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SI XT H ED I T I O N Introducing Communication Theory AN ALYSIS AN D AP PLICATION Richard West Emerson College Lynn H. Turner Marquette University INTRODUCING COMMUNICATION THEORY: ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION, SIXTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2014, 2010, and 2004. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 QVS 21 20 19 18 17 ISBN 978-1-259-87032-3 MHID 1-259-87032-4 Chief Product Officer, SVP Products & Markets: G. Scott Virkler Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets: Michael Ryan Vice President, Content Design & Delivery: Betsy Whalen Managing Director: David Patterson Brand Manager: Jamie Laferrerra Director, Product Development: Meghan Campbell Marketing Manager: Meredith Leo Director, Content Design & Delivery: Terri Schiesl Program Manager: Jennifer Shekleton Content Project Managers: Lisa Bruflodt, Samantha Donisi-Hamm Buyer: Susan K. Culbertson Designer: Jessica Serd Content Licensing Specialist: DeAnna Dausener Compositor: MPS Limited Printer: Quad/Graphics All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data West, Richard L. | Turner, Lynn H. Introducing communication theory : analysis and application/Richard West, Emerson College, Lynn H. Turner, Marquette University. Sixth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and indexes. LCCN 2016059715 | ISBN 9781259870323 (alk. paper) LCSH: Information theory. | Communication. LCC Q360 .W47 2019 | DDC 003/.54—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016059715 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered Brief Contents Part One  Foundations  1 COMMUNICATION, THEORY, AND RESEARCH 1. 2. 3. Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics  3 Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts   24 Thinking About Theory and Research   42 Part Two   Understanding the Dialogue   65 THE SELF AND MESSAGES 4. 5. 6. 7. Symbolic Interaction Theory   68 Coordinated Management of Meaning   83 Cognitive Dissonance Theory   104 Expectancy Violations Theory   119 RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Uncertainty Reduction Theory   135 Social Exchange Theory   155 Social Penetration Theory   170 Relational Dialectics Theory   187 Communication Privacy Management Theory   204 Social Information Processing Theory   218 GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS 14. 15. 16. 17. Groupthink  237 Structuration Theory  255 Organizational Culture Theory   272 Organizational Information Theory   287 THE PUBLIC 18. 19. 20. The Rhetoric  306 Dramatism  324 The Narrative Paradigm   338 THE MEDIA 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Agenda Setting Theory   355 Spiral of Silence Theory   369 Uses and Gratifications Theory   387 Cultivation Theory  403 Cultural Studies  420 Media Ecology Theory   436 CULTURE AND DIVERSITY 27. 28. Face-Negotiation Theory  459 Communication Accommodation Theory   476 iii 29. 30. Muted Group Theory   494 Feminist Standpoint Theory   510 Afterward ConnectingQuests  527 Glossary  G-1 References  R-1 Name Index  I-1 Subject Index  I-11 iv    Brief Contents Contents Preface  xvii About the Authors   xxix PART ONE Foundations 001 COMMUNICATION, THEORY, AND RESEARCH    Chapter 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics   3 Defining Communication   5 Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction   8 Communication as Action: The Linear Model    9 Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model    10 Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model    12 Communication Models of the Future    13 Ethics and Communication   14 Business and Industry   15 Religion and Faith   16 Entertainment   17 Higher Education   17 Medicine   18 Politics   19 Technology   19 Some Final Thoughts   19 The Value of Understanding Communication Theory    21 Understanding Communication Theory Cultivates Critical Thinking Skills   21 Understanding Communication Theory Helps You to Recognize the Breadth and Depth of Research    21 Understanding Communication Theory Helps to Make Sense of Personal Life Experiences    22 Communication Theory Fosters Self-Awareness    22 Conclusion   22 Discussion Starters   23 v Chapter 2 Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts   24 Seven Traditions in the Communication Field    25 The Rhetorical Tradition   26 The Semiotic Tradition   27 The Phenomenological Tradition   27 The Cybernetic Tradition   28 The Socio-Psychological Tradition   28 The Socio-Cultural Tradition   29 The Critical Tradition   29 Putting It All Together    29 Seven Contexts in the Communication Field    30 Intrapersonal Communication   30 Interpersonal Communication   32 Small Group and Team Communication    33 Organizational Communication   34 Public/Rhetorical Communication   36 Mass/Media Communication   37 Cultural Communication   38 Collating the Contexts   40 Conclusion   41 Discussion Starters   41 Chapter 3 Thinking About Theory and Research    42 Defining Theory: What’s in a Name?    44 Components   45 Goals   46 Approaches to Knowing: How Do You See (and Talk About) the World?   46 The Positivistic, or Empirical, Approach    47 The Interpretive Approach   47 The Critical Approach   47 Approaches to Knowing: What Questions Do You Ask About the World?    48 Approaches to Knowing: How Do We Go About Theory Building?   50 Covering Law Approach   52 Rules Approach   52 Systems Approach   53 Evaluating Theory   56 The Research Process   58 Communication Research and the Scientific Method   58 Communication Research and the Qualitative Approach    60 Conclusion   64 Discussion Starters   64 vi    Contents PART TWO Understanding the Dialogue   65 THE SELF AND MESSAGES    Chapter 4 Symbolic Interaction Theory    68 History of Symbolic Interaction Theory    70 Themes and Assumptions of Symbolic Interaction Theory    71 Key Concepts   76 Mind   76 Self   77 Society   79 Integration, Critique, and Closing    79 Scope   80 Utility   80 Testability   81 Closing   81 Discussion Starters   81 Chapter 5 Coordinated Management of Meaning    83 All the World’s a Stage    84 Assumptions of Coordinated Management of Meaning    85 The Hierarchy of Organized Meaning    88 Content   89 Speech Act   90 Episodes   90 Relationship   91 Life Scripts   91 Cultural Patterns   92 Charmed and Strange Loops    93 The Coordination of Meaning: Making Sense of the Sequence    95 Influences on the Coordination Process    96 Rules and Unwanted Repetitive Patterns    97 Integration, Critique, and Closing    100 Scope   100 Parsimony   101 Utility    101 Heurism    102 Closing   102 Discussion Starters   102 Chapter 6 Cognitive Dissonance Theory    104 Assumptions of Cognitive Dissonance Theory    108 Concepts and Processes of Cognitive Dissonance    109 Magnitude of Dissonance   109 Contents    vii Coping with Dissonance   110 Cognitive Dissonance and Perception    111 Minimal Justification   112 Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Persuasion    113 Integration, Critique, and Closing    115 Utility   115 Testability   117 Closing   118 Discussion Starters   118 Chapter 7 Expectancy Violations Theory    119 Space Relations   121 Proxemic Zones   121 Territoriality   123 Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory    124 Arousal   127 Threat Threshold   127 Violation Valence   128 Communicator Reward Valence   129 Integration, Critique, and Closing    130 Scope   131 Utility   131 Testability   131 Heurism   131 Closing   132 Discussion Starters   132 RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT    Chapter 8 Uncertainty Reduction Theory    135 Assumptions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    138 Key Concepts of URT: The Axiom and Theorem    140 Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    140 Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    142 Expansions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory    143 Antecedent Conditions   143 Strategies   144 Developed Relationships   145 Social Media   147 Context   148 Integration, Critique, and Closing    150 Utility   151 Heurism   153 Closing   153 Discussion Starters   153 viii    Contents Chapter 9 Social Exchange Theory    155 Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory    158 Evaluating a Relationship   161 Exchange Patterns: SET in Action    163 Exchange Structures   165 Integration, Critique, and Closing    166 Scope   167 Utility   167 Testability   168 Heurism   168 Closing   169 Discussion Starters   169 Chapter 10 Social Penetration Theory    170 Assumptions of Social Penetration Theory    172 “Tearing Up” the Relationship: The Onion Analogy    175 A Social Exchange: Relational Costs and Rewards    177 Stages of the Social Penetration Process    179 Orientation: Revealing Bit by Bit    180 Exploratory Affective Exchange: The Self Emerges    181 Affective Exchange: Commitment and Comfortability    182 Stable Exchange: Raw Honesty and Intimacy    183 Integration, Critique, and Closing    184 Scope   184 Heurism   185 Closing   186 Discussion Starters   186 Chapter 11 Relational Dialectics Theory    187 Assumptions of Relational Dialectics Theory    190 Core Concepts of Dialectics    191 Basic Relational Dialectics   192 Autonomy and Connection   192 Openness and Protection   194 Novelty and Predictability   194 Contextual Dialectics   195 Beyond Basic Dialectics   196 Responses to Dialectics   198 Integration, Critique, and Closing    200 Parsimony   201 Utility   201 Heurism   201 Closing   202 Discussion Starters   202 Contents    ix Chapter 12 Communication Privacy Management Theory   204 Evolution of Communication Privacy Management Theory    206 Assumptions of CPM   207 Key Terms and Principles of CPM    208 Principle 1: Private Information Ownership    209 Principle 2: Private Information Control    209 Principle 3: Private Information Rules     211 Principle 4: Private Information Co-ownership and Guardianship    212 Principle 5: Private Information Boundary Turbulence     214 Integration, Critique, and Closing    214 Logical Consistency   215 Utility   216 Heurism    216 Closing   216 Discussion Starters   216 Chapter 13 Social Information Processing Theory    218 Theoretical Turbulence: The Cues Filtered Out    221 Assumptions of Social Information Processing Theory    223 Hyperpersonal Perspective: “I Like What I Read and I Want More”    227 Sender: Selective Self-Presentation   227 Receiver: Idealization of the Sender    228 Channel Management   229 Feedback   229 Warranting: Gaining Confidence Online    230 Integration, Critique, and Closing    231 Scope   232 Utility   232 Testability   233 Closing   234 Discussion Starters   234 GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS    Chapter 14 Groupthink   237 Assumptions of Groupthink   240 What Comes Before: Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink    243 Group Cohesiveness   243 Structural Factors   244 Group Stress   245 Symptoms of Groupthink   245 Overestimation of the Group    246 Closed-Mindedness   247 Pressures Toward Uniformity   248 x    Contents (Group) Think About It: It’s All Around U.S.    249 Think Before You Act: Ways to Prevent Groupthink   249 Integration, Critique, and Closing    251 Scope   252 Testability   252 Heurism   253 Test of Time   253 Closing   253 Discussion Starters   254 Chapter 15 Structuration Theory   255 Assumptions of Structuration Theory    259 Central Concepts of Structuration Theory    262 Agency and Reflexivity   262 Duality of Structure   263 Social Integration   267 Application of Time and Space    267 Integration, Critique, and Closing    268 Scope   269 Parsimony    269 Closing   270 Discussion Starters   270 Chapter 16 Organizational Culture Theory    272 The Cultural Metaphor: