Chapter 7: Physical Development in Early
Childhood
Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the physical changes that occur in early childhood.
2. Explain how to provide health nutrition for 3- to 5-year-olds.
3. Summarize how to support the progression of motor skills with age appropriate
activities.
4. Discuss the sleep needs during early childhood and sleep disorders that may affect
children.
5. Explain the development behind toilet training and some elimination disorders that
children may experience.
6. Recognize the importance of awareness of sexual development in early childhood.
7. Discuss risks to and a variety of ways to promote and protect children’s health and
safety.
Introduction
During the early childhood years of three to five we see significant changes in the way children
look, think, communicate, regulate their emotions, and interact with others. Children are often
referred to as preschoolers during this time period. We’ll examine the physical changes of the
preschooler in this chapter.
Figure 7.1 – Two children walking across a bridge.1
Growth in Early Childhood
Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year and
gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year. The 3 year old is very similar to a toddler with a
1
Image by Kevin Gent on Unsplash
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large head, large stomach, short arms and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the
torso has lengthened and body proportions have become more like those of adults. The
average 6 year old weighs approximately 46 pounds and is about 46 inches in height. This
growth rate is slower than that of infancy.
Nutritional Concerns
That slower rate of growth is accompanied by a reduced appetite between the ages of 2 and 6.
This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead to the development of poor
eating habits. However, children between the ages of 2 and 3 need 1,000 to 1,400 calories,
while children between the ages of 4 and 8 need 1,200 to 2,000 calories (Mayo Clinic, 2016a).2
Caregivers who have established a feeding routine with their child can find the reduction in
appetite a bit frustrating and become concerned that the child is going to starve. However, by
providing adequate, sound nutrition, and limiting sugary snacks and drinks, the caregiver can be
assured that 1) the child will not starve; and 2) the child will receive adequate nutrition.
Preschoolers can experience iron deficiencies if not given well-balanced nutrition or if they are
given too much milk as calcium interferes with the absorption of iron in the diet as well.
Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this age. Young
children who grow accustomed to high fat, very sweet and salty flavors may have trouble eating
foods that have more subtle flavors such as fruits and vegetables. Consider the following advice
about establishing eating patterns for years to come (Rice, F.P., 1997). Notice that keeping
mealtime pleasant, providing sound nutrition and not engaging in power struggles over food
are the main goals.3
Tips for Establishing Healthy Eating Habits
1.
2.
3.
Don’t try to force your child to eat or fight over food. Of course, it is impossible to
force someone to eat. But the real advice here is to avoid turning food into a power
struggle so that food doesn’t become a way to gain favor with or express anger
toward someone else.
Recognize that appetite varies. Children may eat well at one meal and have no
appetite at another. Rather than seeing this as a problem, it may help to realize that
appetites do vary. Continue to provide good nutrition at each mealtime (even if
children don’t choose to eat the occasional meal).
Keep it pleasant. This tip is designed to help caregivers create a positive atmosphere
during mealtime. Mealtimes should not be the time for arguments or expressing
tensions. You do not want the child to have painful memories of mealtimes together
or have nervous stomachs and problems eating and digesting food due to stress.
2
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed
under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
3
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
166 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
4.
5.
6.
7.
No short order chefs. While it is fine to prepare foods that children enjoy, preparing
a different meal for each child or family member sets up an unrealistic expectation
from others. Children probably do best when they are hungry and a meal is ready.
Limiting snacks rather than allowing children to “graze” continuously can help create
an appetite for whatever is being served.
Limit choices. If you give your preschool aged child choices, make sure that you give
them one or two specific choices rather than asking “What would you like for
lunch?” If given an open choice, children may change their minds or choose
whatever their sibling does not choose!
Serve balanced meals. Meals prepared at home tend to have better nutritional
value than fast food or frozen dinners. Prepared foods tend to be higher in fat and
sugar content as these ingredients enhance taste and profit margin because fresh
food is often more costly and less profitable. However, preparing fresh food at home
is not costly. It does, however, require more activity. Including children in meal
preparation can provide a fun and memorable experience.
Don’t bribe. Bribing a child to eat vegetables by promising dessert is not a good
idea. First, the child will likely find a way to get the dessert without eating the
vegetables (by whining or fidgeting, perhaps, until the caregiver gives in). Secondly,
it teaches the child that some foods are better than others. Children tend to
naturally enjoy a variety of foods until they are taught that some are considered less
desirable than others. A child, for example, may learn the broccoli they have enjoyed
is seen as yucky by others unless it’s smothered in cheese sauce!4
Figure 7.2 – Two children cooking together.5
USDA Meal Patterns for Young Children
The United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service provides the following
guidance for the daytime feeding of children age 3 to 5.
4
5
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Image by the Air Force Medical Service is in the public domain
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Meal Patterns6
Table 7.1
Meal
Breakfast
Lunch or Supper
Snack
Ages 3-5
3/4 cup milk
1/2 cup vegetables, fruit, or both
½ ounce equivalent grains
3/4 cup milk
1½ ounces meat or meat alternative
1/4 cup vegetables
1/4 cup fruits
½ ounce equivalent of grains
Select two of the following:
½ cup of milk
½ ounce meat or meat alternative
½ cup vegetables
½ cup fruit
½ ounce equivalent of grains
Brain Maturation
Brain Weight
The brain is about 75 percent its adult weight by two years of age. By age 6, it is approximately
95 percent its adult weight. Myelination and the development of dendrites continues to occur
in the cortex and as it does, we see a corresponding change in the child’s abilities. Significant
development in the prefrontal cortex (the area of the brain behind the forehead that helps us
to think, strategize, and control emotion) makes it increasingly possible to control emotional
outbursts and to understand how to play games. Consider 4- or 5-year-old children and how
they might approach a game of soccer. Chances are, every move would be a response to the
commands of a coach standing nearby calling out, “Run this way! Now, stop. Look at the
ball. Kick the ball!” And when the child is not being told what to do, he or she is likely to be
looking at the clover on the ground or a dog on the other side of the fence! Understanding the
game, thinking ahead, coordinating movement, and handling losing improve with practice and
myelination.7
6
https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/cacfp/CACFP_MealBP.pdf
Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology
by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
7
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Visual Pathways
Children’s drawings are representative of the development of visual pathways; as children’s
brains mature the images in their drawings change. Early scribbles and dots illustrate the use of
simple motor skills. No real connection is made between an image being visualized and what is
created on paper.
At age 3, the child begins to draw wispy creatures with heads and not much other
detail. Gradually pictures begin to have more detail and incorporate more parts of the
body. Arm buds become arms and faces take on noses, lips and eventually eyelashes.
Figure 7.3 – Early scribbles.8
Figure 7.4 – Creatures with heads.9
Figure 7.5 – A detailed face.10
Growth in the Hemispheres and Corpus Callosum
Between ages 3 and 6, the left hemisphere of the brain grows dramatically. This side of the
brain or hemisphere is typically involved in language skills. The right hemisphere continues to
grow throughout early childhood and is involved in tasks that require spatial skills such as
recognizing shapes and patterns. The corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres of
the brain undergoes a growth spurt between ages 3 and 6 and results in improved coordination
between right and left hemisphere tasks.
Motor Skill Development
Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song. Days are
filled with jumping, running, swinging and clapping and every place becomes a playground.
Even the booth at a restaurant affords the opportunity to slide around in the seat or disappear
underneath and imagine being a sea creature in a cave! Of course, this can be frustrating to a
caregiver, but it’s the business of early childhood.
