlong, 2000). Additionally, college acceptance and degree attainment are affected among minority students who do not participate in AP courses, which may impact social mobility (Pizzolato, Podobnik, Chaudhari, Schaeffer, & Murrell, 2008). Although college participation has increased among minority students, significant disparities still remain regarding college readiness and enrollment. College readiness pertains to the specific skills needed to be successful in postsecondary education (Conley, 2007). Therefore, improving college readiness skills in urban high school students is imperative in obtaining higher college participation rates among low income and minority students (Vang, 2005). A central strategy to improve college readiness is to ensure students leave high school with the academic skills needed to be successful in postsecondary education, meaning obtaining high test scores, achieving superior grades, and engaging rigorous coursework (Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009). In this first section, the problem at the local level is defined and rationales for the steps taken are presented. Also provided is a review of professional literature addressing minority student academic achievement and AP participation. Definition of the Problem Currently, the school district under study has a 60% racial minority enrollment population of Hispanic, African American, and Haitian students and a 40% racial majority enrollment of European American students district wide. However, only 47.4% of the racial minority enrollment is enrolled in AP courses compared with 52.6% of the 3 racial majority (College Board, 2010).There exists a problem with cultural diversity in AP enrollment in a moderate sized school district in southwest Florida as there is a limited number of racial minority students in high school AP classes in the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades across this district. This discrepancy results in a disproportionate number of racial minority students as compared with the number of European American students engaging in the complex, rigorous coursework of AP. The school district implemented a curriculum called SpringBoard, produced by the College Board, to address the need of cultural diversity in high school AP courses. SpringBoard is a comprehensive school reform model for grades 6 through 12 to improve student achievement with diverse populations. The program vertically aligns the curriculum to college standards for success in an effort to increase access for all students, beginning as early as sixth grade (Delgado, 2006). A summative program evaluation will investigate to what extent academic achievement, AP participation rates, and AP test scores increased among racial minority students over the 4 year implementation period of the SpringBoard curriculum. Rationale Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level The number of minority students is limited in 10th, 11th, and 12th grade AP classes across this southwest Florida school district. Historically in this district, AP courses were only offered to those students who scored at the highest levels on the reading section of the state assessment. Teachers and guidance counselors traditionally decided how many students and which students were permitted to take part in AP. The 4 paradigm shifted to allow more students AP access when state government initiatives commanded public attention and funding to be directed to increase minority student participation in AP programs in order to meet annual yearly progress and narrow achievement gaps. Then the educational policy, No Child Left Behind (NCLB), was implemented in this district to ensure appropriate strategies were utilized to increase access for all students into advanced course pathways toward college and career readiness. Promoting minority student success is a national problem and numerous initiatives are in place to address the need to reform current educational practices in order to meet the needs of all students. For example, the National Assessment of Educational Progress has documented the differences in academic achievement among minorities compared to their majority counter parts. Likewise, the National Task Force on Minority High Achievement researched and reported that achievement scores diverge as students proceed through school. The United States Commission on Civil Rights (2004) reported that there are marked disparities in the educational outcomes for Black and White students; Black students do not score as well on standard measures of achievement used in schools as compared to their White counterparts. In another study, the National Center for Education Statistics (2004) reported that White students surpass Black students in educational access, achievement, and attainment. Evidence of the Problem from the Professional Literature Racial minority students’ participation in AP, as well as their scores, is disproportionate to the racial majority counterparts (College Board, 2009; Klopfenstein, 5 2004). The College Board (2008) compared graduating students by race to the percentage of students who took AP exams and found a divergence. Specifically, the African American students were underrepresented by 50% (Whiting & Ford, 2009). Likewise, a study was conducted by Ndura, Robinson, and Ochs (2003) that found inequity exists in AP enrollment of racial minority students, and Hispanic student participation was significantly lower than European American students in the district of this study. Over the years, the federal government has allocated to states millions of dollars for minority and low SES students to fund AP exam fees, to support professional development, and to provide instructional resources; however, majority students are still enrolled in AP at twice the rate as minority students (Klopfenstein, 2004). Additionally, across the nation, educators are assisting more students to experience AP, but minority students are still underrepresented (College Board, 2009). Access to AP courses impact educational outcomes for minority students as well as admittance to attend college (Solorzano & Ornelas, 2004). For example, students who complete AP courses in high school are prepared for college course work and receive financial and admissions considerations when applying to colleges (Moore & Slate, 2008). Improving college access and readiness for low income and minority students is imperative; therefore, increasing underrepresented students’ enrollment in AP classes is essential (Ndura et al., 2003). Both majority and minority students should engage in rigorous curriculum involving higher order thinking to be prepared to participate in AP courses and succeed in college or a career. 6 Definitions The following terms and phrases are defined as used in this study. Advanced Placement (AP): AP is the College Board’s official rigorous academic program providing students with the opportunity to learn and earn credit on the college level, offering 34 courses and exams (College Board, 2009, p. 3). AP participation rate: The rate is calculated by the total number of students who took at least one AP exam divided by the total number of seniors (Florida Department of Education, 2010). For purposes of this study, the rate is calculated by the total number of students who took at least one AP exam within a given population segment divided by the total number of students within that sample segment. Academic achievement: For the purpose of this project, academic achievement is defined by student increases on the annual state assessment (Florida Department of Education, 2010). Challenge index: The index represents the total number of AP exams taken divided by the total number of seniors (Florida Department of Education, 2010). College readiness: College readiness is defined as: “The level of preparation a student needs in order to enroll and succeed, without remediation, in a credit-bearing general education course at a postsecondary institution” (Conley, 2007, p.4). College readiness is operationalized in this study by students engaging in rigorous coursework, such as AP, to be able to succeed in postsecondary education. English language learners (ELL): The term English language learner (ELL) refers to a person whose primary language is one other than English and who is in the process 7 of acquiring English (Vang, 2005, p. 9). ELL is operationalized in the study as students whose first language is not English. Exceptional student education (ESE): Exceptional student education programs offer students with disabilities an appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (Freedman, 2000). Inclusion: The term inclusion means that the ESE student has “100% placement in age appropriate general education class or a range of learning opportunities both within and outside of the general education classroom” (Berry, 2006, p.489). Special education: “Highly specialized and individualized academic instruction to promote growth in skills and content area in response to a cognitive impairment that has a demonstrable negative impact on academic achievement” (Krezmien, Mulcahy, & Leone, 2008, p.445). Special education is operationalized in the study as students that have an individualized education plan in order to provide accommodations towards academic success within the educational environment. Socioeconomic status: The SES of a family is the economic measurement based on income levels, parent education, and social status within the community. “SES describes an individual’s or a family’s ranking on a hierarchy according to access to or control over some combination of valued commodities such as wealth, power, and social status” (Mueller & Parcel, 1981, p. 13). In this study, the indirect measure of household income as partial assessment of SES as operationalized by the free/reduced lunch status code is applied to the socioeconomic status of participants. 