Argument and Persuasion: Chapter Twelve Outline
I. What is Argument and Persuasion?
A. Arguments are assertions designed to convince readers to accept an idea,
adopt a solution, or change their way of thinking. Writers use reason and facts to support
their arguments and disprove or dispute opposing arguments or opinions (Connelly 531).
When writing an argumentative essay, the student writer should always suspect that his/her
audience (the reader) holds an opposing viewpoint; this way, the student writer shapes his/her
argument with the ideas of the opposition in mind. Knowing opposing viewpoints to an
argument can help student writers anticipate and develop refuting claims. When the writer of an
argumentative essay anticipates the arguments of their opposition, they become more credible to
their audience. The reader of an argumentative essay that possess both original supporting points
and defensive points of refutation will find the author of the essay more credible because he/she
is well-prepared and well-researched on his/her topic.
2. In anticipating your opposition, consider questions like the following:
a. How strong is the opposition?
b. What arguments might it use
against my proposition?
c. How can I refute these arguments?
d. Will I have to concede any points?
e. Which of my arguments might the
opposition try to discredit?
f. How closely does my reader
identify with the opposition?
g. Can I see any weak links in the
opposition's thinking?
B. Persuasion uses emotional, logical, and ethical appeals to convince readers to accept
the validity of an argument. Writers traditionally use three basic appeals to convince
readers to accept their ideas or take action: logic; emotion; and ethics.
1. Logic supports a point of view or proposed action through reasoned
arguments and presentation of evidence.
a. Examples of logical appeals include test results, statistics,
expert testimony, eyewitness testimony, and surveys.
2. Emotion uses images, sensations, or shock appeals to lead people to
react in a desired manner.
a. Emotional appeals respond to the following human needs and
desires: Creativity; Achievement; Independence; Conformity; Endurance;
and Fear (reference pages 532-33 of your course textbook for definitions
of these terms).
3. Ethics use shared values to influence people. Like emotional appeals,
ethical appeals reflect deeply held convictions rather than personal motivations.
a. The following is a list of the values we tap into when making ethical
appeals: Religion; Patriotism; Standards of Good; Humanitarianism
(reference page 533 of your course textbook for explanations of these
terms).
II. Some Thoughts on Your Argumentative Essay:
The major point of an argumentative essay (thesis statement) must be adequately
supported by strong minor supporting claims. Each of the minor supporting claims a student
author includes in his/her argumentative essay’s body should be validated using persuasive
appeals. The student author should try to incorporate all or most types of appeals within his/her
argument, as a successful argumentative essay is one that is well-formed and thorough.
For this essay, I would suggest that you create an outline of your argument before you
begin to write. Structure the body of your essay so that each paragraph illustrates one supporting
minor claim that responds to one kind of appeal. For example, you may use emotion to create
your first supporting minor claim, logic to form your second, and ethics to form your third. The
kind of evidence you choose to support your argument will only be effective if it works to
advance your claim. Since the required length of your final essay for this assignment is only 500
words, be sure to use the strongest supporting claims you have considered to develop your
argument. I
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY INFORMATION
Descriptive writing portrays people, places, things, moments and ideas with enough vivid
detail to help the reader create a mental picture of what is being written about.
Description creates impressions through sensory details (touch, taste, sight, smell, sound)
and imagery. Refer to pages 124-127 of your course textbook under the title, “The
Language of Description,” for word usage instruction. Page 173 of your book lists
“Strategies for Writing Description” as well. Also refer to the “Description Checklist” on
pages 178 and 179 of your text before you submit your work.
Things to Consider as You Write Your Descriptive Essay
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Think of an instance that you want to describe. Why is this particular instance
important?
What were you doing?
What other things were happening around you? Is there anything specific that
stands out in your mind?
What sights, smells, sounds, and tastes were in the air?
Did the sights, smells, sounds, and tastes remind you of anything?
What were you feeling at that time?
What do you want the reader to feel after reading the paper?
What types of words and images can convey this feeling?
Can you think of another situation that was similar to the one you are writing
about? How can it help explain what you are writing about?
Is there enough detail in your essay to create a mental image for the reader?
Conventions of Descriptive Essays Illustrated by Sample Paragraphs
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Appealing-to-the-Senses Description: Let the reader see, smell, hear, taste,
and feel what you write in your essay.
The thick, burnt scent of roasted coffee tickled the tip of my nose just seconds
before the old, faithful alarm blasted red a distorted top-forty through its tiny top
speaker. Wiping away the grit of last night's sleep, the starch white sunlight
blinded me momentarily as I slung my arm like an elephant trunk along the top of
the alarm, searching for the snooze button. While stretching hands and feet to the
four posts of my bed, my eyes opened after several watery blinks. I crawled out of
the comforter, edging awkwardly like a butterfly from a cocoon, swinging my
legs over the side of the bed. The dusty pebbles on the chilled, wood floor sent
ripples spiraling from my ankles to the nape of my neck when my feet hit the
floor. Grabbing the apricot, terri-cloth robe, recently bathed in fabric softener and
October wind, I knotted it tightly at my waist like a prestigious coat of armor and
headed downstairs to battle the morning.
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Spatial-Order Description: Show the reader where things are located from
your perspective.
Billy Ray's Pawn Shop and Lawn Mower Repair looked like a burial ground for
country auction rejects. The blazing, red, diesel fuel tanks beamed in front of the
station, looking like cheap lipstick against the pallid, wrinkled texture of the
parking lot sand. The yard, not much larger than the end zone at General G.
Patton High School on the north end of town, was framed with a rusted metallic
hedge of lawn mowers, banana seat bicycles, and corroded oil drums. It wasn't a
calico frame of rusted parts, but rather an orchestra of unwanted machinery that
Billy Ray had arranged into sections. The yellow-tanked mowers rested silently at
the right of the diesel fuel. Once red, now faded orange, mowers stood at attention
to the left. The bikes rested sporadically throughout the lot. In the middle of it all
was the office, a faded, steel roof supported by cheap two-by-fours and zebra
paneling. Billy Ray was at home, usually, five blocks east of town on Kennel
Road.
Principles, Conventions, and Strategies for Descriptive Writing
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A descriptive essay can be objective or subjective, thus giving the author a
wide choice of tone and diction. For instance, an objective description of one's
dog would mention such facts as height, weight, coloring and so forth. A
subjective description would include the above details, but would also stress
the author's feeling toward the dog, as well as its personality and habits.
The purpose of a purely descriptive essay is to involve the reader enough so he
or she can actually visualize the things being described; therefore, it is
important to use specific and concrete details.
The descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory details to communicate its
point. Remember, we have five senses, not one or two.
Description very often relies on emotion to convey its point. Because of this,
verbs, adverbs, and adjectives convey more to the reader than do nouns. Select
an emotion and try to describe it. It might be more difficult to get started, but
it can be worthwhile.
Try moving your reader through space and time chronologically. For instance,
you might want to describe a train ride from start to destination, or a stream
from its source to the point at which it joins the river.
Use a then-and-now approach to show decay, change, or improvement. The
house where you grew up might now be a rambling shack. The variations on
this strategy are endless.
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