8
Image by Wikimedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
Image by torange.biz is Licensed under CC-BY 4.0
10
Image by torange.biz is Licensed under CC-BY 4.0
9
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Gross Motor Skills
Children continue to improve their gross motor skills as they run and jump. They frequently ask
their caregivers to “look at me” while they hop or roll down a hill. Children’s songs are often
accompanied by arm and leg movements or cues to turn around or move from left to right.
Gross Motor Milestones
Here is a table showing the progression of gross motor skills that children will typically develop
during early childhood:
Table 7.2 - Gross Motor Milestones11
Typical Age
What Most Children Do by This Age
3 years
Climbs well
Runs easily
Pedals a tricycle (3-wheel bike)
Walks up and down stairs, one foot on each step
4 years
Hops and stands on one foot up to 2 seconds
Catches a bounced ball most of the time
5 years
Stands on one foot for 10 seconds or longer
Hops; may be able to skip
Can do a somersault
Can use the toilet on own
Swings and climbs
Activities to Support Gross Motor Skills
Here are some activities focused on play that young children enjoy and that support their gross
motor skill development.
Tricycle
Slides
Swings
Sit-n-Spin
Mini trampoline
Bowling pins (can use plastic soda bottles also)
Tent (try throwing blankets over chairs and other furniture to make a fort)
Playground ladders
Suspension bridge on playground
Tunnels (try throwing a bean bag chair underneath for greater challenge)
Ball play (kick, throw, catch)
Simon Says
11
Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain
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Target games with bean bags, ball, etc.
Dancing/moving to music
Pushing self on scooter or skateboard while on stomach
Figure 7.6 – Children riding tricycles together.12
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills are also being refined as they continue to develop more dexterity, strength,
and endurance. Fine motor skills are very important as they are foundational to self-help skills
and later academic abilities (such as writing).
Fine Motor Milestones
Here is a table showing how fine motor skills progress during early childhood for children that
are typically developing.
Table 7.3 - Fine Motor Milestones13
Typical Age
3 years
12
13
What Most Children Do by This Age
Copies a circle with pencil or crayon
Turns book pages one at a time
Builds towers of more than 6 blocks
Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handle
Image by Hanscom Air Force Base is in the public domain
Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain
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Typical Age
What Most Children Do by This Age
4 years
Pours, cuts with supervision, and mashes own food
Draws a person with 2 to 4 body parts
Uses scissors
Starts to copy some capital letters
5 years
Can draw a person with at least 6 body parts
Can print some letters or numbers
Copies a triangle and other geometric shapes
Uses a fork and spoon and sometimes a table knife
Activities to Support Fine Motor Skills
Here are some fun activities that will help children continue to refine their fine motor abilities.
Fine motor skills are slower to develop than gross motor skills, so it is important to have age
appropriate expectations and play-based activities for children.
Pouring water into a container
Drawing and coloring
Using scissors
Finger painting
Fingerplays and songs (such as the Itsy, Bitsy Spider)
Play dough
Lacing and beading
Practicing with large tweezers, tongs, and eye droppers
Figure 7.7 – Children coloring.14
14
Image by Spangdahlem Air Base is in the public domain
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Sleep and Early Childhood
Along with food and water, sleep is one of the human body's most important physiological
needs—we cannot live without it. Extended sleeplessness (i.e., lack of sleep for longer than a
few days) has severe psychological and physical effects. Research on rats has found that a week
of no sleep leads to loss of immune function, and two weeks of no sleep leads to death.
Recently, neuroscientists have learned that at least one vital function of sleep is related to
learning and memory. New findings suggest that sleep plays a critical role in flagging and
storing important memories, both intellectual and physical, and perhaps in making subtle
connections that were invisible during waking hours.15
How Much Sleep Do We Need?
The amount of sleep an individual needs varies depending on multiple factors including age,
physical condition, psychological condition, and energy exertion. Just like any other human
characteristic, the amount of sleep people need to function best differs among individuals,
even those of the same age and gender.
Though there is no magic sleep number, there are general rules for how much sleep certain age
groups need. For instance, children need more sleep per day in order to develop and function
properly: up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as a child ages. A newborn
baby spends almost 9 hours a day in REM sleep. By the age of five, only slightly over two hours
is spent in REM. Studies show that young children need about 10 to 11 hours of sleep,
adolescents need between 8.5 and 9.25, and adults generally need between 7 and 9 hours.
Figure 7.8 – A child sleeping.16
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
Sleepwalking (sometimes called sleepwalking disorder, somnambulism, or noctambulation)
causes a person to get up and walk during the early hours of sleep. The person may sit up and
look awake (though they're actually asleep), get up and walk around, move items, or dress or
15
16
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Image by Peter Griffin is in the public domain
173 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
undress themselves. They will have a blank stare and still be able to perform complex tasks.
Some individuals also talk while in their sleep, saying meaningless words and even having
arguments with people who are not there. A person who sleepwalks will be confused upon
waking up and may also experience anxiety and fatigue.
Sleepwalking can be dangerous—people have been known to seriously hurt themselves during
sleepwalking episodes. It is most common in children, but it also occurs occasionally in adults.
For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all
associated with sleepwalking.
Sleep Terrors and Nightmare Disorder
Sleep terrors are characterized by a sudden arousal from deep sleep with a scream or cry,
accompanied by some behavioral manifestations of intense fear. Sleep terrors typically occur in
the first few hours of sleep, during stage 3 NREM sleep. Night terrors tend to happen during
periods of arousal from delta sleep (i.e., slow-wave sleep). They are worse than nightmares,
causing significant disorientation, panic, and anxiety. They can last up to 10 minutes, and the
person may be screaming and difficult to wake. In some cases, sleep terrors continue into
adulthood.
Distinct from sleep terrors is nightmare disorder. Also known as "dream anxiety disorder,"
nightmare disorder is characterized by frequent nightmares. The nightmares, which often
portray the individual in a situation that jeopardizes their life or personal safety, usually occur
during the second half of the sleeping process, called the REM stage. Though many people
experience nightmares, those with nightmare disorder experience them more frequently.17
Toilet Training
Toilet training typically occurs after the second birthday. Some children show interest by age 2,
but others may not be ready until months later. The average age for girls to be toilet trained is
29 months and for boys it is 31 months, and 98% of children are trained by 36 months (Boyse &
Fitzgerald, 2010). The child’s age is not as important as his/her physical and emotional
readiness. If started too early, it might take longer to train a child.
According to The Mayo Clinic (2016b) the following questions can help parents determine if a
child is ready for toilet training:
Does your child seem interested in the potty chair or toilet, or in wearing underwear?
Can your child understand and follow basic directions?
Does your child tell you through words, facial expressions or posture when he or she
needs to go?
Does your child stay dry for periods of two hours or longer during the day?
Does your child complain about wet or dirty diapers?
Can your child pull down his or her pants and pull them up again?
17
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
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Can your child sit on and rise from a potty chair?
If a child resists being trained or it is not successful after a few weeks, it is best to take a break
and try again when they show more significant interest in the process. Most children master
daytime bladder control first, typically within two to three months of consistent toilet training.
However, nap and nighttime training might take months or even years.
Figure 7.9 – A child learning to be toilet trained.18
Elimination Disorders
Some children experience elimination disorders including:
enuresis - the repeated voiding of urine into bed or clothes (involuntary or intentional)
after age 5
encopresis - the repeated passage of feces into inappropriate places (involuntary or
intentional).