Of Spider Webs and Organizations   275 Assumptions of Organizational Cultural Theory    276 Ethnographic Understanding: Laying It On Thick    279 The Communicative Performance   281 Ritual Performances   282 Passion Performances   282 Social Performances   283 Political Performances   283 Enculturation Performances   283 Integration, Critique, and Closing    284 Logical Consistency   285 Utility   285 Heurism   285 Closing   286 Discussion Starters   286 Chapter 17 Organizational Information Theory    287 The Only Constant Is Change (in Organizations)    290 General Systems Theory   290 Darwin’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution    291 Contents    xi Assumptions of Organizational Information Theory    292 Key Concepts and Conceptualizing Information    294 Information Environment: The Sum Total    294 Rules: Guidelines to Analyze    295 Cycles: Act, Respond, Adjust    297 The Principles of Equivocality    298 Reducing Equivocality: Trying to Use the Information    299 Enactment: Assigning Message Importance    299 Selection: Interpreting the Inputs    300 Retention: Remember the Small Stuff    300 Integration, Critique, and Closing    301 Logical Consistency   302 Utility   303 Heurism   303 Closing   303 Discussion Starters   303 THE PUBLIC    Chapter 18 The Rhetoric   306 The Rhetorical Tradition   308 Assumptions of the Rhetoric   309 The Syllogism: A Three-Tiered Argument    311 Canons of Rhetoric   312 Invention   312 Arrangement   314 Style   315 Memory   316 Delivery   316 Types of Rhetoric   317 Integration, Critique, and Closing    320 Logical Consistency   320 Heurism   321 Test of Time   322 Closing   322 Discussion Starters   323 Chapter 19 Dramatism   324 Assumptions of Dramatism   326 Dramatism as New Rhetoric    328 Identification and Substance   328 The Process of Guilt and Redemption    329 The Pentad   331 Integration, Critique, and Closing    333 Scope   333 Parsimony   334 Utility   334 Heurism   336 xii    Contents Closing   336 Discussion Starters   337 Chapter 20 The Narrative Paradigm    338 Assumptions of the Narrative Paradigm    341 Key Concepts in the Narrative Approach    344 Narration   344 Narrative Rationality   345 The Logic of Good Reasons    347 Integration, Critique, and Closing    348 Scope    349 Logical Consistency   349 Utility   350 Heurism   351 Closing   351 Discussion Starters   351 THE MEDIA    Chapter 21 Agenda Setting Theory    355 History of Agenda Setting Research    356 Pretheoretical Conceptualizing   357 Establishing the Theory of Agenda Setting    358 Assumptions of Agenda Setting Theory    359 Two Levels of Agenda Setting    360 Three-Part Process of Agenda Setting    361 Expansions and Refinements to Agenda Setting Theory    364 Integration, Critique, and Closing    365 Scope   366 Utility   366 Heurism   367 Closing   368 Discussion Starters   368 Chapter 22 Spiral of Silence Theory    369 The Court of Public Opinion    372 Assumptions of Spiral of Silence Theory    374 The Media’s Influence   377 The Train Test   379 The Hard Core   380 The Spiral of Silence and Social Media    382 Integration, Critique, and Closing    383 Logical Consistency   384 Heurism   385 Closing   386 Discussion Starters   386 Contents    xiii Chapter 23 Uses and Gratifications Theory    387 Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Theory    389 Stages of Uses and Gratifications Research    392 Media Effects   393 Key Concepts: The Audience as Active    396 Uses and Gratifications and the Internet, Social Media, and Cell Phones   397 Integration, Critique, and Closing    399 Logical Consistency   400 Utility   401 Heurism   401 Closing   401 Discussion Starters   402 Chapter 24 Cultivation Theory   403 Developing Cultivation Theory   406 Assumptions of Cultivation Theory    407 Processes and Products of Cultivation Theory   409 The Four-Step Process   409 Mainstreaming and Resonance   410 The Mean World Index    412 Cultivation Theory as Critical Theory    413 Integration, Critique, and Closing    416 Logical Consistency   416 Utility   417 Heurism   417 Test of Time   417 Closing   419 Discussion Starters   419 Chapter 25 Cultural Studies   420 The Marxist Legacy: Power to the People    423 Assumptions of Cultural Studies    424 Hegemony: The Influence on the Masses    426 Counter-Hegemony: The Masses Start to Influence the Dominant Forces   429 Audience Decoding   431 Integration, Critique, and Closing    433 Logical Consistency   433 Utility   434 Heurism   434 Closing   435 Discussion Starters   435 xiv    Contents Chapter 26 Media Ecology Theory    436 Assumptions of Media Ecology Theory    439 Making Media History and Making “Sense”    442 The Tribal Era   442 The Literate Era   443 The Print Era   443 The Electronic Era   443 The Medium Is the Message    444 Gauging the Temperature: Hot and Cool Media    445 The Circle Is Complete: The Tetrad    447 Enhancement   448 Obsolescence   448 Retrieval   448 Reversal   449 Carrying the McLuhan Banner: Postman and Meyrowitz    450 Integration, Critique, and Closing    452 Testability   453 Heurism   453 Closing   454 Discussion Starters   454 CULTURE AND DIVERSITY    Chapter 27 Face-Negotiation Theory   459 About Face   461 Face and Politeness Theory    462 Facework   463 Assumptions of Face-Negotiation Theory    464 Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures    466 Face Management and Culture    469 Managing Conflict Across Cultures    470 Integration, Critique, and Closing    472 Logical Consistency   472 Heurism   473 Closing   474 Discussion Starters   474 Chapter 28 Communication Accommodation Theory    476 Social Psychology and Social Identity    478 Assumptions of Communication Accommodation Theory    480 Ways to Adapt   483 Convergence: Merging Thoughts Ahead    483 Divergence: Vive la Différence   487 Overaccommodation: Miscommunicating with a Purpose    488 Contents    xv Integration, Critique, and Closing    490 Scope   490 Logical Consistency   491 Heurism   492 Closing   492 Discussion Starters   492 Chapter 29 Muted Group Theory    494 Origins of Muted Group Theory    496 Makeup of Muted Groups    498 Differentiating Between Sex and Gender    499 Assumptions of Muted Group Theory    499 The Process of Silencing    503 Ridicule   504 Ritual   504 Control    505 Harassment   505 Strategies of Resistance   506 Integration, Critique, and Closing    506 Utility   507 Test of Time   508 Closing   508 Discussion Starters   508 Chapter 30 Feminist Standpoint Theory    510 Historical Foundations of Feminist Standpoint Theory    512 The Critique of Theory and Research by Feminist Theorists    513 Assumptions of Feminist Standpoint Theory    514 Feminist Standpoint Theory and the Communication Field    518 Key Concepts of Standpoint Theory    519 Voice   519 Standpoint   519 Situated Knowledges   520 Sexual Division of Labor    521 Integration, Critique, and Closing    521 Utility   522 Closing   524 Discussion Starters   524 Afterward ConnectingQuests   527 Glossary   G-1 References   R-1 Name Index   I-1 Subject Index   I-11 xvi    Contents Preface As we present the sixth edition of Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application, we remain excited by its enormous success. The previous five editions demonstrate that communication theory courses are vibrant, that teachers of communication understand the importance of theoretical thinking, and that both instructors and students appreciate the consistent and organized template we employ throughout. This text explores the practical, engaging, and r­ elevant ways in which theory operates in our lives. It is written primarily for students who have little or no background in communication theory. We originally wrote the book because we thought that students need to know how theorizing helps us understand ourselves, as well as our experiences, ­relationships, media, environment, and culture. We also wrote this book because we believe that students should have a text that relates theory directly to their lives. We felt that some books insulted the student and trivialized theory while other books were written at a level that was far too advanced for an undergraduate. In this book, we take great care to achieve the following additional objectives: ∙∙ Familiarize students with the principles and central ideas of important theories they are likely to encounter in the communication discipline. ∙∙ Demystify the notion of theory by discussing it in concrete and ­unequivocal ways. ∙∙ Provide students with an understanding of the interplay among theory, communication, and application. ∙∙ Introduce students to the research process and the role of theory within this process. ∙∙ Assist students in becoming more systematic and thoughtful critical thinkers. The sixth edition of this book maintains its original focus of introducing communication theory to students in an accessible, appealing, and consistent way. We believe that students understand material best when it is explained in a clear, direct way through a number of realistic and applicable examples. Our hope is that students will take away a basic knowledge of, and appreciation for, communication theory from reading our text. The theories in communication studies have roots in both communication and in other fields of study. This interdisciplinary orientation is reflected in the selection of the various theories presented in the text. We not only include the unique contributions of communication theorists, but also theories with origins in other fields of study, including psychology, sociology, biology, education, business, and philosophy. Communication theorists have embraced the integration of ideas and principles forged by their colleagues across many disciplines. Yet, the application, influence, and inherent xvii value of communication are all s­ ustained by the theorists in this text. In other words, although theories cut across various academic disciplines, their relevance to communication remains paramount and we articulate this relevancy in each theory chapter. We do not presume to speak for the theorists; we have distilled their scholarship in a way that we hope represents and honors their hard work. Our overall goal is to frame their words and illustrate their theories with practical examples and instances so that their explication of communication behaviors becomes accessible for students. Together, we have over 60 years of experience in teaching communication ­theory. During this time, we have learned a great deal. Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application utilizes and applies all that we as teachers have learned from our students. We continue to be indebted to both students and colleagues whose suggestions and comments have greatly influenced this newest edition. The Challenges of Teaching and Learning Communication Theory The instructor in a communication theory course may face several challenges that are not shared by other courses. First, because many students think of theory as distant, abstract, and obscure, teachers must overcome these potentially negative connotations. Negative feelings toward the subject can be magnified in classrooms where students represent a variety of ages and socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. Introducing Communication Theory addresses this challenge by offering a readable and pragmatic guide that integrates content with examples, capturing the essence and elegance of theory in a straightforward manner. In addition, the book takes an incremental approach to learning about theory, resulting in a thoughtful and appropriate learning pace. A second challenge associated with teaching and learning communication theory relates to preconceived notions of research: Students may view scholarship as difficult or remote. This book demonstrates to students that they already possess many of the characteristics of researchers, such as curiosity and ambition. Students will be pleasantly surprised to know that they operate according to many personal theories every day. Once students begin to revise their misconceptions about research and theory, they are in a position to understand the principles, concepts, and theories contained in this book. A third challenge of teaching and learning communication theory is capturing the complexity of a theory in an approachable way without oversimplifying the theoretical process. To address this problem, instructors often present a skeletal version of a theory and then fill in the missing pieces with personal materials. By providing a variety of engaging examples and applications reflecting a wide range of classroom demographics, Introducing Communication Theory facilitates such an approach. A final challenge relates to a theory’s genesis and today’s students. Clearly, in this technological age, students look for and usually crave a desire to find a “tech angle” to communication theory. Although many theories were conceptualized decades ago, in each chapter, we have provided the most recent research that represents a theory–technology framework. Further we have added questions in each chapter that are technological in nature, facilitating further student interest in the material. xviii Preface Major Changes in Content in the New Edition The sixth edition has undergone significant modification, namely in the content of the theory chapters and in the various learning aids available. EACH chapter has been updated to reflect the most current thinking. In particular, the following chapters have undergone major changes: Chapter 2 (Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts) includes the most current scholarship in each of the seven contexts of communication. Chapter 3 (Thinking About Theory and Research) is completely reorganized to reflect both the quantitative and qualitative thinking influencing theoretical development. Chapter 4 (Symbolic Interaction Theory) has been completely reorganized so that it disentangles the assumptions and themes of SI. Chapter 8 (Uncertainty Reduction Theory) has been overhauled and provides a more thoughtful presentation of the various axioms and theorems related to the theory. Chapter 12 (Communication Privacy Management Theory) has been substantively reorganized. In addition, new information on the criteria used to for developing privacy rules is discussed in detail. Chapter 14 (Groupthink) includes new information on NASA and the Military Whistleblower Protection Act and their relationship to groupthink. Chapter 15 (Structuration Theory) provides the newest thinking on various cautionary tales related to social integration. Chapter 20 (The Narrative Paradigm) delineates new research and practices related to storytelling. Chapter 21 (Agenda Setting Theory) presents a reorganization and reconceptualization of the three levels of agenda setting. Chapter 22 (Spiral of Silence Theory) employs the legalization of marijuana as an overarching template while discussing the influence and pervasiveness of public opinion. Chapter 24 (Cultivation Theory) includes extensive additions throughout on how technology and “mass-mediated storytelling” influence individuals. Chapter 25 (Cultural Studies) uses both the Flint, Michigan water crisis and marriage equality to demonstrate several of the issues and themes related to the theory. Chapter 29 (Muted Group Theory) includes a brief history of sexual harassment as computer jargon’s male-centeredness to exemplify several concepts associated with MGT. Features of the Book To accomplish our goals and address the challenges of teaching communication theory, we have incorporated a structure that includes number of special features and learning aids into the sixth edition: ∙∙ Part One, Foundations. The first three chapters of the book continue to provide students a solid foundation for studying the theories that follow. This Preface xix groundwork is essential in order to understand how theorists conceptualize and “The first three test their theories. Chapters 1 and 2 define communication and provide a framechapters of the book work for examining the theories. We present several traditions and contexts in continue to provide which theory is customarily categorized and considered. Chapter 3 provides an students a solid founoverview of the intersection of theory and research. This discussion is essential dation for studying in a theory course and also serves as a springboard for students as they enroll in the theories that folother courses. In addition, we present students with a template of various evaluative components that we apply in each of the subsequent theory chapters. low. This groundwork is ­essential in order ∙∙ Part Two, Theories and Theoretical Thinking. Updated coverage of all ­theories. to ­understand how Separate chapters on each of the theories provide accessible, thorough coverage for students and offer flexibility to instructors. Because of the feedback we ­theorists conceptureceived from the previous edition, we ­retained the original theories from the alize and test their fifth edition This updating results in a more thoughtful, current, and applicable theories.” presentation of each theory. As noted earlier, in many cases, we have provided the most recent information of the influences of culture and/or technology upon a particular theory, ­resulting in some very compelling discussions and examples. ∙ ∙ Section openers. The theory chapters in Part Two are organized into six sec“Every theory chapter tions. We have written section openers to introduce these groups of chapters. is self-contained The overviews provide students with an explanation for our choices, placing and includes a the theories in context and allowing students to have a foundation in order to consistent format see the connections ­between and among theories. that begins with a ∙∙ Chapter-opening vignettes. Each chapter begins with an extended vignette, which vignette, followed is then integrated throughout the chapter, providing examples to illustrate the theby an introduction, a oretical concepts and claims. We have been pleased that instructors and students summary of theoretipoint to these vignettes as important applications of sometimes complex material. These stories/case studies help students understand how communication theory cal assumptions, a plays out in the everyday lives of ordinary people. These opening stories help description of core drive home the i­mportant points of the theory. In addition, the real-life tone of concepts, and a each vignette entices students to understand the practicality of a particular theory. critique (using the ∙∙ A structured approach to each theory. Every theory chapter is self-contained criteria established and includes a consistent format that begins with a story, followed by an introin Part One). This duction, a summary of theoretical assumptions, a description of core concepts, consistency proand a critique (using the criteria established in Part One). This consistency provides continuity for students, ensures a balanced presentation of the theovides continuity for ries, and helps ease the retrieval of information for future learning experiences. students, ensures a Instructors and students have found this template to be quite valuable since it balanced presentaeliminates the stream-of-consciousness frequently found in other published tion of the theories, resources. and helps ease the ∙∙ Student Voices boxes. These boxes, featured in every chapter, present both new retrieval of informaand returning ­student comments on a particular concept or theoretical issue. The tion for future learncomments, extracted from journals in classes we have taught, illustrate the practiing experiences.” cality of the topic under discussion and also show how theoretical issues relate to students’ lives. In a sense, this feature illustrates how practical theories are and how much their tenets apply to our everyday lived experiences. xx Preface ∙∙ Theory in Popular Press. Students will be introduced to further applications of the various theories and theoretical concepts by examining popular press stories. Stories and articles exemplifying various parts of a theory are provided from a number of different outlets, including Forbes, USA Today, the (U.K.) Guardian, the Chicago Tribune, the New York Times, among many others. ∙∙ Visual template for theory evaluation. At the conclusion of each theory chapter, a criteria for theory evaluation (presented in Chapter 3) is ­employed. In addition, the theory’s context, scholarly tradition (based on Robert Craig’s typology), and approach to knowing are articulated. ∙∙ Theory at a Glance boxes. In order for students to have an immediate and concise understanding of a particular theory, we incorporate this ­feature at the beginning of each theory chapter. Students will have these brief explanations and short summaries before reading the chapter, thereby allowing them to have a general sense of what they are about to encounter. ∙∙ Afterword: ConnectingQuests. This final section of the book provides students with an integration of the various theories in order to see the interrelationships between theories. We believe that theories cut across multiple contexts. To this end, students are asked questions that address the intersection of theories. For instance, to understand “decision making” from two theoretical threads, students are asked to compare the concept and its usage in both Groupthink and Structuration Theory. These questions form a foundation for future conversations about communication theory. ∙∙ Tables, figures, and cartoons. To increase conceptual organization and enhance the visual presentation of content, we have provided several tables and figures throughout the text. Further, we have provided cartoons to provide another engaging reading option. Many chapters have visual aids for students to consider, helping them to understand the material. These visuals provide a clearer sense of the conceptual organization of the theories, and they support those students who best retain information visually. ∙∙ Running glossary. Throughout each chapter, a running glossary provides students immediate access to unfamiliar terms and their meanings. ∙∙ End-of-book glossary. Students have expressed interest in having a compiled list of definitions at the end of the text. This glossary provides easily accessed definitions of all the key terms contained in the book. In addition to the aforementioned features, several new additions exist in the new edition of Introducing Communication Theory: ∙∙ NEW Quantitative and Qualitative Research. In Chapter 3, we have reorganized the information to make it more understandable for students. We first discuss quantitative research methods and then qualitative research methods. We also added an evaluative statement at the conclusion of each theory chapter which notes whether the theory has primarily been investigated using a framework that is qualitative, quantitative, or both. Preface xxi ∙∙ NEW Theory-Into-Practice (TIP). We include this feature to provide further application of the information contained in the chapter. We identify a conclusion or two from the theory and then provide a real-world application of the particular claim. This feature sustains our commitment to enhancing the pragmatic value of a theory. ∙∙ NEW Socially Significant Themes and Noteworthy Celebrities. In an effort to provide students with examples that are compelling and memorable, we make a concerted effort to illustrate points with timely topics and recognizable newsmakers. Themes such as marriage equality, social