8 Significance of the Problem A gap exists between minority students of various ethnicities and majority students in participation with advanced courses, thereby affecting earning a college degree. According to The Pathways to College Network (2010), more than one third of European American students have a bachelor’s degree but only about 18% of African American students and 10% of Hispanic students have one. Social mobility and the median income for families are affected and directly impacted when minorities do not earn postsecondary degrees. According to Flowers (2008), Americans without college degrees may have lower earning power and job opportunities, may contribute far less in taxes, and may impose a net fiscal burden on society. SES and the level of educational completion are related; therefore, a concentrated effort needs to be sustained to increase minority enrollment into higher education through access to the rigorous curriculum opportunities students need to participate while in high school to be college ready. The median income for families are affected and directly impacted when minorities do not earn postsecondary degrees (Jodry, Robles-Pina, & Nichter, 2005). Federal initiatives have been implemented to create programs in order to retain minorities in the educational system in part because of the correlation with social mobility. According to Roderick et al. (2009), addressing the gap between ambitions and college completion is one of the most disturbing problems in education today. Significant gaps by race and ethnicity are present in the areas of high test scores, good grades, and rigorous coursework that align with the college standards for success. 9 Underrepresentation of minorities in advanced programs negatively affects the lives and future of minority students, school districts, communities, states, and the nation. For example, students who are unprepared for college must enroll in remedial courses. Students do not earn college credits while enrolled in remedial courses, but they are required to pay the college per credit hour fee for the course, causing additional financial burdens. Additionally, students taking remedial courses have a higher probability of leaving college without earning a degree (College Board, 2008). Ford (2010) stated that this problem hinders the ability of the United States to compete and thrive globally. The data from the United States Census Bureau (2005) indicated there was a disproportionate representation of minority students ages 18 through 24 who were enrolled in higher education: 60% of Asians, 42.8% of European Americans, 32.7% of African Americans, and 24.8% of Hispanics. The College Board (2007) specified that students can be successful and enroll in higher education when they participate in the rigorous curriculum of AP courses. Districts must permit access and equity for all students to have the opportunity to engage in quality curriculum that promotes the skills necessary for college readiness (Conley, 2007). Additionally, students must explicitly be taught academic behaviors such as time management, metacognition, study skills, and stress management, which usually occurs in advanced courses. Conley (2007) emphasized that prioritizing to succeed and sustain advanced coursework and to develop these skills is instrumental to be successful in postsecondary education. The percentage of minority students attending colleges is increasing according to Minorities in Higher Education 22nd Annual Status Report (2006) released in the 10 American Council on Education; however, the report documented that minorities still fall behind their European American peers in college participation. The high school graduation report during the years of 2002 through 2004 stated that 87.6% European American, 77.8% African American, and 64.4% Hispanic students successfully earned a high school diploma. Additionally, 47.3% European American, 41.1% African American, and 35.2% Hispanic students attended college. These results imply that there are a disproportionate number of minority students as compared to majority students that are graduating high school and attending college. The core essential strategy to improve college access must be to ensure students leave high school with the academic skills needed to be successful in postsecondary education: high test scores, better grades, more rigorous coursework, improved study skills, and college knowledge (Conley, 2007). Success for learning and academic achievement depends upon the level of student engagement, that is the effort related to interaction with faculty and peers, participation in active learning environments, and amount of time students study and use college resources (Greene, Marti, & McClenney, 2008). All of these factors can be taught and achieved through systematic instruction. The rigor of the high school curriculum indicates the extent to which students will have access and sustainability in college; therefore, it is imperative that all students have equal access to advanced curriculum and experience curricular intensity to increase the probability of minority students entering and completing college (Attewell & Domina, 2008). Curriculum intensity is shown to have a positive correlation to high school test scores that allow admittance into college. Reformers have called on schools to upgrade 11 their content, so that the curriculum is more demanding of the students. Positive outcomes of rigorous curriculum include higher test scores, college access, higher admittance into college, improved skills, and positive self-esteem (Attewell & Domina, 2008; Carter, 2006; Dolan, 2007; Greene et al., 2008; Roderick et al., 2009; The College Board, 2009). Upgrading high school curriculum to meet the requirements of college entrance is a significant factor towards student achievement. Within the instructional environment, high school teachers and counselors need to do a better job of communicating college expectations to all of their students. Students need to know what will be expected of them to be successful in college level work. According to Venezia and Kirst (2005), parents of low SES students often do not understand college expectations with admission requirements; therefore, schools should provide parent education regarding the college procedural processes. High school students need to understand the procedures necessary to be accepted into college, the placement testing conducted upon arrival to college, and the skills needed to sustain and succeed in college (Carter, 2006; Conley, 2007; Dolan, 2007; Roderick et al., 2009). Furthermore, tracking of students into different ability groups that offer various levels of preparation for college is inequitable in terms of SES, race, and ethnicity, and determines whether or not students have the confidence or not to attend college (Venezia & Kirst, 2005). These practices lead to achievement gaps and performance gaps among the various subgroups. Major academic achievement gaps exist among low socioeconomic students, English language learners, and minority student due to unequal access to educational 12 opportunities such as highly qualified teachers and rigorous curriculum (Leach & Williams, 2007). Problems of inequality need to be addressed in order for all children to receive equal education and access to quality curriculum. Achievement gaps negatively impact students and their families and can influence dropout and graduation rates, college attainment, and future SES depending on level of school completion. Educational inequalities have not disappeared since Brown vs. Board of Education simply because of desegregation. In fact, segregation occurs within the context of the school environment through tracking students based on perceived ability levels. Achievement gaps are prevalent when equating dropout rates, AP participation, honors participation, gifted identification, and college admittance (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Inequality still prevails in the 21st century and should be addressed for social change to occur. One predominant viewpoint is that because schools in the United States are not segregated, education is equal for all students; therefore, the students are accountable if they are underachieving (Darling-Hammond, 1998). This argument does not account for the achievement gap described as the educational debt by Ladson-Billings (2006), whereby this country does not invest money and resources on the education of low SES students but instead devotes money toward paying for the ongoing social problems that accrue from poorly educated people (e.g. crime, welfare, delinquency). If resources were allocated to reduce the educational debt then the achievement gap could be closed (Landson-Billings, 2006). The achievement gap can be viewed as the educational debt that needs to be paid to minority communities. 