The prevalence of enuresis is 5%-10% for 5 year-olds, 3%-5% for 10 year-olds and
approximately 1% for those 15 years of age or older. Around 1% of 5 year- olds have
encopresis, and it is more common in males than females. These are diagnosed by a medical
professional and may require treatment.19
Sexual Development in Early Childhood
Self-stimulation is common in early childhood for both boys and girls. Curiosity about the body
and about others’ bodies is a natural part of early childhood as well. Consider this example. A
girl asks her mother: “So it’s okay to see a boy’s privates as long as it’s the boy’s mother or a
doctor?” The mother hesitates a bit and then responds, “Yes. I think that’s alright.” “Hmmm,”
18
Image by Manish Bansal is licensed under CC-BY-2.0
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed
under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
19
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the girl begins, “When I grow up, I want to be a doctor!” While this subject can feel
uncomfortable to deal with, caregivers can teach children to be safe and know what is
appropriate without frightening them or causing shame.
As children grow, they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers, and to take off
their clothes and touch each other (Okami et al., 1997). Masturbation is common for both boys
and girls. Boys are often shown by other boys how to masturbate. But girls tend to find out
accidentally. And boys masturbate more often and touch themselves more openly than do girls
(Schwartz, 1999).
Caregivers should respond to this without undue alarm and without making the child feel guilty
about their bodies. Instead, messages about what is going on and the appropriate time and
place for such activities help the child learn what is appropriate.20
Health in Early Childhood
While preschoolers are becoming more and more independent, they depend on their
caregivers to keep protecting and promoting their health. 21
Childhood Obesity
Childhood obesity is a complex health issue. It occurs when a child is well above the normal or
healthy weight for his or her age and height. Childhood obesity is a serious problem in the
United States putting children at risk for poor health. In 2015-2016, 13.9% of 2- to 5-year-olds
were obese.
Where people live can affect their ability to make healthy choices. Obesity disproportionally
affects children from low-income families.
Causes of Obesity
The causes of excess weight gain in young people are similar to those in adults, including factors
such as a person’s behavior and genetics. Behaviors that influence excess weight gain include:
eating high calorie, low-nutrient foods
not getting enough physical exercise
sedentary activities (such as watching television or other screen devices)
medication use
sleep routines
20
Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura
Overstreet, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
21
Prevalence of Childhood Obesity in the United States by the CDC is in the public domain
176 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Figure 7.10 – A child watching TV instead of playing.22
Consequences of Obesity
The consequences of childhood obesity are both immediate and long term. It can affect
physical as well as social and emotional well-being.
More Immediate Health Risks
o High blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are risk factors for
cardiovascular disease (CVD).
o Increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and type 2
diabetes.
o Breathing problems, such as asthma and sleep apnea.
o Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort.
o Fatty liver disease, gallstones, and gastro-esophageal reflux (i.e., heartburn).
Childhood obesity is also related to
o Psychological problems such as anxiety and depression.
o Low self-esteem and lower self-reported quality of life.
o Social problems such as bullying and stigma.
Future Health Risks
o Children who have obesity are more likely to become adults with obesity.11 Adult
obesity is associated with increased risk of a number of serious health conditions
including heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer.
o If children have obesity, their obesity and disease risk factors in adulthood are
likely to be more severe.23
Food Allergies
A food allergy occurs when the body has a specific and reproducible immune response to
certain foods. The body’s immune response can be severe and life threatening, such as
22
23
Image by Melissa Gutierrez is licensed under CC-BY-2.0
Childhood Obesity Causes & Consequences by the CDC is in the public domain
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anaphylaxis. Although the immune system normally protects people from germs, in people with
food allergies, the immune system mistakenly responds to food as if it were harmful.
Eight foods or food groups account for 90% of serious allergic reactions in the United States:
milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, wheat, soy, peanuts, and tree nuts.
The symptoms and severity of allergic reactions to food can be different between individuals,
and can also be different for one person over time. Anaphylaxis is a sudden and severe allergic
reaction that may cause death.4Not all allergic reactions will develop into anaphylaxis.
Children with food allergies are two to four times more likely to have asthma or other
allergic conditions than those without food allergies.
The prevalence of food allergies among children increased 18% during 1997-2007, and
allergic reactions to foods have become the most common cause of anaphylaxis in
community health settings.
Although difficult to measure, research suggests that approximately 4% of children and
adolescents are affected by food allergies.
The CDC recommends that as part of maintaining a healthy and safe environment for children,
caregivers should:
Be aware of any food allergies.
Educate other children and all adults that care for a child with food allergies.
Ensure the daily management of food allergies.
Prepare for food allergy emergencies.24
Oral Health
Tooth decay (cavities) is one of the most common chronic conditions of childhood in the United
States. Untreated tooth decay can cause pain and infections that may lead to problems with
eating, speaking, playing, and learning. The good news is that tooth decay is preventable.
Fluoride varnish, a high concentration fluoride coating that is painted on teeth, can prevent
about one-third (33%) of decay in the primary (baby) teeth. Children living in communities with
fluoridated tap water have fewer decayed teeth than children who live in areas where their tap
water is not fluoridated. Similarly, children who brush daily with fluoride toothpaste will have
less tooth decay.
Applying dental sealants to the chewing surfaces of the back teeth is another way to prevent
tooth decay. Studies in children show that sealants reduce decay in the permanent molars by
81% for 2 years after they are placed on the tooth and continue to be effective for 4 years after
placement.25
24
25
Food Allergies in Schools by the CDC is in the public domain
Children’s Oral Health by the CDC is in the public domain
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The first visit to the dentist should happen after the first tooth erupts. After that, children
should be seeing the dentist every six months.26
Figure 7.11 – A dentist checking a child’s teeth.27
Protection from Illness
Two important ways to help protect children from illness are immunization and handwashing.
Immunizations
While vaccines begin in infancy, it is important for children to receive additional doses of
vaccines to keep them protected. These boosters, given between ages 4 and 6, are doses of the
vaccines they received earlier in life to help them maintain the best protection against vaccinepreventable diseases.
Figure 7.12 – Vaccines.28
Many states require children to be fully vaccinated (unless they have a medical reason to be
exempt) before they can enroll in licensed child care or public school. If vaccinations were
26
Content by Jennifer Paris is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Image by Keesler Air Force Base is in the public domain
28
Image by Ramstein Air Base is in the public domain
27
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missed, a health care provider can help the child’s caregivers to create a catch up schedule to
ensure the child correctly “catches up” with the recommended childhood vaccination
schedule.29
Handwashing
Handwashing is one of the best ways to prevent the spread of illness. It’s important for children
(and adults) to wash their hands often, especially when they are likely to get and spread germs,
including:
Before, during, and after preparing food.
Before eating food.
After blowing nose, coughing, or sneezing.
After using the toilet.
After touching an animal, animal feed, or animal waste.
After touching garbage.
It’s important for children to learn how to properly wash their hands. When washing hands
children (and adults) should follow these five steps every time.
1. Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold), turn off the tap, and apply
soap.
2. Lather your hands by rubbing them together with the soap. Lather the backs of your
hands, between your fingers, and under your nails.
3. Scrub your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer? Hum or sing the Happy Birthday
song or ABCs from beginning to end twice.
4. Rinse your hands well under clean, running water.
5. Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry them.30
Figure 7.13 – A mother helping her son wash his hands.31
29
Vaccines for Your Children: Protect Your Child at Every Age by the CDC is in the public domain
Wash Your Hands by the CDC is in the public domain
31
Image is in the public domain
30
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Caregivers can help keep children healthy by:
Teaching them good handwashing techniques.
Reminding their kids to wash their hands.
Washing their own hands with the children.32
Safety
Child injuries are preventable, yet more than 9,000 children (from 0-19 years) died from injuries
in the US in 2009. Car crashes, suffocation, drowning, poisoning, fires, and falls are some of the
most common ways children are hurt or killed. The number of children dying from injury
dropped nearly 30% over the last decade. However, injury is still the number 1 cause of death
among children.33
Children during early childhood are more at risk for certain injuries. Using data from 2000-2006,
the CDC determined that:
Drowning was the leading cause of injury death between 1 and 4 years of age.