media, medical marijuana, whistle-blowing, internships, civility, among many others are woven throughout the book. Important global issues, including Black Lives Matter, climate change, the world refugee crisis, among others are woven throughout the text. Cultural figures such as Dr. Oz, Samantha Bee, Maya Angelou, Jimmy Fallon, Dr. Phil, Martha Stewart, and others are also identified at appropriate points along the way. Although we never “dumb down” the theoretical material, we feel it’s important for students to read examples that are somewhat contemporary and not dated. ∙∙ NEW Tech Quest. Each chapter concludes with several Discussion Starters and a new question that probes how the theory relates to technology. Students will be asked to discuss the interface between a theory and several social media, for instance, including Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, LinkedIn, among others. ∙∙ NEW Cartoons. Eight new cartoons have been added to the text, providing a humorous break from the theoretical content. ∙∙ NEW Incorporation of over 200 new references. The explosion in communication research, in particular, is reflected in the incorporation of dozens of new studies, essays, and books that help students understand the theory or theoretical issue. We also provide students with easy access to a citation by integrating an APA format (the acceptable writing style of the communication field) so that they can see the relevancy and ­currency of a theory. When appropriate, we also have provided URLs for websites that have information which can be readily available. ∙∙ NEW Theoretical Thought. Each theory chapter begins with a statement made by a theorist or theorists that highlights the essence of the chapter’s content. These quotations reflect further effort to honor the words of the theorist(s). The 6th edition of Introducing Communications Theory: Analysis and Application is now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help students xxii Preface study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available through Connect, including: ∙∙ An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with general guidelines for teaching the basic theory course, sample syllabi for quarter and semester courses, chapter outlines, and classroom activities. ∙∙ A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central concepts and ideas in each chapter. ∙∙ Lecture Slides for instructor use in class. Organization Part One, Foundations, provides a conceptual base for the discrete theory chapters in Part Two. Chapter 1 begins by introducing the discipline and describing the process of communication. Chapter 2 provides the prevailing traditions and contexts that frame the communication field. In this chapter, we focus on Robert Craig’s guide to the ways in which communication theory can be considered. The chapter then turns to primary contexts of communication, which frame the study of communication in most academic settings across the country. Chapter 3 explores the intersection of theory and research. In this chapter, we provide students an understanding of the nature of theory and the characteristics of theory. The research process is also discussed, as are perspectives that guide communication research. Our goal in this chapter is to show that research and theory are interrelated and that the two should be considered in tandem as students read the individual chapters. Chapter 3 also provides a list of evaluative criteria for judging theories as well as for guiding students toward assessment of each subsequent theory chapter. With Part One establishing a foundation, Part Two, Theories and Theoretical Thinking, introduces students to 27 different theories, each in a discrete, concise chapter. Many of these theories cut across communication contexts. For example, Relational Dialectics Theory can be understood and applied in an organizational context as well as in an interpersonal context. However, to facilitate understanding, we have grouped theories into six sections according to primary focus: The Self and Messages, Relationship Development, Groups, Teams, and Organizations, The Public, The Media, and Culture and Diversity. We undertake this approach to align it with the contexts identified in Chapter 1. It was challenging for us to decide which theories to include because there are so many from which to choose. In making our selections, we were guided by four broad criteria: (1) whether the theory is significant in the field, (2) whether it reflects the interdisciplinary nature of the field, (3) whether it is important in the context of current thinking in the field, and (4) whether it contributes to a balance of pioneering and contemporary theories in the book. In addition, we were sensitive to the need to include theories developed by a diverse group of scholars. We know that there are many theories that we were unable to include. Yet, our book provides an expansive and respectful array of theories that in the end, we believe provides an important introduction to this challenging and worthwhile area known as communication theory. Preface xxiii Required=Results ©Getty Images/iStockphoto McGraw-Hill Connect® Learn Without Limits Connect is a teaching and learning platform that is proven to deliver better results for students and instructors. Connect empowers students by continually adapting to deliver precisely what they need, when they need it, and how they need it, so your class time is more engaging and effective. 73% of instructors who use Connect require it; instructor satisfaction increases by 28% when Connect is required. Using Connect improves retention rates by 19.8%, passing rates by 12.7%, and exam scores by 9.1%. Analytics Connect Insight® Connect Insight is Connect’s new one-of-a-kind visual analytics dashboard—now available for both instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding student performance, which is immediately actionable. By presenting assignment, assessment, and topical performance results together with a time metric that is easily visible for aggregate or individual results, Connect Insight gives the user the ability to take a just-in-time approach to teaching and learning, which was never before available. Connect Insight presents data that empowers students and helps instructors improve class performance in a way that is efficient and effective. Mobile Connect’s new, intuitive mobile interface gives students and instructors flexible and convenient, anytime–anywhere access to all components of the Connect platform. Students can view their results for any Connect course. Adaptive THE ADAPTIVE READING EXPERIENCE DESIGNED TO TRANSFORM THE WAY STUDENTS READ More students earn A’s and B’s when they use McGraw-Hill Education Adaptive products. SmartBook® Proven to help students improve grades and study more efficiently, SmartBook contains the same content within the print book, but actively tailors that content to the needs of the individual. SmartBook’s adaptive technology provides precise, personalized instruction on what the student should do next, guiding the student to master and remember key concepts, targeting gaps in knowledge and offering customized feedback, and driving the student toward comprehension and retention of the subject matter. Available on tablets, SmartBook puts learning at the student’s fingertips—anywhere, anytime. Over 8 billion questions have been answered, making McGraw-Hill Education products more intelligent, reliable, and precise. www.mheducation.com Acknowledgments Our book owes its existence to efforts made by others in addition to the listed authors, and some people who have helped with this book may not even realize the debt we acknowledge here. We would like to thank all those who have helped us as we worked our way through this large project. First, many professors and students have written to us, providing important clarification and examples. In addition, our work rests on the shoulders of the theorists whose creations we profile in this book. We are grateful for their creative thinking, which allows us to understand and begin to predict the complexities of the communication process. We worked hard to try to capture their insights and conclusions and convert these thoughts for introductory students in theory. Further, our insights represent the discussions that we have had with our communication theory students and colleagues over the years. Several parts of this book are based on student input at both of our institutions. Students have contributed to this book in both direct and indirect ways. Textbook writers understand that no book is possible without the talents and commitment of both an editorial and production team. We extend our deep appreciation and admiration to those who have made our words come to life in various ways: Jamie Laferrera, Brand Manager Jasmine Staton, Editorial Coordinator Lisa Bruflodt, Content Project Manager DeAnna Dausner, Content Licensing Specialist Finally, the development editing was handled by Erin Guendelsberger and Sowmya B. We thank both of them and the entire ansrsource development team. As is customary in each book he writes, Rich would like to acknowledge his mother for her continual focus on what matters in life: family, fun, and spirituality. He remains grateful for her continued positive influence. Rich would also like to thank his partner, Chris, who knows precisely when to make things less intense and more relaxing. Lynn would like to thank her family: her husband, Ted; her daughter’s family, the Spitznagles—Sabrina, Billy, Sophie, and Will; her stepdaughter’s family, the Kissels—Leila, Russ, Zoe, Dylan; and her stepson’s family, the Feldshers—Ted, Sally, Ely, and Lucas, for invaluable lessons in communication theory and practice. Further, she is indebted to her brother and his family, as well as all of her extended family members who helped in ways great and small as this project continued over time. And always, Lynn is grateful for the memory of her loving parents whose steadfast support and encouragement of her scholarship, and all of her interests, sustain her in every project she undertakes. Friends and colleagues provided great support and have taught her many valuable lessons about scholarship and communication theory. She also wishes to thank Marquette University; the school offered a supportive climate, research assistance, and a general tenor of encouragement. Finally, both Rich and Lynn give a special shout out to Holly Allen. Holly, a senior editor at Wiley, was the first to believe in us in 1994. She persuaded us to think about writing a textbook, the first of which was Perspectives on Family Communication (now in its sixth edition/McGraw-Hill). We began this writing enterprise because xxvi Preface of Holly and, to this day, she remains an inspiration as we celebrate the various successes we’ve had in textbook writing. Thanks Holly! Always. Finally, we thank the manuscript reviewers who gave their time and expertise to keep us on track in our interpretation of the ideas of others. We are grateful for their careful reading and insightful suggestions, which expanded and clarified our thinking in many ways. Our text is a much more useful product because of the comments and suggestions of the following reviewers who have shaped this book over the past few editions: Sixth Edition Greg G. Armfield, New Mexico State University Christine Armstrong, Northampton Community College Shaun Cashman, Pfeiffer University J. Dean Farmer, Campbell University Javette Grace Hayes, California State University, Fullerton Lisa Hebert, Louisiana State University Juan Liu, Wayne State University Jimmie Manning, Northern Illinois University Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College Robert William