13 The NCLB policy was established to promote educational equality by holding every school responsible for the yearly academic progress and achievement of all students (Forrest, 2004). Positive and negative ramifications occurred as a result of the policy; however, the intent of the policy was to make explicit that it is unacceptable to lower expectations for any children, that there should be an expectation that all students can learn, and that states must demonstrate whether or not every child is learning. According to Katsinas and Bush (2006), society must focus on factors, methods, and strategies that can increase opportunities for minorities and the poor to acquire equal educational opportunities for these students to be able to flourish. The achievement gap between minority and majority students is related the academic achievement through student engagement and course placement. Educational inequality is still present because performance and attainment are disproportionate among majority and minority students (Carbonaro, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Lleras, 2008; Mickelson, 2003). There are numerous reasons presented by researchers as to the causes of the achievement gap. Some possible reasons discussed in the literature include low expectations, large class size, ineffectual leadership, unqualified teachers, and poorly constructed curriculum offerings (Carbonaro, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Rothsetin, 2004). According to Lleras (2008), three main relationships exist that contribute to the achievement gap: tracking, course placement, and effort. Students who are placed on a lower educational track will not have the prerequisites necessary to be enrolled in 14 advanced high school courses; therefore, tracking of students leads to a greater educational gap. Additionally, there is a correlation between advanced classes and academic achievement: more material is covered at an advanced level with high quality instruction, thus enrollment in challenging classes has a substantial influence on achievement. The third area pertains to student effort as students must engage with their materials and the educators presenting the course. Student effort and motivation are tied to academic achievement (Nichols, White, & Price, 2006). If students are placed within lower educational tracks, then the likelihood of getting out of the regular or remedial track to have access to courses such as AP in the advanced track is improbable. Darling-Hammond (1998) established reasons for the achievement gap predominately pertaining to equitable access and ascertained that problems of inequality must be addressed and dismembered in order for all children to receive an equal education and access to quality curriculum. Students increase academically when educated in small schools (300 to 500 students), have small class sizes, and receive rigorous curriculum from highly qualified teachers. Many minority students are placed in lower ability classes that have large class sizes, low-quality curriculum, and teachers who may not be considered highly qualified. Teacher expertise, the extent in which they have their licenses and degrees, is the most distinct significant factor toward increasing student achievement (Darling-Hammond, 1998). Unequal access to educational opportunities such as highly qualified teachers and rigorous curriculum has a greater impact on achievement and contribute more to the achievement gap than the color of a person’s skin and SES. 15 Guiding/Research Question The school district implemented a curriculum called SpringBoard, produced by the College Board, to address the need of cultural diversity in high school AP courses. SpringBoard is a comprehensive school reform model to improve student achievement with diverse populations (Delgado, 2006). The program was developed as a pre-AP program based on the National College Board Standards for College Success with the mission to connect all students to college success and opportunity through an engaging, relevant, rigorous curriculum (Poston et al., 2010). According to The College Board (2009), the objectives of SpringBoard are to increase the level of rigor, accelerate learning, close the achievement gap, and prepare students for AP, college, and careers. The guiding question is whether or not the implementation of SpringBoard has achieved results in raising the level of academic rigor to prepare students in this district to be successful in college. Additionally,the study seeks to examine if there has been an increase in diversity enrollment within AP classes in this district. The research design used for this study is a quantitative summative program evaluation. Although program evaluations utilize a mixed methods research design, for the purpose of this project, only the quantitative components will be employed for the project analysis. A program evaluation will be used to ascertain the extent that the proposed outcomes of increasing academic achievement, increasing cultural diversity in AP classes, and increasing AP test scores with the minority populations occurred over the 4 year period of SpringBoard implementation in one school district. 16 Although numerous factors contribute to the lack of minority student enrollment into AP courses: teacher expectations, student motivation and self- perception, parental support, language barriers, English Language Learner (ELL) implementation, and cultural bias in the classroom, only the SpringBoard curriculum evaluated. The intervention was evaluated to determine the effectiveness in regard to increased student achievement, increased participation in AP, and increased AP test scores among minority student populations from one school district. The data presented will display academic achievement as measured on the state assessment and AP participation rates and scores as reported from The College Board. No causal inferences were made. The research questions guiding this study investigate to what extent academic achievement increased, AP participation rates increased, and AP test scores increased among racial minority students over the 4 year implementation period of the SpringBoard curriculum in one school district. Multiple hypotheses operationalized these questions by tracking SpringBoard’s impact on reading scores on the state assessment, AP participation rates, and AP test scores. The hypotheses are as follows: H11: There will be an increase in minority student academic achievement, as measured by the annual state reading assessment, throughout the 4 years of SpringBoard implementation. H01: There will be no increase in minority student academic achievement, as measured by the annual state reading assessment, throughout the 4 years of SpringBoard implementation. 17 H22: There will be an increase in minority student enrollment in AP throughout the 4 years of SpringBoard implementation. H02: There will be no increase in minority student enrollment in AP throughout the 4 years of SpringBoard implementation. H33: There will be an increase in minority student AP performance throughout the 4 years of SpringBoard implementation, measured by AP student grades retained in the district’s Data Warehouse. H03: There will be no increase of minority student AP performance throughout the 4 years of SpringBoard implementation, as measured by AP student grades retained in the district’s Data Warehouse. My assumptions are that a rigorous curriculum can increase academic achievement and enrollment in AP courses. Students that engage in rigorous coursework will have academic gains thereby permitting access and success in AP courses. The positive outcomes associated with students participating in pre-AP and then AP curriculum pertains to social mobility opportunities, as students receive college credit as a result of passing AP exams. Review of the Literature The academic practices being implemented in today’s classrooms reflect an instructional environment that is not meeting the academic needs of all students (College Board, 2010). Weak instructional environments are a national issue (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2009). Achievement gaps occur predominantly among minority 18 students because instructional environments are lacking for a variety of reasons (Greene et al., 2008; Roderick et al., 2009). To better understand the problem surrounding the educational advancement of minority students into courses such as AP to attain college and career readiness, a review of literature was conducted that included information on AP access and instructional environments conducive to the academic success of minority students. Additionally, an analysis regarding the historical context revealed the timeline of events leading up to current studies and a critical review of research documents occurred until saturation was reached. The strategies used to search for literature included the Internet and the use of the Walden University online library data bases of ERIC, Education Research Complete, Education: a SAGE full-text database, ProQuest Central, and Academic Search Premier. Searches were conducted around instructional environments of minorities using keywords such as advanced placement, college readiness, advanced initiatives, minority education, teacher bias, culture, learning styles, inequality, gifted, special education, instructional environments, and advanced programs; additionally, resources were downloaded from the Walden Library online site or from the Internet. Conceptual Framework The difference between program evaluation and research is that program evaluations are conducted for decision-making purposes, whereas research is used to inform practice (Spaulding, 2008).The conceptual framework for this study is based on the progressive logic model of the program evaluation theory. The researcher using the 19 logic model ensures that all stakeholders have the same understanding about the objectives and goals of the