Falls were the leading cause of nonfatal injury for all age groups less than 15.
For children ages 0 to 9, the next two leading causes were being struck by or against an
object and animal bites or insect stings.
Rates for fires or burns, and drowning were highest for children 4 years and younger. 34
Here is a table summarizing some tips from the CDC to protect children from these injuries:
Table 7.4 – Preventing Injuries
Type of Injury
Prevention Tips
Burns
Drowning
Have smoke alarms on every floor and in all rooms people sleep
in
Involve children in creating and practicing an escape plan
Never leave food cooking on the stove unattended; supervise any
use of microwave
Make sure the water heater is set to 120 degrees or lower35
Make sure caregivers are trained in CPR
Fence off pools; gates should be self-closing and self-latching
Have children wear life jackets in and around natural bodies of
water
Supervise children in or near water (including the bathtub)36
32
Handwashing: A Family Activity by the CDC is in the public domain
Child Injury by the CDC is in the public domain
34
CDC Childhood Injury Report by the CDC is in the public domain
35
Burn Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain
36
Drowning Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain
33
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Type of Injury
Prevention Tips
Falls
Poisoning
Motor-accident,
in vehicle
Motor-accident,
pedestrian
Make sure playground surfaces are safe, soft, and made of impact
absorbing material (such as wood chips or sand) at an
appropriate depth and are well maintained
Use safety devices (such as window guards)
Make sure children are wearing protective gear during sports and
recreation (such as bicycle helmets)
Supervise children around fall hazards at all times37
Lock up all medications and toxic products (such as cleaning
solutions and detergents) in original packaging out of sight and
reach of children
Know the number to poison control (1-800-222-1222)
Read and follow labels of all medications
Safely dispose of unused, unneeded, or expired prescription
drugs and over the counter drugs, vitamins, and supplements38
Children should still be safely restrained in a five point harnessed
car seat
Children should be in back seat
Children should not be seated in front of an airbag
Teach children about safety including:
o Walking on the sidewalk
o Not assuming vehicles see you or will stop
o Crossing only in crosswalks
o Looking both ways before crossing
o Never playing in the road
o Not crossing a road without an adult
Supervise children near all roadways and model safe behavior39
37
Poisoning Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain
Road Traffic Safety by the CDC is in the public domain
39
Safety Tips for Pedestrians by the Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center is in the public domain
38
182 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Figure 7.14 – Children playing on a jungle gym at a park.40
Conclusion
In this chapter we looked at:
The physical characteristics of preschoolers.
Healthy nutrition.
The changes in the brain.
The progression of motor skills and developmentally appropriate ways to support that
development.
Sleep and sleep disorders.
Toilet training and elimination disorders
Sexual development in early childhood.
And ways to keep children healthy and safe.
In the next chapter we’ll investigate how children understand the world and their
communication abilities.
40
Image is in the public domain
183 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Chapter 8: Cognitive Development in Early
Childhood
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast Piaget and Vygotsky’s beliefs about cognitive development.
2. Explain the role of information processing in cognitive development.
3. Discuss how preschool-aged children understand their worlds.
4. Put cognitive and language milestones into the order in which they appear in typically
developing children.
5. Discuss how early child education supports development and how our understanding of
development influence education.
6. Describe autism spectrum disorder, including characteristics and possible interventions.
Introduction
Early childhood is a time of pretending, blending fact and fiction, and learning to think of the
world using language. As young children move away from needing to touch, feel, and hear
about the world toward learning some basic principles about how the world works, they hold
some pretty interesting initial ideas. For example, while adults have no concerns with taking a
bath, a child of three might genuinely worry about being sucked down the drain.1
Figure 8.1 – A child in a bathtub.2
A child might protest if told that something will happen “tomorrow” but be willing to accept an
explanation that an event will occur “today after we sleep.” Or the young child may ask, “How
1
Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology
by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
2
Image by Ian Cameron is licensed under CC BY 2.0
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long are we staying? From here to here?” while pointing to two points on a table. Concepts
such as tomorrow, time, size and distance are not easy to grasp at this young
age. Understanding size, time, distance, fact and fiction are all tasks that are part of cognitive
development in the preschool years.3
Piaget’s Preoperational Intelligence
Piaget’s stage that coincides with early childhood is the preoperational stage. The word
operational means logical, so these children were thought to be illogical. However, they were
learning to use language or to think of the world symbolically. Let’s examine some of Piaget’s
assertions about children’s cognitive abilities at this age.
Pretend Play
Pretending is a favorite activity at this time. A toy has qualities beyond the way it was designed
to function and can now be used to stand for a character or object unlike anything originally
intended. A teddy bear, for example, can be a baby or the queen of a faraway land!
Figure 8.2 – A child pretending to buy items at a toy grocery store. 4
According to Piaget, children’s pretend play helps them solidify new schemes they were
developing cognitively. This play, then, reflects changes in their conceptions or
thoughts. However, children also learn as they pretend and experiment. Their play does not
simply represent what they have learned (Berk, 2007).
Egocentrism
Egocentrism in early childhood refers to the tendency of young children to think that everyone
sees things in the same way as the child. Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism involved
showing children a 3-dimensional model of a mountain and asking them to describe what a doll
that is looking at the mountain from a different angle might see. Children tend to choose a
3
Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology
by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
4
Image by Ermalfaro is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
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picture that represents their own view, rather than that of the doll. However, children tend to
use different sentence structures and vocabulary when addressing a younger child or an older
adult. This indicates some awareness of the views of others.
Figure 8.3 – Piaget’s egocentrism experiment.5
Syncretism
Syncretism refers to a tendency to think that if two events occur simultaneously, one caused
the other. An example of this is a child putting on their bathing suit to turn it to summertime.
Animism
Attributing lifelike qualities to objects is referred to as animism. The cup is alive, the chair that
falls down and hits the child’s ankle is mean, and the toys need to stay home because they are
tired. Cartoons frequently show objects that appear alive and take on lifelike qualities. Young
children do seem to think that objects that move may be alive but after age 3, they seldom
refer to objects as being alive (Berk, 2007).
Classification Errors
Preoperational children have difficulty understanding that an object can be classified in more
than one way. For example, if shown three white buttons and four black buttons and asked
whether there are more black buttons or buttons, the child is likely to respond that there are
more black buttons. As the child’s vocabulary improves and more schemes are developed, the
ability to classify objects improves.6
5
Image by Rosenfeld Media is licensed under CC BY 2.0
Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology
by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
6
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Conservation Errors
Conservation refers to the ability to recognize that moving or rearranging matter does not
change the quantity. Let’s look at an example. A father gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko
and another slice to 3-year-old Kenny. Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told
his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Kenny did not understand that cutting the pizza
into smaller pieces did not increase the overall amount. This was because Kenny exhibited
Centration, or focused on only one characteristic of an object to the exclusion of others.
Kenny focused on the five pieces of pizza to his sister’s one piece even though the total amount
was the same. Keiko was able to consider several characteristics of an object than just one.
Because children have not developed this understanding of conservation, they cannot perform
mental operations.
The classic Piagetian experiment associated with conservation involves liquid (Crain, 2005). As
seen below, the child is shown two glasses (as shown in a) which are filled to the same level and
asked if they have the same amount. Usually the child agrees they have the same amount. The
researcher then pours the liquid from one glass to a taller and thinner glass (as shown in b). The
child is again asked if the two glasses have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child
will typically say the taller glass now has more liquid because it is taller. The child has
concentrated on the height of the glass and fails to conserve.7
Figure 8.4 – Piagetian liquid conservation experiments.8
Cognitive Schemas
As introduced in the first chapter, Piaget believed that in a quest for cognitive equilibrium, we
use schemas (categories of knowledge) to make sense of the world. And when new experiences
fit into existing schemas, we use assimilation to add that new knowledge to the schema. But
when new experiences do not match an existing schema, we use accommodation to add a new
schema. During early childhood, children use accommodation often as they build their
understanding of the world around them.