Wawee, University of Houston Downtown Fifth Edition Michael Barberich, University at Albany, SUNY Martha J. Haun, University of Houston Bryan Horikami, Salisbury University Anna Laura Jansma, University of California, Santa ­Barbara Susan Jarboe, San Diego State University Kelly Jones, Pitt Community College Fourth Edition Rebecca Dumlao, East Carolina University Edward T. Funkhouser, North Carolina State University Scott Guest, Bowling Green State University Anna Laura Jansma, University of California, Santa ­Barbara Anne M. Nicotera, University of Maryland Mark Zeigler, Florida State University Third Edition Randall S. Chase, Salt Lake Community College Chrys Egan, Salisbury University Preface xxvii Kathleen Galvin, Northwestern University Reed Markham, Salt Lake Community College Rita L. Rahoi-Gilchrest, Winona State University Second Edition Sue Barnes, Fordham University Jack Baseheart, University of Kentucky Jamie Byrne, Millersville University Thomas Feeley, State University of New York, ­Geneseo Amy Hubbard, University of Hawaii at Manoa Matthew McAllister, Virginia Tech Janet Skupien, University of Pittsburgh Jon Smith, Southern Utah University Katy Wiss, Western Connecticut State ­University Kevin Wright, University of Memphis First Edition John R. Baldwin, Illinois State University Holly H. Bognar, Cleveland State University Sheryl Bowen, Villanova University Cam Brammer, Marshall University Jeffrey D. Brand, North Dakota State University Randy K. Dillon, Southwest Missouri State University Kent Drummond, University of Wyoming James Gilchrist, Western Michigan University Laura Jansma, University of California–Santa ­Barbara Madeline M. Keaveney, California State University–Chico Joann Keyton, University of Kansas xxviii Preface Debra Mazloff, University of St. Thomas Elizabeth M. Perse, University of Delaware Linda M. Pledger, University of Arkansas Mary Ann Renz, Central Michigan University Patricia Rockwell, University of Southwestern Louisiana Deborah Smith-Howell, University of Nebraska Denise Solomon, University of Wisconsin Tami Spry, St. Cloud State University Rebecca W. Tardy, University of Louisville Ralph Thompson, Cornell University About the Authors Richard West is a Professor in the Department of Communication Studies at Emerson College in Boston. Rich received his BA and MA from Illinois State University and his PhD from Ohio U ­ niversity. Rich has been teaching since 1984, and his teaching and ­research interests range from family diversity to teacher–student communication. He began teaching communication theory as a graduate student and has taught the class in lecture format to more than 200 students. Rich is a past recipient of the Outstanding Alumni Award in Communication at Illinois State University and Ohio University. He is a member of several editorial boards in communication journals. Rich is also the recipient of the Eastern Communication Association’s (ECA) Distinguished Service Award where he also serves as a Research Fellow. He also served as ECA’s President in 2008. Lynn H. Turner is a Professor in Communication Studies at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Lynn received her BA from the University of Illinois and her MA from the University of Iowa, and she received her PhD from Northwestern University. She has taught communication theory and research methods to undergraduates and graduates in the Diederich College of Communication at Marquette since 1985. Prior to coming to Marquette, Lynn taught at Iowa State University and in two high schools in Iowa. Her research interests include interpersonal communication, family communication, and gendered communication. She is the recipient of several awards, including Marquette’s College of Communication Research Excellence Award, and the Book of the Year award from the Organization for the Study of Communication, Language, and Gender for her book with Patricia Sullivan, From the Margins to the Center: Contemporary Women and Political Communication. Lynn is a past president of the Central States Communication Association. Rich and Lynn, together, are coauthors of dozens of essays and articles in the communication field. In addition, the two have served as guest coeditors of the Journal of Family Communication a few times, focusing on diversity and the family. In addition, they have coauthored several books, including Gender and Communication, Perspectives on Family Communication, IPC, and Understanding Interpersonal Communication: Making Choices in Changing Times. The two have coedited the Family Communication Sourcebook (Sage, 2006; Winner of the Outstanding Book Award by the xxix National Communication Association), and The Handbook of Family Communication. Further, both are the recipients of the Bernard J. Brommel Award for Outstanding Scholarship and Service in Family Communication. Finally, both recognize the uniqueness and the honor to have served as president of the National Communication Association (Lynn in 2011; Rich in 2012), “the oldest and largest organization in the world promoting communication scholarship and education” (www.natcom.org). xxx About the Author P A R T One Foundations Communication, Theory, and Research Y OU MIGHT NOT HAVE THOUGHT ABOUT THIS, BUT each day the decisions we make, the (social) media we consume, and the relationships we experience can be enriched and explained by communication theory. Communication theory helps us to understand other people Chapter 2 and their communities, the media, and our associations Thinking About the Field: with families, friends, roommates, coworkers, and comTraditions and Contexts 24 panions. Perhaps most important, communication theory Chapter 3 makes it easier to understand ourselves. Thinking About Theory We begin our discussion of communication theory and Research 42 by asking you to consider the experiences of Morgan and Alex. After randomly being assigned as roommates, the two met on “move-in day” at Scott Hall. They were both pretty nervous. They had checked out each other on Facebook, emailed each other, and talked on the phone a few times, so they knew quite a bit about each other. Once they met, they started talking. They went out for coffee the first few weeks of school, getting to know each other better. They spent a lot of time telling stories about their families and friends, and talking about what they look for in a partner. They both loved television, especially the reality shows, because they loved to see how other people dealt with their lives in times of stress. After several weeks, Morgan and Alex became closer. They were going to have to balance their desire to hang out with each other with their need to be alone. And it was going to be give-and-take because their schedules were completely opposite. Eventually, the two became great friends. To illustrate the various ways in which communication theory functions in the lives of Morgan and Alex, let’s identify important aspects of their story and see how theory provides some understanding of Morgan’s and Alex’s behaviors. Chapter 1 Thinking About ­Communication: ­Definitions, Models, and Ethics 3 1 First, these roommates supported the research of Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Chapter 8) through their need to reduce their uncertainty about each other. They also probably self-disclosed some personal information to each other, underscoring a central feature of Social Penetration Theory (Chapter 10). Next, they discovered that they both watch television and use it to see how others live their lives, highlighting the essence of Uses and Gratifications Theory (Chapter 23). Balancing their need to be together with the need to remain private encompasses Relational Dialectics Theory (Chapter 11). Morgan and Alex also told personal stories to each other; storytelling is at the heart of the Narrative Paradigm (Chapter 20). In sum, at least five communication theories could help explain the experiences of the two roommates. The first three chapters provide an important foundation for discussing each communication theory that follows. These chapters give you a general introduction to communication and to theory. First, to provide you some insights into the communication field, in Chapter 1 we present our definition of communication, the prevailing models of communication, and other important issues including ethics and communication. Chapter 2 is dedicated to a discussion of the various traditions and contexts of communication, two important frameworks to consider as you read the remainder of the book. We prepare you directly for understanding the intersection of theory and research in Chapter 3. In this chapter, we also present you the necessary templates to evaluate and understand each theory. The chapter provides important criteria for evaluating a theory and also includes a model for you to examine. We revisit these templates at the conclusion of each theory chapter so that you have a consistent approach from which to interpret the various theories. 2 Part One • Foundations C H A P T E R Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 1 J immy and Angie Bollen have been married for almost 30 years, and they are the parents of three children who have been out of the house for years. But, a recent layoff at the company where their son Eddy worked has forced the 24-year-old to return home until he can get another job. At first, Eddy’s parents were glad that he was home. His father was proud of the fact that his son wasn’t embarrassed about returning home, and his mom was happy to have him help her with some of the mundane chores at home. In fact, Eddy showed both Jimmy and Angie how to instant message their friends and also put together a family website. His parents were especially happy about having a family member who was “tech-savvy” hanging around the house. But the good times surrounding Eddy’s return soon ended. Eddy brought his laptop to the table each morning, marring the Bollen’s once-serene breakfasts. Jimmy and Angie’s walks at night were complicated because their son often wanted to join them. At night, when they went to bed, the parents could hear Eddy talking on his cell phone, sometimes until 1:00 a.m. When Eddy’s parents thought about communicating their frustration The Bollens and disappointment, they quickly recalled the difficulty of their son’s situation. They didn’t want to upset him any further. The Bollens tried to figure out a way to communicate to their son that although they love him, they wished that he would get a job and leave the house. They simply wanted some peace, privacy, and freedom, and their son was getting in the way. It wasn’t a feeling either one of them liked, but it was their reality. They considered a number of different approaches. In order to get the conversation going, they even thought about giving Eddy a few website links related to local apartment rentals. Recently, the couple’s frustration with the situation took a turn for the worse. Returning from one of their long walks, they discovered Eddy on the couch, hung over from a party held earlier at his friend’s house. When Jimmy and Angie confronted him about his demeanor, Eddy shouted, “Don’t start lecturing me now. Is it any wonder that none of your other kids call you? It’s because you don’t know when to stop! Look, I got a headache and I don’t want to hear it from you guys!” Jimmy snapped, “Get out of my house. Now!” Eddy left the home, slamming the front door behind him. Angie stared out of the window, wondering whether they would ever hear from their son again. 