evaluated program before the investigation commences (Helitzer et al., 2010; Renger & Titcomb, 2002). The goals and objectives are identified, the problem is stated, and then the evaluation provides formative feedback based on the outcomes of the study. The intervention associated with this project study stems from the cognitive learning theory. Therefore, the concentration described in this section explains the conceptual framework around the intervention. Tolman, Vygotsky, Piaget, and James are the seminal researchers associated with the cognitive learning theory. Tolman (1925) is associated with the cognitive learning theory through the construct of goal seeking; that is, the motivation to obtain a goal results in cognition. Consequently, human learning is acquired through this goal setting (purpose) process and desire to achieve a goal. Additionally, the other three theorists: Vygotsky, Piaget, and James are associated with the cognitive learning theory through the constructs of metacognition and self-regulation (Fox & Riconscente, 2008). Metacognition is thinking about one’s own thinking process and self-regulation is the act of planning and adapting personal goals (Fox & Riconscente, 2008). According to these three cognitive theorists, learning and development occur as a result of self- regulation of behavior and understanding one’s own thinking processes (Piaget, 1976; Vygotsky, 1981). The intervention for this project study is the SpringBoard curriculum, which is based on the cognitive learning theory, assuming students engage to a greater extent with 20 curriculum that meets a variety of learning styles and is relevant to today’s world and future professional environments (Delgado, 2006; Poston et al., 2010). The principles of SpringBoard are based upon a strategic learning instructional framework (Poston et al., 2010, p. 13); that is, new information is built on prior knowledge, students are actively engaged and have ownership of their learning, and instruction is delivered according to strategic approaches within various learning styles. The instructional design engages students in challenging learning experiences that combine rigorous coursework with formative assessments (Matos-Elefonte & Li, 2010; Westat, 2008). The goal of SpringBoard is to prepare all students with the skills necessary to be successful in AP and in college, without remediation (Matos-Elefonte & Li, 2010). Memory and language are integral components of cognitive learning and are key components in the learning processes associated with the SpringBoard curriculum (Delgado, 2006; Poston et al., 2010). The instruction is provided to students around learning goals and strategic learning processes to create numerous associations for long term memory. Additionally, the use of language involves the modalities of reading, writing, listenting, and speaking. Active learning takes place through cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies to enhance acquisition of essential skills and abilities necessary for academic success (Matos-Elefonte & Li, 2010; Poston et al., 2010; Westat, 2008). Therefore, students engaging in SpringBoard encounter memory and language components that are effective with their learning goals. 21 Historical Context Historically, instructional environments were different between minority and majority students; therefore, court cases arose in the late 1800s regarding educational equity. In 1849, Benjamin Roberts filed a lawsuit on behalf of his daughter. She was denied admittance to a nearby public school in her neighborhood because of the segregation policy placed in affect within the state of Massachusetts (Feagin, 2004). Benjamin Roberts was a parent that challenged the educational system because the instructional environment was not beneficial toward necessary learning for his daughter, and the resources allocated were imbalanced compared to the resources in the White schools. Although Roberts argued for equal learning environments with trained teachers and equitable resources, the Supreme Court judge ruled that segregation was the best solution to obtain optimal learning environments among both races. Another major court case involving equality and equity for minority students was in the1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson in Louisiana. The case questioned if racial segregation was unconstitutional according to the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. The Court ruled that the state law of separate facilities for Blacks and Whites satisfied the 14th Amendment and was constitutional citing the “separate but equal” doctrine (IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law, 2010). Public schools and colleges were separate for students of color, and schools were unequal with the quality of education, curriculum, class sizes, funding allocations, and amenities. Marshall, the NAACP legal advisor, and other NAACP attorneys assembled lawsuits from around the country to be used collectively regarding the unequal education, 22 and on May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled unanimously that “separate but equal” should not be applied to the education of students in the law suit case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (Jones & Hancock, 2005; Spencer, 2006). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed by Congress with the continuing effort to ban discrimination, and the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution was cited with the “equal protection” clause to support the Civil Rights Act and to enforce freedom and liberties for all members of society in the United States. Without the Civil Rights Act, students would not have equal opportunities to participate in advanced courses such as AP or be permitted to attend college. Although all 50 states and the United States government support this legislation, inequalities still exist in schools today. Racial minority students are not proportionately assigned and participating in advanced courses such as AP. In an effort to provide equal educational opportunities, President Bush signed NCLB in 2002. This national reformation act of educational accountability requires all K through 12 schools to measure the academic performance of students yearly and document progress (Forrest, 2004; Jones & Hancock, 2005; Katsinas & Bush, 2006; Spencer, 2006). NCLB is a continuation of using educational policy to increase opportunities beginning with the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), passed on April 9, 1965. The ESEA was part of Lyndon Johnson’s “War on Poverty.” The act provided federal funds to help low income students, which resulted in the initiation of educational programs such as Title I and bilingual education. Additionally, Congress mandates that the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) produce an annual report. 23 The NCES 2009 report presents new trends in the United States educational process and provides information on participation, learner outcomes, and educational progress. According to this report, students in the United States are still not receiving equitable educational experiences. There is a significant gap in the educational achievement levels between minority and majority students, resulting in disproportionate racial participation in AP and college (Lleras, 2008). Historical evidence demonstrates that there has been progress within the instructional environment toward academic gains, but equal access and equity for all students has not been perfected. Students at Risk The term at risk refers to students who are in danger of educational failure due to limited English proficiency, low SES, educational disabilities, or inequitable access (Vang, 2005). The term is widely debated and can imply that low SES and minority students are at risk but are responsible for their own learning due to desegration (Bemak, 2005). Additionally, according to Ladson-Billings (2006), another viewpoint is that society is responsible for at risk students because they are owed an educational debt based on the years of receiving imbalanced educational resources and substandard instructional environments. Students are not at risk of failing various subjects or dropping out of high school due to their SES, lack of English proficiency, or minority status; students are at risk when their instructional environments do not meet the diversity needs that exists within our society (Darling-Hammond, 1998). Academic achievement levels among minority students are generally found to be lower than White students, resulting in achievement gaps. Moreover, underachieving 24 minority students are classified as being at risk of academic failure (O’Connor, Hill, & Robinson, 2009). There are a plethora of various reasons that have been hypothesized to explain this phenomenon that include family influences, SES, English as a second language, and students with disabilities (Battle & Pastrana, 2007; Bemak, 2005; Heilig & Darling-Hammond, 2008; Vang, 2005). Although these factors contribute to the gaps with academic success, Borko et al. (2003), indicated by implementing effective instruction and innovative curriculum, all students can exceed levels of achievement regardless of their racial status or SES. To understand the extent in which the instructional enviornment has to compensate for students’ academic shortcomings, a brief description regarding some possible factors will be presented. Student obligations to meet the family needs influence and may override student aspirations toward educational endeavors and may contribute to low enrollment in AP courses (Battle & Pastrana, 2007; Bemak, 2005). Hispanic students may be asked to interpret for their parents, involving them with the intimate concerns of the family that may distracted them from educational pursuits due to financial or legal obligations of the family (Battle & Pastrana, 2007; Bemak, 2005). Academic intensity found in courses such as AP requires time outside of school to be dedicated to studying. Therefore, many Hispanic students put the needs of their family above their educational goals, resulting in lower AP participation (Bemak, 2005). When educators are aware of the Hispanic culture, then a balance between educational aspriations and family obligations can be achieved. The responsibility for this knowledge is on the educators who teach in multicultural environments in the 21st century. 