7
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed
under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
8
Image by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
187 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
As introduced in Chapter 1, Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture
has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development. He believed that the social interactions
with adults and more knowledgeable peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning.
Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far
as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some of
Vygotsky’s key concepts.
Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s best known concept is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotsky stated
that children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can perform a task with
assistance, but not quite yet on their own. With the right kind of teaching, however, they can
accomplish it successfully. A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the child stretch
beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then
perform the task unaided. Researchers have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary
platforms on which construction workers stand) to this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the
temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task.
Figure 8.5 – Zone of proximal development.9
Private Speech
Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are struggling with a
problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a situation. Children talk
to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or a practice engaged in
because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view. Vygotsky, however,
believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve problems or clarify thoughts. As
9
Image by Dcoetzee is licensed under CC0 1.0
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children learn to think in words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their lips and
engaging in private speech or inner speech.
Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and talking to
oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn something or
remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when
communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).10
Contrast with Piaget
Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction, believing that teachers who take
control of the child’s learning place the child into a passive role (Crain, 2005). Further, teachers
may present abstract ideas without the child’s true understanding, and instead they just repeat
back what they heard. Piaget believed children must be given opportunities to discover
concepts on their own. As previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe children could reach a
higher cognitive level without instruction from more learned individuals. Who is correct? Both
theories certainly contribute to our understanding of how children learn.
Information Processing
Information processing researchers have focused on several issues in cognitive development for
this age group, including improvements in attention skills, changes in the capacity, and the
emergence of executive functions in working memory. Additionally, in early childhood memory
strategies, memory accuracy, and autobiographical memory emerge. Early childhood is seen by
many researchers as a crucial time period in memory development (Posner & Rothbart, 2007).
Figure 8.6 – How information is processed.11
Attention
Changes in attention have been described by many as the key to changes in human memory
(Nelson & Fivush, 2004; Posner & Rothbart, 2007). However, attention is not a unified function;
it is comprised of sub-processes. The ability to switch our focus between tasks or external
stimuli is called divided attention or multitasking. This is separate from our ability to focus on a
10
Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology
by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
11
Image by Gradient drift is in the public domain
189 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
single task or stimulus, while ignoring distracting information, called selective attention.
Different from these is sustained attention, or the ability to stay on task for long periods of
time. Moreover, we also have attention processes that influence our behavior and enable us to
inhibit a habitual or dominant response, and others that enable us to distract ourselves when
upset or frustrated.
Divided Attention
Young children (age 3-4) have considerable difficulties in dividing their attention between two
tasks, and often perform at levels equivalent to our closest relative, the chimpanzee, but by age
five they have surpassed the chimp (Hermann, Misch, Hernandez-Lloreda & Tomasello, 2015;
Hermann & Tomasello, 2015). Despite these improvements, 5-year-olds continue to perform
below the level of school-age children, adolescents, and adults.
Selective Attention
Children’s ability with selective attention tasks improve as they age. However, this ability is also
greatly influenced by the child’s temperament (Rothbart & Rueda, 2005), the complexity of the
stimulus or task (Porporino, Shore, Iarocci & Burack, 2004), and along with whether the stimuli
are visual or auditory (Guy, Rogers & Cornish, 2013). Guy et al. (2013) found that children’s
ability to selectively attend to visual information outpaced that of auditory stimuli. This may
explain why young children are not able to hear the voice of the teacher over the cacophony of
sounds in the typical preschool classroom (Jones, Moore & Amitay, 2015). Jones and his
colleagues found that 4 to 7 year-olds could not filter out background noise, especially when its
frequencies were close in sound to the target sound. In comparison, 8- to 11-year-old children
often performed similar to adults.
Figure 8.7 – A group of children making crafts.12
Sustained Attention
Most measures of sustained attention typically ask children to spend several minutes focusing
on one task, while waiting for an infrequent event, while there are multiple distractors for
12
Image by Joint Base Charleston is in the public domain
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several minutes. Berwid, Curko-Kera, Marks & Halperin (2005) asked children between the ages
of 3 and 7 to push a button whenever a “target” image was displayed, but they had to refrain
from pushing the button when a non-target image was shown. The younger the child, the more
difficulty he or she had maintaining their attention.
Figure 8.8 – A child playing a game that measures her sustained attention.13
Memory
Based on studies of adults, people with amnesia, and neurological research on memory,
researchers have proposed several “types” of memory (see Figure 4.14). Sensory memory (also
called the sensory register) is the first stage of the memory system, and it stores sensory input
in its raw form for a very brief duration; essentially long enough for the brain to register and
start processing the information. Studies of auditory sensory memory show that it lasts about
one second in 2 year-olds, two seconds in 3-year-olds, more than two seconds in 4-year-olds,
and three to five seconds in 6-year-olds (Glass, Sachse, & von Suchodoletz, 2008). Other
researchers have also found that young children hold sounds for a shorter duration than do
older children and adults, and that this deficit is not due to attentional differences between
these age groups, but reflects differences in the performance of the sensory memory system
(Gomes et al., 1999). The second stage of the memory system is called short-term or working
memory. Working memory is the component of memory in which current conscious mental
activity occurs.
Working memory often requires conscious effort and adequate use of attention to function
effectively. As you read earlier, children in this age group struggle with many aspects of
attention and this greatly diminishes their ability to consciously juggle several pieces of
information in memory. The capacity of working memory, that is the amount of information
someone can hold in consciousness, is smaller in young children than in older children and
adults. The typical adult and teenager can hold a 7 digit number active in their short-term
memory. The typical 5-year-old can hold only a 4 digit number active. This means that the more
13
Image by Fabrice Florin is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0
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complex a mental task is, the less efficient a younger child will be in paying attention to, and
actively processing, information in order to complete the task.
Figure 8.8 – A child thinking.14
Changes in attention and the working memory system also involve changes in executive
function. Executive function (EF) refers to self-regulatory processes, such as the ability to
inhibit a behavior or cognitive flexibility, that enable adaptive responses to new situations or to
reach a specific goal. Executive function skills gradually emerge during early childhood and
continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. Like many cognitive changes, brain
maturation, especially the prefrontal cortex, along with experience influence the development
of executive function skills.
A child shows higher executive functioning skills when the parents are more warm and
responsive, use scaffolding when the child is trying to solve a problem, and provide cognitively
stimulating environments for the child (Fay-Stammbach, Hawes & Meredith, 2014). For
instance, scaffolding was positively correlated with greater cognitive flexibility at age two and
inhibitory control at age four (Bibok, Carpendale & Müller, 2009). In Schneider, Kron-Sperl and
Hunnerkopf’s (2009) longitudinal study of 102 kindergarten children, the majority of children
used no strategy to remember information, a finding that was consistent with previous
research. As a result, their memory performance was poor when compared to their abilities as
they aged and started to use more effective memory strategies.
The third component in memory is long-term memory, which is also known as permanent
memory. A basic division of long-term memory is between declarative and non-declarative
memory.
Declarative memories, sometimes referred to as explicit memories, are memories for
facts or events that we can consciously recollect. Declarative memory is further divided
into semantic and episodic memory.
14
Image by Leonid Mamchenkov is licensed under CC BY 2.0
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o Semantic memories are memories for facts and knowledge that are not tied to a
timeline,
o Episodic memories are tied to specific events in time.