3 THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS I suppose all of us get accustomed to look at what we are doing in a certain way and after a while have a kind of “trained incapacity” for looking at things in any other way. —Marie Hochmuth Nichols T THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS he value of communication has been lauded by philosophers (“Be silent or say something better than silence”—Pythagoras), writers (“The difference between the right word and the almost right word is the difference between lightning and a lightning bug”— Mark Twain), performing artists (“Any problem, big or small, in a family usually starts with bad communication”—Emma Thompson), business leaders (“Writing is great for keeping records and putting down details, but talk generates ideas”—T. Boone Pickens), motivational speakers (“The quality of your communication is the quality of your life”—Tony Robbins), and even talk show hosts (“Great communication begins with connection”— Oprah). Perhaps one of the most lasting of all words came from a 1967 film (Cool Hand Luke): “What we have here is a failure to communicate”—a quotation that has subsequently been stated in such diverse settings as in the movie Madagascar, the song “Civil War” by Guns N’ Roses, and television shows NCIS and Frasier. It’s clear that nearly all cross sections of a Western society view communication as instrumental in human relationships. In the most fundamental way, communication depends on our ability to understand one another. Although our communication can be ambiguous (“I never thought I’d get this gift from you”), one primary and essential goal in communicating is understanding. Our daily activities are wrapped in c­ onversations with others. Yet, as we see with the Bollen family, even those in close relationships can have difficulty expressing their thoughts. Being able to communicate effectively is highly valued in the United States. Corporations have recognized the importance of communication. In 2016, the N ­ ational Safety Management Society (nsms.us/?s=communication&submit=Search) reports that industrial safety is contingent on the ability of employees and management to communicate clearly and to avoid jargon when possible. Indeed, the entire Safety Professions http:// www.com.edu/gcsi/ “First and foremost, risk managers must be good communicators.” Health care, too, is focusing more on the value of communication. Interestingly, as early as the late 1960s, doctor–patient communication has been a topic of concern in research (Korsch, Gozzi, & Francis, 1968). More r­ ecent literature shows that doctor–patient communication is essential for the recovery of patients (Singh, 2016). Finally, in the classroom, researchers (e.g., Bolkon & Goodboy, 2011; Titsworth, Mazer, Goodboy, Bolkan, & Myers, 2015) have concluded that affirming feedback/student confirmation positively affects student learning. And, with respect to social networking sites such as Facebook, individuals in romantic relationships report using communication (technology) as a way to check up on “status updates” on an individual’s wall—from commitment to fidelity (usatodayeducate.com/staging/index.php/campuslife/the-bytes-and-the-bees-love-cantranscend-anything-even-facebook). Make no mistake about it: Abundant evidence underscores the fact that communication is an essential, pervasive, and consequential behavior in our society. As a student of communication, you are uniquely positioned to determine your potential for effective communication. To do so, however, you must have a basic understanding of the communication process and of how communication theory, in particular, functions in your life. We need to be able to talk e­ ffectively, for instance, to a number of very different types of people during an average day: teachers, ministers, salespeople, family members, friends, automobile mechanics, and health care providers. Communication opportunities fill our lives each day. However, we need to understand the whys and hows of our conversations with others. For instance, why do two people in a relationship feel a simultaneous need for togetherness and independence? 4   Chapter 1 • Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics Why do some women feel ignored or devalued in conversations with men? Why does language often influence the thoughts of others? How do media influence people’s behavior? To what extent can social media affect the communication among people? These and many other questions are at the root of why communication theory is so important in our society and so critical to understand. Defining Communication communication a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment social the notion that people and interac­ tions are part of the communication process process ongoing, dynamic, and unending occurrence Defining Communication    5 THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS Our first task is to create a common understanding for the term communication. Defining communication can be challenging. Katherine Miller (2005) underscores this dilemma, stating that “conceptualizations of communication have been abundant and have changed substantially over the years” (p. 3). Sarah Trenholm (1991) notes that although the study of communication has been around for centuries, it does not mean communication is well understood. In fact, Trenholm interestingly illustrates the dilemma when defining the term. She states, “Communication has become a sort of ‘portmanteau’ term. Like a piece of luggage, it is overstuffed with all manner of odd ideas and meanings. The fact that some of these do fit, resulting in a conceptual suitcase much too heavy for anyone to carry, is often overlooked” (p. 4). We should note that there are many ways to interpret and define ­communication—a result of the complexity and richness of the communication discipline. Imagine, for instance, taking this course from two different professors. Each would have his or her way of presenting the material, and each classroom of students would likely approach communication theory in a unique manner. The result would be two exciting and distinctive approaches to studying the same topic. This uniqueness holds true with defining communication. Scholars tend to see human phenomena from their own perspectives, something we delve into further in the next chapter. In some ways, researchers establish boundaries when they try to explain phenomena to others. Communication scholars may approach the interpretation of communication differently because of differences in scholarly values. With these caveats in mind, we offer the following definition of communication to get us pointed in the same direction. Communication is a ­social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment. We necessarily draw in elements of mediated communication as well in our discussion, given the importance that communication technology plays in contemporary society. With that in mind, let’s define five key terms in our perspective: social, process, symbols, meaning, and e­ nvironment (Figure 1.1). First, we believe that communication is a social process. When interpreting communication as social, we mean to suggest that it involves people and interactions, whether face-to-face or online. This necessarily includes two people, who act as senders and receivers. Both play an integral role in the communication process. When communication is social, it involves people who come to an interaction with various intentions, motivations, and abilities. To suggest that communication is a process means that it is ongoing and unending. Communication is also dynamic, complex, and continually changing. With this view of communication, we emphasize the dynamics of making meaning. Therefore, communication has no definable beginning and ending. For example, although Jimmy and Angie Bollen may tell their son that he must Communication Environment THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS Meaning Figure 1.1 Symbols Social Process Key Terms in Defining Communication leave the house, their discussions with him and about him will continue well after he leaves. In fact, the conversation they have with Eddy today will most likely affect their communication with him tomorrow. Similarly, our past communications with people have been stored in their minds and have affected their conversations with us. The process nature of communication also means that much can happen from the beginning of a conversation to the end. People may end up at a very different place once a discussion begins. This is exemplified by the frequent conflicts that roommates, spouses, and siblings experience. Although a conversation may begin with absolute and inflexible language, the conflict may be resolved with compromise. All of this can occur in a matter of minutes. Individual and cultural changes affect communication. Conversations between siblings, for example, have shifted from the 1950s to today. Years ago, siblings rarely discussed the impending death of a parent or the need to take care of an aging parent. Today, it’s not uncommon to listen to children talking about nursing home care, home health care, and even funeral arrangements. The 1950s was a time of postwar euphoria; couples were reunited after World War II and the baby boom began. Today, with an ongoing U.S. troop presence around the world, Americans rarely experience the euphoria they once had. The tensions, uncertainties, and loss of life are too compelling for many people. As you can see, perceptions and feelings can change and may remain in flux for quite some time. Some of you may be thinking that because the communication process is dynamic and unique it is virtually impossible to study. However, C. Arthur VanLear (1996) argues that because the communication process is so dynamic, researchers and theorists can look for patterns over time. He concludes that “if we recognize a pattern across a large number of cases, it permits us to ‘generalize’ to other unobserved cases” (p. 36). Or, as communication pioneers Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don Jackson (1967) suggest, the interconnectedness of communication events is critical and pervasive. Thus, it is possible to study the dynamic communication process. To help you visualize this process, imagine a continuum where the points are unrepeatable and irreversible. Frank Dance (1967) depicts the communication process by using a spiral or helix (Figure 1.2). He believes that communication experiences are cumulative 6   Chapter 1 • Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics ∞ Figure 1.2 Communication Process as a Helix Source: Reprinted by permission of Frank E. X. Dance. symbol arbitrary label given to a phenomenon concrete symbol symbol represent­ ing an object abstract symbol symbol representing an idea or thought meaning what people extract from a message [W]hen President George W. Bush was about to go to war in Iraq, he ­referred to this war as a “crusade.” The use of this term evoked strong negative reactions in the Islamic world, due to the history of the Crusades nearly 1,000 years ago . . . . While President Bush may not have knowingly wanted to frame the Iraq invasion as a religious war against Muslims, the history of the Crusades may make others feel that it is. (p. 70) Clearly, not all meaning is shared, and people do not always know what others mean. In these situations, we must be able to explain, repeat, and clarify. For example, Defining Communication    7 THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS and are influenced by the past. He notes that present experiences inevitably influence a person’s future, and so he emphasizes a nonlinear view of the process. Communication, therefore, can be considered a process that changes over time and among interactants. A third term associated with our definition of communication is symbols. A symbol is an arbitrary label or representation of phenomena. Words are symbols for concepts and things—for