25 In addition to race, there is a correlation between SES and low academic performance. “Socioeconomic status (SES) describes an individual or a family’s ranking on a hierarchy according to access to or control over some combination of valued commodities such as wealth, power, and social status” (Mueller & Parcel, 1981, p. 13). SES is connected to racial or ethnic backgrounds and academic achievement (BrooksGunn & Duncan, 1997). High SES students generally have parent support that concentrates efforts on the academic achievement of their children and provides resources such as tutoring when their children have difficulties; whereas low SES students’ parents do not have the financial means to provide those same resources for their children (Battle & Pastrana, 2007; Bemak, 2005). A study conducted by Battle and Pastrana (2007) regarding the effects of academic achievement and SES supports this theory. As SES increased with the sample students during their first 2 years of college, test scores increased. The argument was affirmed that SES is a key element of educational achievement and is 10 times more dominant than race (Battle & Pastrana, 2007; Vang, 2005). SES is an important aspect to consider; however, language minority students in the public schools are also considered to be in danger of academic failure. The Hispanic population is the nation’s largest racial minority group. ELL students are at a disadvantage in the American educational system because they are usually placed into lower academic tracks due to their language barriers (Vang, 2005). Lack of language skills, lack of academic background, and lack of English skills cause traditional educators problems toward academic success for ELL students; therefore, students usually do not 26 receive appropriate placement and instructional methods thus leading to low achievement, low test scores, and low quality curriculum (Helig & Darling-Hammond, 2008; Vang, 2005). Students placed in lower educational tracks have reduced access to advanced courses such as AP; therefore, they are at a disadvantage for college coursework. Again, a rigorous instructional environment that targets the specific needs for the ELL population will improve academic success, thereby assisting in closing the achievment gap (Landson-Billings, 2006). Students who are part of exceptional student education (ESE) are another at risk subgroup. Special education programs were developed to assist students with disabilities either in the regular classroom receiving services through the inclusion model or in a selfcontained setting. Students who are in special educational programs are placed in the least restrictive environment but may not be receiving a rigorous curriculum to ensure college readiness. When educational systems track students by perceived ability, social and class labeling are reinforced (Vang, 2005). In many cases, special education students are placed on low ability tracks making upward academic mobility into collegiate courses such as AP difficult. Although these factors contribute to the gaps with academc success, Borko et al. (2003), indicated by implementing effective instruction and innovative curriculum, all students can exceed levels of achievement regardless of their racial status or SES. The instructional environment supports students to achieve at higher levels; however, students must first be permitted equivalent interactions to demanding curriculum. The College Board produced the SpringBoard curriculum in an effort to provide access to quality 27 instructional environments for all students; however, there are people and regulations at school sites that prohibit access to these types of environments for at risk students. From before the time of Brown v. Board of Education, unequal access to rigorous curriculum and quality instruction has been recognized as a contributing factor towards achevement gaps among minority students. Hilliard (2003) accredited that both curricular designs and instructional practices contribute to exceeding educational outcomes. Additionally, researchers have attributed that rigorous academic curriculum positively contributes to achevement among minority groups (Hoffer, Greely, & Coleman, 1985). Morris (2004) conducted an ethnographic study at two elementary schools to analyze the successful student acheivement of African American and low SES students. Morris documented that the instructional environment enabled the students to outperform other schools within that district on standarized tests. The instructional environment promotes or diminishes academic success. Successful student achievement among racial minorities such as Latinos and African Americans are attributed to their instructional environment, as reported in a study conducted by Jodry, Robles-Pina, and Nichter (2005). In one study, six Hispanic students were purposively sampled from one high school’s AP mathematics program and were interviewed to obtain information regarding why they were successful minority students. Data was analyzed using the grounded theory, categories were formed from the patterns, and themes were used to explain and describe the phenomena. Results indicated that students felt a sense of support from the faculty and staff at their school, and they felt that their teachers advocated for them and provided extended learning opportunities. Students 28 revealed that the faculty had high expectations for their achievement, the school offered programs to meet their needs, and the school personnel valued their language and culture. The instructional environment formulates how students identify themselves. Every person who has engaged in the educational process at school develops an academic identity that shapes how he or she is defined (Hatt, 2007). The term smart is used synonymously with academic success; therefore, students define themselves as smart or dumb depending on the level of success they have in school. Hatt (2007) conducted a study using an ethnographic technique whereby participants were identified as adults ages 18 through 24 who did not complete high school, were of low SES, and were struggling with issues such as drug addiction. Eighteen participants were interviewed two different times over a 7 month period. Participants indicated there was a distinction between being book smart versus street smart, and participants placed a higher value on being street smart. Children learn about their level of smartness while in school due to tracking and teacher expectations. Poor students and minorities are overrepresented in special education programs or low ability classes, and underrepresented in gifted programs; therefore, students’ identity of intelligence is formulated on the educational track on which that they are placed (Carbonaro, 2005; Hatt, 2007; Jussim & Harber, 2005). Tracking may lead to lower achievement, lack of motivation, and academic failure as a result of the impact of self-fulfilling prophecy. Feelings of being incompetent leads to disengagement, low achievement, and the desire to drop out of school (Carbonaro, 2005; Hatt, 2007; Jussim & Harber, 2005). According to Hatt (2007), the instructional and 29 cultural environment of school produces intelligence; therefore, educational settings need to provide students with effective strategies, rigorous curriculum, and a positive identity in order to be successful after graduating from high school. Advanced Placement Rigorous instructional environments provide students with the necessary skills to succeed in college without remediation (College Board, 2009). AP is The College Board’s official rigorous academic program that provides students with the opportunity to learn and earn credit on the college level (College Board, 2009). AP teachers assist students in developing the necessary skills and knowledge needed to be successful in college (College Board, 2009). All AP courses contain an end of course assessment created and scored by university staff. The range of scores is 0–5; students scoring a 3 or higher receive college credit for the course. Schools create obstructions to enrollment in AP courses by connecting access to AP based on various measures such as only permitting students with the highest test scores, highest student grades, and highest teacher or counselor recommendatons (Attewell & Domina, 2008; Carter, 2006). By limiting access based on perceptual data, barriers of inequity are created. According to Carbonaro (2005), instructional environments that are not rigorous permit tracking of students to continue, whereby limiting access to advanced courses such as AP. Access to AP should be equitable, as all students deserve an opportunity to take part in challenging programs toward college readiness (Conley, 2007). VanSciver (2006) confirmed that disadvantaged students are not enrolled in AP courses proportionately to 30 the school populations. For example, according to VanSciver (2006), in the state of Texas the rate of enrollment in AP for minorities is about half of the enrollment rate of White students. Optimal learning environments can be created for highly motivated learners from multicultural backgrounds through AP courses (Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis, & Callahan, 2007). To create environments conducive for academic success of minority students, two key factors are present: a belief that all students can succeed, and the scaffolding to support students such as lunch time help, after school tutoring, financial aid counseling, and college visits. State government initiatives (NCLB) command public attention and funding be directed to increase minority participation in AP programs in order to meet annual yearly progress and narrow achievement gaps, as standards, assessments, and accountability are embraced by society (Brunner et al., 2005). According to DarlingHammond (2004), there is a link between quality instruction and academic achievement; that is, as students engage in rigorous courses with high quality instruction, academic levels of achievement increase. Based on the cognitive learning theory regarding levels of student engagement, the College Board (2007) indicated that students can be successful in AP if they receive rigorous curriculum before enrolling in AP courses. Smaller percentages of minority students are enrolled in AP courses (College Board 2007) with participation rates higher among females in AP literature and AP language. Boys score higher in AP math and science (Moore & Slate, 2008). All students have a right to a rigorous curriculum and access to AP, so that all students have equitable access to college attainment. 31 Earning college credit while in high school increases self-efficacy among all students, but particularly minority students because of the current AP participation gap (Klopfenstein, 2004). Successful completion of AP courses is beneficial to students financially, as tuition dollars are decreased; students can earn college credit and therefore do not have as much tuition to pay. Additionally, AP students display improved writing skills and are better prepared to engage in college courses (Klopfenstein, 2004). Another positive attribute with minorities engaging in AP is that AP can be used as an intervention. When a group of eighth grade students were enrolled in AP Spanish rather than a remedial course, academic achievement prevailed (Kettler, Shiu, & Johnsen, 2006). Participating students who were Spanish speaking middle school students, placed in an AP Spanish course instead of an academic at risk program, increased self-efficacy toward academic achievement. The results of this quantitative study indicated that participating students earned qualifying scores on the AP Spanish exam and achieved a sense of belonging to the school system and their peers (Kettler, Shiu, & Johnsen, 2006). Additionally, educational aspirations were raised because AP courses are designed to provide the rigor of entry level college courses. SpringBoard In response to the significant need for all students to have success and access to AP and college through rigorous coursework, the College Board created a pre-AP curriculum called SpringBoard in 1996. The College Board claims that SpringBoard is a proven pre-AP program that increases participation in AP courses for all students. Additionally, the College Board asserts that the SpringBoard curriculum prepares all 32 students, regardless of socioeconomic status or race, for academic success in AP, college, and beyond without remediation. SpringBoard’s design is based on the research of McTighe, which contains the philosophy of beginning with the end in mind, meaning students first unpack the embedded assessment and then engage in activities that scaffolds to the assessment. The College Board is attempting to provide access toward a quality instructional environment for all children (College Board, 2011). The problem in many districts pertains to the people who grant access to these types of environments. The curriculum is vertically aligned for grades sixth through 12th in English Language Arts and is based on the National College Board Standards for College Success. Since the commencement, several studies have been conducted to assess its effectiveness. A self-study was conducted, following program review guidelines, in 2004 by the SpringBoard staff using Institutional Research, an external review team. Findings revealed that SpringBoard had a measurable impact on retention of information due to the dynamic learning activities. The Institutional Research Evaluators (2004) cited several strengths: the program content and design is learner centered, and the curriculum is personally relevant and challenging, resulting in increased confidence. The review provided by the audiors appeared to be valid and reliable due to the triangulation of data: review of study documents, interviews of personnel and university administrators, and the external report of summary findings and recommendations. In 2008, The College Board contracted Westat to perform a longitudinal evaluation of the SpringBoard program. Westat collected and analyzed data based on an attitudinal survey of SpringBoard and non-SpringBoard teachers, case studies of selected 33 SpringBoard districts, and an analysis of student achievement related to SpringBoard paricipation. Westat (2008, p. 3) reported that the program supports the cognitive science learning theory through engaging all students in challenging learning and combining “rigorous course work with assessment and professional development.” Furthermore, the survey findings indicated that SpringBoard teachers were similar with their responses with the following exception that 10% were more likely to agree that professional development is a significant component in the efforts to increase student academic achievement. In regard to the academic achievement impact, Westat analyzed four districts in the state of Florida using their state assessment (FCAT) to measure academic achievement. The results indicated that students at all levels, bottom quartile to top quartile, benefited significantly. The scale scores ranged from 2.5 to more than a year of additional growth for each year that a student was enrolled in a SpringBoard course. From 2005 to 2010, Matos-Elefonte and Li conducted a 5 year “longitudinal evaluation investigating the impact of SpringBoard on the academic achievement of students” (2010, p. 1). The researchers examined AP participation and performance with 106 SpringBoard high schools in Florida. The report does not show causation but trends that emerged. The results showed that districts who participated with SpringBoard had an increase in the number of students enrolled in AP, as well as the number of students scoring a 3 or higher on the exam. The most current research involves a 4 month audit by Phi Delta Kappa (2010) that investigated three data sources: SpringBoard documents, interviews, and site visits. The data was triangulated to reveal the extent that the curriculum was meeting its goals 34 and objectives. Overall, the auditors claimed that SpringBoard includes a “high quality curriculum, aligned to assessments with exemplary models of instructional practices” (para. 22). Additionally, the report cited that SpringBoard is a rigorous curriculum accessible for all students with the “intent of increasing the number of students from underrepresented groups to be academically prepared for AP and college courses” (Poston et al., 2010, p. 14 ). Some key strengths of the program include the spiraled activities with increasing levels of difficulty, as well as ongoing professional development to support teachers in meeting the needs of all the learners in their classroom. Although these studies demonstrate the effectiveness of the SpringBoard curriculum, I wanted to conduct this study to specifically track cohorts of diverse students from middle through high school to access their levels of academic achievement and AP enrollment through engaging in a rigorous instructional environment using the SpringBoard curriculum. Programs with Similar Approaches Other programs offer strong instructional environments and target at risk students. The GEAR UP project is a federally funded grant initiated to increase postsecondary education participation among low income Hispanic students. Weither et al. (2006), described the program components: improving capabilities of teachers through professional development in AP strategies, increasing access to rigorous coursework by allowing all students access to AP courses, mentoring presentations to students to gain insight into various occupations, and improving student and parent communication about 35 college entrance requirements through college or career nights. A multivariate analysis of six school districts in Texas involved in this study from 1998 to 2005 indicated an increased rate of college attendance after exposure to interventions associated with the program. Another federal initiative with the similar purpose is the Advanced Placement Initiative Program (APIP): to improve college readiness among low income, minority students. Jackson (2010) identified cohorts of students in Texas before and after APIP implementation to identify program effects. The APIP encourages teachers to allow more students access into AP and encourages students to participate in AP by awarding cash incentives for passing scores. Results revealed an increase in AP participation, AP scores, and college matriculation. A similar trend in both federal initiatives is the AP component. Additionally, several programs that are not federally intiated, also include AP as a major part of their program. Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) originated in 1980 in San Diego, California by Mary Catherine Swanson, a high school English teacher. AVID was first established as an academic elective to support students with their rigorous courses. Currently, AVID’s mission is to increase college readiness, admittance, and retention among underrepresented students (Black, Little, McCoach, Purcell, & Siegle, 2008). According to Black et al. (2008), AVID is a school wide reform initiative to increase college readiness and participation among underrepresented and economically deprived students through increased admittance in advanced courses such as AP. 36 In three separate reseach studies about the effectiveness of AVID, similar findings were reported. All districts involved increased AP participation, increased achievement as reported on the state assessment, and increased high school graduation rates (Black et al., 2008; Mendolia et al., 2010; Watt et al., 2006). Furthermore, these districts reported that AVID students were on track to be successful in college and had set obtainable goals as a result of utilizing the AVID strategies. Although most intervention programs occur during the school day, Project EXCITE is one that supports students outside of school. This program promotes academic achievement in the areas of math and science beginning as early as third grade. The goal of the program is that students will be equipped for AP and college after participating with Project EXCITE (Lee et al., 2009; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006). Closing the achievement gap among minority sub groups is a priority with this project. Findings in two separate studies of Lee et al. (2009), and Olszewski-Kubilius (2006) revealed increased access to advanced courses, increased diversity within AP courses, and increased academic achievement; however, this program has challenges that in school programs do not encounter, such as transportation and sustained motivation. Project EXCITE includes parents, teachers, and mentor students within their program in order to meet the additional needs of minority children and families. Equivalent Programs to AP Another platform that has the mission of advancing more students toward college readiness using a demanding instructional environment, but does not use AP as a component, is found in collegiate high schools. Once again, the themes of school wide 37 reform, access to rigorous courses, and advanced course participation are the focal points within the collegiate high schools. The central goal of a collegiate high school is to increase the number of students underrepresented in college by providing students with 2 years of college credit at the time of high school graduation (Edmunds et al., 2010; Ongaga, 2010). Students at collegiate high schools take honors courses in ninth and 10th grades and college courses during 11th and 12th grades, in lieu of AP (Edmunds et al., 2010; Ongaga, 2010). Collegiate high schools, or early college high schools, target students who are underrepresented in college to provide them with college credit upon graduation in an attempt to increase motivation and self-efficacy toward completion of college (Edmunds et al., 2010). The main principles include the three R’s: rigor, relationship, and relevance, which are also found within the description for AP courses. Another program that encourages minority students to attend college is the instructional environment found in the Dual Enrollment Program. Students are permitted to take college courses while still enrolled in high school. The program is designed differently based on the college affiliation. Some colleges require students to attend the courses on college campus, whereas others will allow the college course to be taught by an accredited high school teacher on the high school campus. Medvide and Blustein (2010) conducted a qualitative study focusing on minority students’ attitudes after exposure to college coursework through Dual Enrollment. To assess perceptions, expectations, and impacts associated with this program, 12 minority students from poor and working class backgrounds, participating in Dual Enrollment, 38 were interviewed. The main theme that emerged was that all 12 students identified their future educational and professional goals and had an action plan of obtaining their goals. The International Baccalaureate Program (IB) is a global curriculum alternative to AP with the same goals of access to rigorous coursework in an attempt to graduate students that will be successful in postsecondary education (Bunnell, 2009; Mayer, 2008; Schachter, 2008). IB was developed more than 40 years ago to provide highly academic curriculum for international diplomats’ children (Schachter, 2008); however, the United States utilizes this diploma opportunity more than any other country. The legislation involved with the NCLB act has raised awareness for districts to be more inclusive with access to IB with minority students (Mayer, 2008). One study evaluated the relationship between IB and the impact of academic success for minority students using a mixed methods approach. Quantitative data was collected on students by accessing the district’s longitudinal transcript database and analyzing the collected records from 2000–2004. Qualitative data was collected by taking field notes during classroom observations and using Annotape to code and analyze the notes. Additionally, 63 school personnel, parents, and IB administrators were interviewed to inform understanding about the IB curriculum and student to teacher relationships. The results indicated that raising the achievement levels of these students and providing access to college coursework did strengthen their academic skills and self perceptions (Mayer, 2008). According to Mayer (2008) and Schachter (2008), the demands associated with increased rigor creates confidence in students about being successful in college. 39 Instructional Strategies Increasing access and equity to AP can be met through a variety of programs, but implementing research based educational strategies with any current curriculum will also improve the instructional environment and may assist in raising minority students’ AP participation rates (Mazano, 2009; Santangelo & Tomlinson, 2009). Classroom strategies are the tools used in order for students to gain knowledge; they are a means toward a positive impact on student achievement (Marzano, 2009; Minott, 2009; Santangelo & Tomlinson, 2009). High yield strategies are used to increase academic achievement for all students (Marzano, 2009). School personnel should identify instructional strategies that have the highest probability of increasing student achievement and focus on those across the curriculum; however, simply focusing on a narrow range of strategies will not result in addressing the needs of all learners. Teaching is a complex endeavor and effective teaching practices utilize varied and numerous strategies that take into account the needs of a variety of learners. Marzano (2009) identified 41 different strategies that relate to effective teaching to maximize learning for the diverse populations in the classrooms today. According to Marzano (2009), Minott (2009), and Santangelo and Tomlinson (2009), effective strategies increase diversity for participation in AP and other rigorous courses needed to be college ready. Teachers at all levels, elementary through college, should adapt instruction within the educational environment to meet the diverse needs of the students by providing an interactive, collaborative atmosphere aligned with students’ interests (Tomlinson, 2009). 40 Educational practices and culture have not shifted to address the needs of the diverse populations now enrolled in the schools (Santangelo & Tomlinson, 2009). Students have diverse ways of learning, diverse interests, and diverse goals. Additionally, more diverse student populations are pursuing higher education. Classrooms should be student centered to promote learning, not teacher-centered that inhibits learning. Differentiation of instruction (DI) is a process of adjusting the content, process, or product of a learning task to accommodate for the needs of the learners (Minott, 2009; Santangelo & Tomlinson, 2009; Tomlinson, Gould, Schroth, & Jarvis, 2006). Teachers should be flexible and modify the curriculum rather than expect the students to adjust themselves to the curriculum. Differentiated instruction has a positive impact on student learning, as students feel challenged and find relevance in the activities (Santangelo & Tomlinson, 2009). DI is an effective way to meet the needs of the diverse populations within the schools, so that all students have the opportunity to achieve academic excellence, thereby allowing access to AP and other rigorous high school courses that are essential to be successful in postsecondary education. Creating a college culture on high school campuses and increasing the rigor of the courses are strategies that researchers have found to be effective toward this end (Colon, 2008; Darity et al., 2001; Geddes, 2010; Oakes, 2003;). Colon (2008) reported that one high school opened AP to all of their students and created a culture that