Non- declarative memories, sometimes referred to as implicit memories, are typically
automated skills that do not require conscious recollection.
Autobiographical memory is our personal narrative. Adults rarely remember events from the
first few years of life. In other words, we lack autobiographical memories from our experiences
as an infant, toddler and very young preschooler. Several factors contribute to the emergence
of autobiographical memory including brain maturation, improvements in language,
opportunities to talk about experiences with parents and others, the development of theory of
mind, and a representation of “self” (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Two-year-olds do remember
fragments of personal experiences, but these are rarely coherent accounts of past events
(Nelson & Ross, 1980). Between 2 and 2 1⁄2 years of age children can provide more information
about past experiences. However, these recollections require considerable prodding by adults
(Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Over the next few years children will form more detailed
autobiographical memories and engage in more reflection of the past.
Neo-Piagetians
As previously discussed, Piaget’s theory has been criticized on many fronts, and updates to
reflect more current research have been provided by the Neo-Piagetians, or those theorists
who provide “new” interpretations of Piaget’s theory. Morra, Gobbo, Marini and Sheese (2008)
reviewed Neo-Piagetian theories, which were first presented in the 1970s, and identified how
these “new” theories combined Piagetian concepts with those found in Information Processing.
Similar to Piaget’s theory, Neo-Piagetian theories believe in constructivism, assume cognitive
development can be separated into different stages with qualitatively different characteristics,
and advocate that children’s thinking becomes more complex in advanced stages. Unlike Piaget,
Neo-Piagetians believe that aspects of information processing change the complexity of each
stage, not logic as determined by Piaget.
Neo-Piagetians propose that working memory capacity is affected by biological maturation, and
therefore restricts young children’s ability to acquire complex thinking and reasoning skills.
Increases in working memory performance and cognitive skills development coincide with the
timing of several neurodevelopmental processes. These include myelination, axonal and
synaptic pruning, changes in cerebral metabolism, and changes in brain activity (Morra et al.,
2008).
Myelination especially occurs in waves between birth and adolescence, and the degree of
myelination in particular areas explains the increasing efficiency of certain skills. Therefore,
brain maturation, which occurs in spurts, affects how and when cognitive skills develop.
193 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Additionally, all Neo-Piagetian theories support that experience and learning interact with
biological maturation in shaping cognitive development.15
Children’s Understanding of the World
Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that children actively try to understand the world around
them. More recently developmentalists have added to this understanding by examining how
children organize information and develop their own theories about the world.
Theory-Theory
The tendency of children to generate theories to explain everything they encounter is called
theory-theory. This concept implies that humans are naturally inclined to find reasons and
generate explanations for why things occur. Children frequently ask question about what they
see or hear around them. When the answers provided do not satisfy their curiosity or are too
complicated for them to understand, they generate their own theories. In much the same way
that scientists construct and revise their theories, children do the same with their intuitions
about the world as they encounter new experiences (Gopnik & Wellman, 2012). One of the
theories they start to generate in early childhood centers on the mental states; both their own
and those of others.
Figure 8.9 - What theories might this boy be creating?16
Theory of Mind
Theory of mind refers to the ability to think about other people’s thoughts. This mental mind
reading helps humans to understand and predict the reactions of others, thus playing a crucial
role in social development. One common method for determining if a child has reached this
mental milestone is the false belief task, described below.
15
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed
under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
16
Image by Eglin Air Force Base is in the public domain
194 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
The research began with a clever experiment by Wimmer and Perner (1983), who tested
whether children can pass a false-belief test (see Figure 4.17). The child is shown a picture story
of Sally, who puts her ball in a basket and leaves the room. While Sally is out of the room, Anne
comes along and takes the ball from the basket and puts it inside a box. The child is then asked
where Sally thinks the ball is located when she comes back to the room. Is she going to look first
in the box or in the basket? The right answer is that she will look in the basket, because that’s
where she put it and thinks it is; but we have to infer this false belief against our own better
knowledge that the ball is in the box.
Figure 8.10 – A ball.17
Figure 8.11 – A basket.18
Figure 8.12 – A box.19
This is very difficult for children before the age of four because of the cognitive effort it takes.
Three-year-olds have difficulty distinguishing between what they once thought was true and
what they now know to be true. They feel confident that what they know now is what they
have always known (Birch & Bloom, 2003). Even adults need to think through this task (Epley,
Morewedge, & Keysar, 2004).
To be successful at solving this type of task the child must separate what he or she “knows” to
be true from what someone else might “think” is true. In Piagetian terms, they must give up a
tendency toward egocentrism. The child must also understand that what guides people’s
actions and responses are what they “believe” rather than what is reality. In other words,
people can mistakenly believe things that are false and will act based on this false knowledge.
Consequently, prior to age four children are rarely successful at solving such a task (Wellman,
Cross & Watson, 2001).
Researchers examining the development of theory of mind have been concerned by the
overemphasis on the mastery of false belief as the primary measure of whether a child has
attained theory of mind. Wellman and his colleagues (Wellman, Fang, Liu, Zhu & Liu, 2006)
suggest that theory of mind is comprised of a number of components, each with its own
developmental timeline (see Table 4.2).
Two-year-olds understand the diversity of desires, yet as noted earlier it is not until age four or
five that children grasp false belief, and often not until middle childhood do they understand
17
Image is in the public domain
Image is licensed under CC0
19
Image is in the public domain
18
195 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
that people may hide how they really feel. In part, because children in early childhood have
difficulty hiding how they really feel.
Cultural Differences in Theory of Mind
Those in early childhood in the US, Australia, and Germany develop theory of mind in the
sequence outlined above. Yet, Chinese and Iranian preschoolers acquire knowledge access
before diverse beliefs (Shahaeian, Peterson, Slaughter & Wellman, 2011). Shahaeian and
colleagues suggested that cultural differences in childrearing may account for this reversal.
Parents in collectivistic cultures, such as China and Iran, emphasize conformity to the family
and cultural values, greater respect for elders, and the acquisition of knowledge and
academic skills more than they do autonomy and social skills (Frank, Plunkett & Otten, 2010).
This could reduce the degree of familial conflict of opinions expressed in the family. In
contrast, individualistic cultures encourage children to think for themselves and assert their
own opinion, and this could increase the risk of conflict in beliefs being expressed by family
members.
Figure 8.13 – A family from a non-Western culture.20
As a result, children in individualistic cultures would acquire insight into the question of
diversity of belief earlier, while children in collectivistic cultures would acquire knowledge
access earlier in the sequence. The role of conflict in aiding the development of theory of
mind may account for the earlier age of onset of an understanding of false belief in children
with siblings, especially older siblings (McAlister & Petersen, 2007; Perner, Ruffman &
Leekman, 1994).
This awareness of the existence of theory of mind is part of social intelligence, such as
recognizing that others can think differently about situations. It helps us to be self-conscious or
aware that others can think of us in different ways and it helps us to be able to be
20
Image by Giorgio Montersino is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0
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understanding or be empathetic toward others. Moreover, this mind reading ability helps us to
anticipate and predict people’s actions. The awareness of the mental states of others is
important for communication and social skills.21
Milestones of Cognitive Development
The many theories of cognitive development and the different research that has been done
about how children understand the world, has allowed researchers to study the milestones that
children who are typically developing experience in early childhood. Here is a table that
summarizes those.