example, the word love represents the idea of love; the word chair represents a thing we sit on. Labels may be ambiguous, may be both verbal and nonverbal, and may occur in face-to-face and mediated communication. Symbols are usually agreed on within a group but may not be understood outside of the group. In this way, their use is often arbitrary. For i­ nstance, most college students understand the phrase “preregistration is closed”; those outside of college may not understand its meaning. Further, there are both concrete symbols (the symbol represents an object) and abstract symbols (the symbol stands for a thought or idea). Even the innocuous Twitter symbol—the hashtag has resonance in politics. Tamara Small (2011), for example, claims that in-depth political reporting and discussion is fast becoming rare in politics. Rather, the search for a condensed, 140‑character tweet has supplanted efforts to investigate and interrogate sometimes called “viral politics” (Penney, 2014). So, the hashtag symbol effectively becomes a representation of a story that used to be several hundred words found in newspapers and magazines. In addition to process and symbols, meaning is central to our definition of communication. Meaning is what people extract from a message. In communication episodes, messages can have more than one meaning and even multiple layers of meaning. Without sharing some meanings, we would all have a difficult time speaking the same language or interpreting the same event. Judith Martin and Tom Nakayama (2013) point out that meaning has cultural consequences: THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS environment situation or context in which communi­ cation occurs if the Bollens want to tell Eddy to move out, they will probably need to go beyond telling him that they just need their “space.” Eddy may perceive “needing space” as simply staying out of the house two nights a week. Furthermore, his parents will have to figure out what communication “approach” is best. They might believe that being direct may be best to get their son out of the house. Or they might fear that such clear communication is not the most effective strategy to change Eddy’s behavior. Regardless of how Jimmy and Angie Bollen communicate their wishes, without sharing the same meaning, the family will have a challenging time getting their messages across to one another. The final key term in our definition of communication is environment. ­Environment is the situation or context in which communication occurs. The ­environment includes a number of elements, including time, place, historical period, relationship, and a speaker’s and listener’s cultural backgrounds. You can understand the influence of environments by thinking about your beliefs and values pertaining to socially significant topics such as marriage equality, physician-assisted suicide, and immigration into the United States. If you have had personal experience with any of these topics, it’s likely your views are affected by your perceptions. The environment can also be mediated. By that, we mean that communication takes place with technological assistance. At one point or another, all of us have communicated in a mediated environment, namely through email, chat rooms, or social networking sites. These mediated environments influence the communication between two people in that people in electronic relationships are (usually) not able to observe each other’s eye behavior, listen to vocal characteristics, or watch body movement (Skype would be an exception to this, however). Clearly, the mediated environment has received a great deal of attention over the years as communication theory continues to develop. Student Voices Janelle The discussion in class about environment was interesting to me. I can’t begin to tell you how many different types of physical environments I’m in every day. I work in a nonprofit, so I’m always in and out of the office. Our office is on the third floor of a five-story building. It’s quite small, but we have a lot of fun. Sometimes, though, I have to go to a corporate office where everything is new and looks very expensive. A lot of the workers, though, seem up-tight! Then, I have to visit some people’s homes and I can say that there is so much difference in the way people have arranged their home environments. And I haven’t even begun to talk about how I use email and the ­different mediated environments. It’s unbelievable! models simplified represen­ tations of the com­ munication process Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction Communication theorists create models, or simplified representations of complex interrelationships among elements in the communication process, which allow us to 8   Chapter 1 • Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics visually understand a sometimes complex process. Models help us weave together the basic elements of the communication process. Although there are many communication models, we discuss the three most prominent ones here. In discussing these models and their underlying approaches, we wish to demonstrate the manner in which communication has been conceptualized over the years. Communication as Action: The Linear Model In 1949, Claude Shannon, a Bell Laboratories scientist and professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Warren Weaver, a consultant on projects at the Sloan Foundation, described communication as a linear process. They were concerned with radio and telephone technology and wanted to ­develop a model that could explain how information passed through various channels. The result was the conceptualization of the linear model of communication. This approach to human communication comprises several key elements, as Figure 1.3 demonstrates. A source, or transmitter of a message, sends a m ­ essage to a receiver, the recipient of the message. The receiver is the person who makes sense out of the message. All of this communication takes place in a channel, which is the pathway to communication. Channels frequently correspond to the visual, tactile, olfactory, and auditory senses. Thus, you use the visual channel when you see your roommate, and you use the tactile channel when you hug your parent. Communication also involves noise, which is anything not intended by the informational source. There are four types of noise. First, semantic noise pertains to the slang, jargon, or specialized language used by individuals or groups. For instance, source originator of a message message words, sounds, actions, or gestures in an interaction receiver recipient of a message channel pathway to communication noise distortion in channel not intend­ ed by the source semantic noise linguistic influences on reception of message Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction    9 THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS www.CartoonStock.com linear model of communication one-way view of communication that assumes a mes­ sage is sent by a source to a receiver through a channel Physiological Psychological Physical Semantic Noise Sender/Source Target/Receiver Message physical (external) noise bodily influences on reception of message psychological noise cognitive influences on reception of message physiological noise biological influences on reception of message Physiological Psychological Linear Model of Communication Physical Figure 1.3 Semantic THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS Noise when Jennifer received a medical report from her ophthalmologist, the physician’s words included phrases such as “ocular neuritis,” “dilated funduscopic examination,” and “papillary conjunctival changes.” This is an example of semantic noise because outside of the medical community, these words have limited (or no) meaning. Physical, or external, noise ­exists outside of the receiver. Psychological noise refers to a communicator’s prejudices, biases, and predispositions toward another or the message. To ­exemplify these two types, imagine listening to participants at a political rally. You may experience psychological noise listening to the views of a politician whom you do not support, and you may also experience physical noise from the people nearby who may be protesting the politician’s presence. Finally, physiological noise refers to the biological influences on the communication process. Physiological noise, then, exists if you or a speaker is ill, fatigued, or hungry. Although this view of the communication process was highly respected many years ago, the approach is very limited for several reasons. First, the model presumes that there is only one message in the communication process. Yet we all can point to a number of circumstances in which we send several messages at once. Second, as we have previously noted, communication does not have a definable beginning and ending. Shannon and Weaver’s model presumes this mechanistic orientation. Furthermore, to suggest that communication is simply one person speaking to another oversimplifies the complex communication process. Listeners are not so passive, as we can all confirm when we are in heated arguments with others. Clearly, communication is more than a one-way effort and has no definable middle or end (Anderson & Ross, 2002). Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model interactional model of communication view of communica­ tion as the sharing of meaning with feedback that links source and receiver The linear model suggests that a person is only a sender or a receiver. That is a narrow view of the participants in the communication process. Wilbur Schramm (1954), therefore, proposed that we also examine the relationship between a sender and a receiver. He conceptualized the interactional model of communication, which emphasizes the two-way communication process between communicators (Figure 1.4). In other words, communication goes in two directions: from sender to receiver and 10   Chapter 1 • Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics Noise Fie Noise Noise Receiver Feedback Feedback xperienc e Sender e ld of d of experien Fiel ce Message Channel from receiver to sender. This circular process suggests that communication is ongoing. The interactional view ­illustrates that a person can perform the role of either sender or receiver during an interaction, but not both roles simultaneously. One element essential to the interactional model of communication is f­ eedback, or the response to a message. Feedback may be verbal or nonverbal, intentional or unintentional. Feedback helps communicators to know whether or not their message is being received and the extent to which meaning is achieved. In the interactional model, feedback takes place after a message is received, not during the message itself. To illustrate the critical nature of feedback and the interactional model of communication, consider our opening example of the Bollen family. When Eddy’s parents find him on the couch drunk, they proceed to tell Eddy how they feel about his behavior. Their outcry prompts Eddy to argue with his parents, who in turn, tell him to leave their house immediately. This interactional sequence shows that there is an alternating nature in the communication between Eddy and his parents. They see his behavior and provide their feedback on it, Eddy listens to their message and responds, then his father sends the final message telling his son to leave. We can take this even further by noting the door slam as one additional feedback behavior in the interaction. A final feature of the interactional model is a person’s field of experience, or how a person’s culture and experiences influence his or her ability to communicate with another. Each person brings a unique field of experience to each communication episode, and