encouraged all students to discover their talents and focus on their personal academic pursuits. Teachers, students, and parents embraced the collegiate attitude and AP opportunities for rigorous coursework. Academic achievement and self efficacy dramatically increased, as students 41 learned more in advanced courses due to the rigor of the curriculum (Oakes, 2003). According to Darity et al. (2001), identifying students with academic potential while in middle school and then placing them in advanced courses in high school with mentor support, increases enrollment and success in AP courses. This report confirmed that tracking is detrimental for racial minorities, as moving academic tracks once enrolled in high school is extremely challenging because honors courses build to AP courses. When students are exposed and permitted to enroll in rigorous courses such as honors and AP with support, they are more likely to believe that college is attainable. High School Connections to Create AP Access The main goals of high school education toward academic success for all students should contain information about the instructional environment: how to inform instruction, guide the assessment process, and articulate the overall design of the curriculum (Wiggins & McTighe, 2008). High schools should recognize their challenges of trying to overcome student boredom, passivity, and apathy to engage students. Additionally, students must know how to apply new material, not simply know it on a factual level. They must engage themselves into the curriculum in order to find relevance and meaning because students fail to learn when the application of content is removed from the learning process (Attewell & Domina, 2008; Wiggins & McTighe, 2008). AP coursework is both relevant and engaging for students; therefore, as students find meaning in the course academic achievement increases. Teaching skills and knowledge without the focus of transfer does not achieve the primary purpose for learning content. Additionally, trying to simply cover the content for 42 the sake of acquisition fails to achieve the purpose of effective use of content (Wiggins & McTighe, 2008). High school curriculum must reflect one central mission of learning and understanding throughout the syllabi, instruction, and assessment and should be relevant in that knowledge gained can be applied to issues and problems that will be faced later in life (Weiher & Tedin, 2006; Wiggins & McTighe, 2008). High school curriculum should have the long term goal of making and transferring learning. The rigor of the high school curriculum indicates the extent to which students will have access and sustainability in college; therefore, it is imperative that all students have equal access to advanced curriculum, such as AP, and experience curricular intensity in order to increase the probability of minority students entering and completing college (Attewell, 2008). There is disproportionate and unexplainable denied access to AP courses for lower SES and racial minority students (Attewell, 2008). A longitudinal study was conducted by Attewell in 2007 using a sample population of 12th graders. Curriculum intensity was shown to have a positive correlation to high school test scores that allow admittance into college. Disparities were found among Black and Hispanic students; they faced less intensive curriculum for unknown reasons. That is, lower SES and minority students were overrepresented in less demanding classes in ways that were not justified by prior academic performance. Reformers have called schools to upgrade their content so that the curriculum is more demanding for students. Positive outcomes of rigorous curriculum include higher test scores, college access, improved skills, and positive selfesteem. 43 Upgrading high school curriculum for all students to have access to AP courses and to meet the requirements of college entrance is a significant factor toward student achievement. NCLB requires schools to be accountable to the state regarding the effectiveness of their educational programs (Larocque, 2007). Curriculum must be evaluated to assess effectiveness. Qualitative methodology is an effective means to evaluate programs designed for minority retention and academic success through the data collection, analysis, and reporting that enables the researcher to sort out biases against legitimate claims and assumptions (Green, 2007). Programs developed and used at schools must promote academic excellence among all students. In order for students to be prepared for higher education, quality curriculum must be utilized; therefore, programs must be assessed for effectiveness. Instructional Delivery, Intelligence, and Multicultural Education The teaching force is predominately White (Picower, 2009), but minority students are rapidly entering schools (Picower, 2009); therefore, a change with instructional delivery, identification of the gifted process, and multicultural education is paramount within the educational environment in order for access and equity to exist among all students. The classrooms within the schools today are multicultural; therefore, the instructional approaches should utilize the new pedagogies of global literacies to engage and provide all learners with access to AP. The predominant curriculum in most classrooms across America is overwhelmingly mono culturally text based (Taylor, 2008). Racial minority students have the right to receive multilingual pedagogy and dual language identity texts in order for successful assimilation to occur (Bhavnagri & 44 Prosperi, 2007; Taylor, 2008). Many pathways lead to the same end result of academic achievement; therefore, empowering students in their cultural experiences allows for globalization to occur within the school walls and validates the experiences of all students (Taylor, 2008). Multicultural education is paramount to allow all students to succeed in school today, have opportunities to engage in AP, and graduate prepared for college. A relationship exists between emotional factors and other cognitive abilities in the instructional environment. EI is the ability to understand and manage one’s emotions. Teachers, school leaders, and students should all attempt to become more emotionally aware of one another; self- awareness will bring about a climate conducive for learning (Barchard & Hakstian, 2004; Goleman, 2006). Students’ abilities will improve as a result of emotional and social intelligence. Emotions can either improve or hinder the brain’s ability to learn. AP courses require a tremendous amount of emotional and mental fortitude (College Board, 2011). The school culture is an environment that can create an atmosphere conducive to learning or prohibitive of learning based on the emotional connections made between students and faculty. Instructional goals for school improvement that promote student learning can be enhanced with the development of a positive, warm, nurturing school climate (Cohen & Hamilton, 2009). Brain studies have illuminated the relationship between emotions and the capacity to think and learn (Goleman, 2006). Situations that are stressful can cause the brain to function at an inferior level; the more intense the pressure, the weaker the ability to decipher, analyze, and solve problems. In contrast, environments that are 45 nurturing, warm, respectful, and trusting inspire students to achieve at higher levels because the brain is ready to learn due to a receptive state of mind (Goleman, 2006). Effective leaders assist staff and students with a strong emotional state of mind so that an instructional atmosphere of positive rapport is created whereby optimal learning can occur (Goleman, 2006). Teachers must have awareness that they can motivate or demotivate students by means of the classroom climate. Additionally, programs such as AP can be negatively or positively influenced through climate because emotional interactions influence student behavior and achievement (Goleman, 2006). In an effort to increase minority student participation in advanced high school courses and college entrance requirements, new programs have been launched by states and the national government. The programs are designed to promote the academic skills needed for successful completion of high school and acceptance into and retention of college. Access to equitable opportunities should be afforded to all citizens in the United States, not simply to the privileged (Clasen, 2006; Ford, 2010; Tomlinson et al., 2006). Minority students are underrepresented in the gifted educational programs (OlszewskiKubilius, 2006), and until schools learn how to identify and develop academic potential of low SES minorities, students will continue to be denied access to honors and AP courses, which can in turn negatively impact college retention. Gifted programs provide the instructional environment that is engaging and rigorous. When minority students are identified into gifted programs, there is an increase with minority student participation in honors and AP courses (Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006). 46 In addition to alternative instructional delivery approaches, teaching to a variety of intelligences, and identifying minorities into gifted programs, multicultural education is paramount for academic success in the 21st century (Johnson, 2006). The number of students from various ethnic backgrounds entering United States schools has significantly increased over the past decade (Bureau, 2010). Instructional environments must ...
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