Table 8.1 - Cognitive Milestones22
Typical Age
3 years
4 years
5 years
What Most Children Do by This Age
Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts
Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people
Does puzzles with 3 or 4 pieces
Understands what “two” means
Names some colors and some numbers
Understands the idea of counting
Starts to understand time
Remembers parts of a story
Understands the idea of “same” and “different”
Plays board or card games
Tells you what he thinks is going to happen next in a book
Counts 10 or more things
Knows about things used every day, like money and food
Language Development
Vocabulary Growth
A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about 200 words to over 10,000
words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily learned by making connections
between new words and concepts already known. The parts of speech that are learned depend
on the language and what is emphasized. Children speaking verb-friendly languages such as
Chinese and Japanese, tend to learn nouns more readily. But, those learning less verb-friendly
languages such as English, seem to need assistance in grammar to master the use of verbs
(Imai, et al, 2008).
21
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed
under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
22
Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain
197 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Figure 8.14 – A woman instructing a girl on vocabulary.23
Literal Meanings
Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only once or twice. But they do
not always understand the meaning of the words or phrases. This is especially true of
expressions or figures of speech which are taken literally. For example, two preschool-aged girls
began to laugh loudly while listening to a tape-recording of Disney’s “Sleeping Beauty” when
the narrator reports, “Prince Phillip lost his head!” They imagine his head popping off and
rolling down the hill as he runs and searches for it. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the
teacher say, “Wow! That was a piece of cake!” The children began asking “Cake? Where is my
cake? I want cake!”
Overregularization
Children learn rules of grammar as they learn language but may apply these rules
inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to add “ed” to the end of a word to indicate
past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This is typical at ages 2
and 3. They will soon learn new words such as “went” and “did” to be used in those situations.
The Impact of Training
Remember Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development? Children can be assisted in
learning language by others who listen attentively, model more accurate pronunciations and
encourage elaboration. The child exclaims, “I goed there!” and the adult responds, “You went
there? Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be ripe for language as Chomsky
suggests, but active participation in helping them learn is important for language development
as well. The process of scaffolding is one in which the adult (or more skilled peer) provides
needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned.
Language Milestones
The prior aspects of language development in early childhood can also be summarized into the
progression of milestones children typically experience from ages 3 to 5. Here is a table of
those.
23
Image by the U.S. Department of the Interior is in the public domain
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Table 8.2 - Language Milestones24
Typical Age
3 years
What Most Children Do By This Age
4 years
5 years
Follows instructions with 2 or 3 steps
Can name most familiar things
Understands words like “in,” “on,” and “under”
Says first name, age, and sex
Names a friend
Says words like “I,” “me,” “we,” and “you” and some plurals (cars,
dogs, cats)
Talks well enough for strangers to understand most of the time
Carries on a conversation using 2 to 3 sentences
Knows some basic rules of grammar, such as correctly using “he”
and “she”
Sings a song or says a poem from memory such as the “Itsy Bitsy
Spider” or the “Wheels on the Bus”
Tells stories
Can say first and last name
Speaks very clearly
Tells a simple story using full sentences
Uses future tense; for example, “Grandma will be here.”
Says name and address
Now that we have addressed some of the cognitive areas of growth in early childhood, let’s
take a look at the topic of school and its various applications.
Early Childhood Education
Providing universal preschool has become an important lobbying point for federal, state, and
local leaders throughout our country. In his 2013 State of the Union address, President Obama
called upon congress to provide high quality preschool for all children. He continued to support
universal preschool in his legislative agenda, and in December 2014 the President convened
state and local policymakers for the White House Summit on Early Education (White House
Press Secretary, 2014).
However, universal preschool covering all four-year olds in the country would require
significant funding. Further, how effective preschools are in preparing children for elementary
school, and what constitutes high quality early childhood education have been debated.
To set criteria for designation as a high quality preschool, the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC) identifies 10 standards (NAEYC, 2016). These include:
24
Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain
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Positive relationships among all children and adults are promoted.
A curriculum that supports learning and development in social, emotional, physical,
language, and cognitive areas.
Teaching approaches that are developmentally, culturally and linguistically appropriate.
Assessment of children’s progress to provide information on learning and development.
The health and nutrition of children are promoted, while they are protected from illness
and injury.
Teachers possess the educational qualifications, knowledge, and commitment to
promote children’s learning.
Collaborative relationships with families are established and maintained.
Relationships with agencies and institutions in the children’s communities are
established to support the program’s goals.
The indoor and outdoor physical environments are safe and well-maintained.
Leadership and management personnel are well qualified, effective, and maintain
licensure status with the applicable state agency.
Parents should review preschool programs using the NAEYC criteria as a guide and template for
asking questions that will assist them in choosing the best program for their child.
Figure 8.15 – Children making crafts at preschool.25
Selecting the right preschool is also difficult because there are so many types of preschools
available. Zachry (2013) identified Montessori, Waldorf, Reggio Emilia, High Scope, Creative
Curriculum and Bank Street as types of early childhood education programs that focus on
children learning through discovery. Teachers act as facilitators of children’s learning and
development and create activities based on the child’s developmental level. Here is a table
summarizes characteristics of each type of program.
25
Image by Seattle City Council is in the public domain
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Table 8.3 - Types of Early Childhood Education Programs26
Program
Montessori
Founder
Dr. Maria
Montessori
Characteristics
Waldorf
Rudolf Steiner
Reggio
Emilia
Loris Malaguzzi
High Scope
David Weikart
Refers to children’s activity as work (not play);
children are given long periods of time to work
Focus on individual learning
Features child-sized furniture and defined work
areas
Materials are carefully chosen and introduced
to children by teacher
Features mixed-aged grouping
Teachers should be certified
Focus on whole child
Features connections to nature, sensory
learning, and imagination
Provides large blocks of time for play
Delay formal academic instruction
Environment protects children from negative
influences
Relationships are important so groupings last
for several years (looping)
Teachers should be certified
Teachers and children co-construct the
curriculum
Teachers are researchers
Environment is the third teacher and features
beauty and order
Children’s learning is documented through the
multiple methods (100 languages of children)
Have atelier (art studio) with an atelierista
(artist) to instruct children
Believe children are competent and capable
Children stay together for 3 years
Parents partner with teachers
Community is extension of school
Features defined learning areas
Has 8 content areas with 58 key developmental
indicators
26
Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (2016). Beginning essentials in early childhood education. (3rd ed.). Cengage:
Boston.
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Program
Founder
Characteristics
Bank Street
Lucy Sprague
Mitchell
Creative
Curriculum
Diane Trister Dodge
Consistency of daily routine is important
Uses plan-do-review sequence in which they
make a plan, act on it, and then reflect on the
results
Teachers are partners and use the Child
Observation Record (COR) to help assess
children and plan curriculum
Utilizes 6 step process to teach children conflict
resolution
Also referred to as the DevelopmentalInteractionist Approach
Environment is arranged into learning centers
Focus on hands-on experience with long periods
of time given
Teacher uses questions to further children’s
exploration
Blocks are primary material in the classroom
Field trips are frequently used
Focus on children’s play and self-selected
activities
Environment is arranged into learning areas
Large blocks of time are given for self-selected
play
Uses projects as basis for curriculum
Is researched based and includes assessment
system
Head Start
For children who live in poverty, Head Start has been providing preschool education since
1965 when it was begun by President Lyndon Johnson as part of his war on poverty. It
currently serves nearly one million children and annually costs approximately 7.5 billion
dollars (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). However, concerns
about the effectiveness of Head Start have been ongoing since the program began. Armor
(2015) reviewed existing research on Head Start and found there were no lasting gains, and
the average child in Head Start had not learned more than children who did not receive
preschool education.