these experiences frequently influence the communication between people. For instance, when two people come together and begin dating, the two inevitably bring their fields of experience into the relationship. One person in this couple may have been raised in a large family with several siblings, while the other may be an only child. These experiences (and others) will necessarily influence how the two come together and will most likely affect how they maintain their relationship. Like the linear view, the interactional model has been criticized. The interactional model suggests that one person acts as sender while the other acts as receiver in a communication encounter. As you have experienced, however, people communicate as both senders and receivers in a single encounter. But the prevailing criticism Interactional Model of Communication feedback communication given to the source by the receiver to indicate understanding field of experience overlap of sender’s and receiver’s culture, experiences, and heredity in communication Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction    11 THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS Noise Figure 1.4 THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS of the interactional model pertains to the issue of feedback. The interactional view assumes two people speaking and listening, but not at the same time. But what occurs when a person sends a nonverbal message during an interaction? Smiling, frowning, or simply moving away from the conversation during an interaction between two people happens all the time. For example, in an interaction between a mother and her daughter, the mother may be reprimanding her child while simultaneously “reading” the child’s nonverbal behavior. Is the girl laughing? Is she upset? Is she even listening to her mother? Each of these behaviors will inevitably prompt the mother to modify her message. These criticisms and contradictions inspired development of a third model of communication. Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model transactional model of communication view of communica­ tion as the simul­ taneous sending and receiving of messages The transactional model of communication (Barnlund, 1970; Frymier, 2005; Wilmot, 1987) underscores the simultaneous sending and receiving of messages in a communication episode, as Figure 1.5 shows. To say that communication is transactional means that the process is cooperative; the sender and the receiver are mutually responsible for the effect and the effectiveness of communication. In the linear model of communication, meaning is sent from one person to another. In the interactional model, meaning is achieved through the feedback of a sender and a receiver. In the transactional model, people build shared meaning. Furthermore, what people say during a transaction is greatly influenced by their past experience. So, for instance, at a college fair, it is likely that a college student will have a great deal to say to a high school senior ­because of the college student’s experiences in class and around campus. A college senior will, no doubt, have a different view of college than, say, a college sophomore, due in large part to his or her past college experiences. Transactional communication requires us to recognize the influence of one message on another. One message builds on the previous message; therefore, there Noise Psychological Semantic Physical Physiological Message/Feedback Communicator Figure 1.5 Transactional Model of ­Communication Field of experience Communicator Shared field of experience 12   Chapter 1 • Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics Field of experience Communication Models of the Future As we move further into the 21st century, we have to ask the question: Are these models sufficient as we examine human communication? We already know that communication models are usually incomplete and unsuitable for all purposes (McQuail & Windhal, 2015). The answer is fairly complex. First, the proliferation of new social networking sites (SNS), for example, and their influence upon communication demand that communication models integrate technological discussions. Second, this integration must necessarily be thoughtful, given the plethora of SNS. Traffic to SNS has grown exponentially over the past few years with about 75 percent of online adults using social networking (http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets /social-networking-fact-sheet)—up from 7 percent in 2005. The diversity of these sites—from Facebook to LinkedIn to Instagram—suggests that no simple model will be possible. We address the notion of technology in several chapters in this book and the theorist’s perception of how technology affects the communication process. We can envision a model of communication that incorporates SNS as both the sender and the receiver. We anticipate that scholars will embark upon understanding the transactional nature of such platforms as Snapchat, where a message disappears after 10 seconds. Communication Models of the Future    13 THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS is an interdependency between and among the components of communication. A change in one causes a change in others. Furthermore, the transactional model presumes that as we simultaneously send and receive messages, we attend to both verbal and nonverbal elements of a message. In a sense, communicators negotiate meaning. For instance, if a friend asks you about your family background, you may use some private language that your friend doesn’t understand. Your friend may make a face while you are presenting your message, indicating some sort of confusion with what you’ve said. As a result, you will most likely back up and define your terms and then continue with the conversation. This example highlights the degree to which two people are actively involved in a communication encounter. The nonverbal communication is just as important as the verbal message in such a transactional process. Earlier we noted that the field of experience functions in the interactional model. In the transactional model, the fields of experience exist, but overlap occurs. That is, rather than person A and person B having separate fields of experience, eventually the two fields merge (see Figure 1.5). This was an important a­ ddition to the understanding of the communication process because it demonstrates an active process of understanding. That is, for communication to take place, individuals must build shared meaning. For instance, in our earlier example of two people with different childhoods, the interactional model suggests that they would come together with an understanding of their backgrounds. The transactional model, however, requires each of them to understand and incorporate the other’s field of experience into his or her life. For example, it’s not enough for Julianna to know that Paul has a prior prison record; the transactional view holds that she must figure out a way to put his past into perspective. Will it affect their current relationship? How? If not, how will Julianna discuss it with Paul? The transactional model takes the meaning-making process one step further than the interactional model. It assumes reciprocity, or shared meaning. THINKING ABOUT COMMUNICATION: DEFINITIONS, MODELS, AND ETHICS Clearly, Shannon, Weaver, Schramm, and Barnlund could never have envisioned such technology. We’re sure that in the not-so-distant future, we will have an abundance of research on the influences of these technological influences on the communication process. You now have a basic understanding of how we define communication, and we have outlined the basic elements and a few communication models. Recall this interpretation as you read the book and examine the various theories. It is probable that you will interpret communication differently from one theory to another. Remember that theorists set boundaries in their discussions about human behavior, and, consequently, they often define communication according to their own view. One of our goals in this book is to enable you to articulate the role that communication plays in a number of different theories. Thus far, we have examined the communication process and unpacked the complexity associated with it. We have identified the primary models of communication, trying to demonstrate the evolution and maturation of the communication field. We now explore a component that is a necessary and vital part of every communication episode: ethics. Ethics and Communication ethics perceived rightness or wrongness of an action or behavior In the movie The Insider, which was based on a true story, the lead character’s name is Jeffrey Wigand, a former tobacco scientist who violated a contractual agreement and exposed a cigarette maker’s efforts to include addictive ingredients in all cigarettes. The movie shows Wigand as a man of good conscience with the intention of telling the public about the company and its immoral undertakings. Wigand clearly believed that saving lives was the right and only thing to do, and he made his actions fit his beliefs: He acted on his ethics. In this section, we examine ethics, or the perceived rightness or wrongness of action or behavior. Ethics is a type of moral decision making (May, 2013), and determining what is right or wrong is influenced by society’s rules and laws. For example, although some may believe Wigand’s efforts were laudable, others may note that Wigand apparently knew what was going on when he signed a contract prohibiting him from disclosing company secrets. Furthermore, the murkiness of ethics is evidenced when one considers that Wigand made a lot of money before disclosing what was occurring. The United States is built on standards of moral conduct, and these standards are central to a number of institutions and relationships. Because ethical standards tend to shift according to historical period, the environment, the conversation, and the people involved, ethics can be difficult to understand. Let’s briefly discuss ethical issues as they pertain to cultural institutions; a more comprehensive explanation of ethics can be found elsewhere (see MacKinnon, 2012). To begin, George Cheney, Debashish Munshi, Steve May, and Erin Ortiz (2010) posit the following: “Communication, as both a discipline and an ‘interdiscipline’ or field, is poised to play a unique role in advancing discussions of ethics because the field offers an array of concepts and principles attuned to the examination of ethics” (p. 1). Their words resonate throughout this discussion. Let’s start here by asking why we should understand ethics, next explain ethics as it relates to society, and finally, explain the intersection of ethics and communication theory. As you think about this information, keep in mind that ethical decision making is culturally based. That is, what we consider to be ethical and appropriate in one society is not necessarily a shared value in another society. For instance, though 14   Chapter 1 • Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics Business and Industry Perhaps no cultural institution has been under more ethical suspicions of late than “corporate America.” Unethical behavior in corporations has reached proportions never before seen. In fact, many of these scandals prompted the Occupy Wall Street protest movements in 2011 and 2012, and in 2016, the rise of a (then) little known U.S. Senator from Vermont: Bernie Sanders. Because a corporation is usually obsessed about its reputation (Carroll, 2015), companies have tried to hide costs, use creative accounting practices, commit accounting fraud, and a plethora of other ethical breaches. The exa...
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