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Head Start
Figure 8.16 – A photograph from when Head Start began. 27
A recent report dated July 2015 evaluating the effectiveness of Head Start comes from the
What Works Clearinghouse. The What Works Clearinghouse identifies research that provides
reliable evidence of the effectiveness of programs and practices in education, and is
managed by the Institute of Education Services for the United States Department of
Education. After reviewing 90 studies on the effectiveness of Head Start, only one study was
deemed scientifically acceptable and this study showed disappointing results (Barshay, 2015).
This study showed that 3- and 4-year-old children in Head Start received “potentially positive
effects” on general reading achievement, but no noticeable effects on math achievement and
social-emotional development.
Nonexperimental designs are a significant problem in determining the effectiveness of Head
Start programs because a control group is needed to show group differences that would
demonstrate educational benefits. Because of ethical reasons, low income children are
usually provided with some type of pre-school programming in an alternative setting.
Additionally, Head Start programs are different depending on the location, and these
differences include the length of the day or qualification of the teachers. Lastly, testing young
children is difficult and strongly dependent on their language skills and comfort level with an
evaluator (Barshay, 2015).28
Applications to Early Education
Understanding how children think and learn has proven useful for improving education.
Activities like playing games that involve working with numbers and spatial relationships can
give young children a developmental advantage over peers who have less exposure to the same
concepts.
27
Image by Children’s Bureau Centennial
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed
under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
28
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Mathematics
Even before they enter kindergarten, the mathematical knowledge of children from low-income
backgrounds lags far behind that of children from more affluent backgrounds. Ramani and
Siegler (2008) hypothesized that this difference is due to the children in middle- and upperincome families engaging more frequently in numerical activities, for example playing
numerical board games such as Chutes and Ladders. Chutes and Ladders is a game with a
number in each square; children start at the number one and spin a spinner or throw a dice to
determine how far to move their token. Playing this game seemed likely to teach children about
numbers, because in it, larger numbers are associated with greater values on a variety of
dimensions. In particular, the higher the number that a child’s token reaches, the greater the
distance the token will have traveled from the starting point, the greater the number of
physical movements the child will have made in moving the token from one square to another,
the greater the number of number-words the child will have said and heard, and the more time
will have passed since the beginning of the game. These spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and timebased cues provide a broad-based, multisensory foundation for knowledge of numerical
magnitudes (the sizes of numbers), a type of knowledge that is closely related to mathematics
achievement test scores (Booth & Siegler, 2006).
Playing this numerical board game for roughly 1 hour, distributed over a 2-week period,
improved low-income children’s knowledge of numerical magnitudes, ability to read printed
numbers, and skill at learning novel arithmetic problems. The gains lasted for months after the
game-playing experience (Ramani & Siegler, 2008; Siegler & Ramani, 2009). An advantage of
this type of educational intervention is that it has minimal if any cost—a parent could just draw
a game on a piece of paper.
Reading
Cognitive developmental research has shown that phonemic awareness—that is, awareness of
the component sounds within words—is a crucial skill in learning to read. To measure
awareness of the component sounds within words, researchers ask children to decide whether
two words rhyme, to decide whether the words start with the same sound, to identify the
component sounds within words, and to indicate what would be left if a given sound were
removed from a word. Kindergartners’ performance on these tasks is the strongest predictor of
reading achievement in third and fourth grade, even stronger than IQ or social class background
(Nation, 2008). Moreover, teaching these skills to randomly chosen 4- and 5-year-olds results in
their being better readers years later (National Reading Panel, 2000).
Continuing Brain Maturation
Understanding of cognitive development is advancing on many different fronts. One exciting
area is linking changes in brain activity to changes in children’s thinking (Nelson et al., 2006).
Although many people believe that brain maturation is something that occurs before birth, the
brain actually continues to change in large ways for many years thereafter. For example, a part
of the brain called the prefrontal cortex, which is located at the front of the brain and is
particularly involved with planning and flexible problem solving, continues to develop
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throughout adolescence (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). Such new research domains, as well
as enduring issues such as nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and how to apply
cognitive development research to education, insure that cognitive development will continue
to be an exciting area of research in the coming years.29
Cognitive Differences
Sometimes children’s brains work differently. One form of this neurodiversity is Autism
spectrum disorder.
Autism: Defining Spectrum Disorder
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) describes a range of conditions classified as neurodevelopmental disorders in the fifth revision of the American Psychiatric Association's
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The DSM-5, published in 2013,
redefined the autism spectrum to encompass the previous (DSM-IV-TR) diagnoses of autism,
Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and
childhood disintegrative disorder. These disorders are characterized by social deficits and
communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory issues, and in some
cases, cognitive delays.
Asperger syndrome was distinguished from autism in the earlier DSM-IV by the lack of delay or
deviance in early language development. Additionally, individuals diagnosed with Asperger
syndrome did not have significant cognitive delays. PDD-NOS was considered "subthreshold
autism" and "atypical autism" because it was often characterized by milder symptoms of autism
or symptoms in only one domain (such as social difficulties). In the DSM-5, both of these
diagnoses have been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder.
Autism spectrum disorders are considered to be on a spectrum because each individual with
ASD expresses the disorder uniquely and has varying degrees of functionality. Many have
above-average intellectual abilities and excel in visual skills, music, math, and the arts, while
others have significant disabilities and are unable to live independently. About 25 percent of
individuals with ASD are nonverbal; however, they may learn to communicate using other
means.
Social Communication Symptoms
Social impairments in children with autism can be characterized by a distinctive lack of intuition
about others. Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Infants with
ASD show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less
to their own name. Toddlers with ASD differ more strikingly from social norms; for example,
they may show less eye contact and turn-taking and may not have the ability to use simple
movements to express themselves. Individuals with severe forms of ASD do not develop
enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.
29
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
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Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors
Children with ASD may exhibit repetitive or restricted behavior, including:
Stereotypy—repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.
Compulsive behavior—exhibiting intention to follow rules, such as arranging objects in
stacks or lines.
Sameness—resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved
or sticking to an unvarying pattern of daily activities.
Restricted behavior—limits in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a
single television program, toy, or game.
Self-injury—movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, skin
picking, hand biting, and head banging.
Figure 8.17 – A boy stacking cans.30
Etiology
While specific causes of ASD have yet to be found, many risk factors have been identified in the
research literature that may contribute to its development. These risk factors include genetics,
prenatal and perinatal factors, neuroanatomical abnormalities, and environmental factors. It is
possible to identify general risk factors, but much more difficult to pinpoint specific factors.
Genetics
ASD affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses
connect and organize; thus, it is categorized as a neuro-developmental disorder. The results of
family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in the etiology of ASD and other
pervasive developmental disorders. Studies have consistently found that the prevalence of ASD
in siblings of children with ASD is approximately 15 to 30 times greater than the rate in the
general population. In addition, research suggests that there is a much higher concordance rate
among monozygotic (identical) twins compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins. It appears that
30
Image by Countincr is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
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there is no single gene that can account for ASD; instead, there seem to be multiple genes
involved, each of which is a risk factor for part of the autism syndrome through various groups.
It is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations or by combinations of common
genetic variants.
The Diversity of the Autism Spectrum
The rainbow-colored infinity symbol represents the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as
the greater neurodiversity movement. The neurodiversity movement suggests that diverse
neurological conditions appear as a result of normal variations in the human genome. It
challenges the idea that such neurological differences are inherently pathological, instead
asserting that differences should be recognized and respected as a social category on a par with
gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability status.
Figure 8.18 – A symbol of the autism spectrum.31
Prenatal and Perinatal Factors
A number of prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors
for ASD. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age
over 30, bleeding after first trimester, use of prescription medication (such as valproate) during
pregnancy, and meconium (the earliest stool of an infant) in the amniotic fluid. While research
is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to ASD, each of these factors has been
identified more frequently in children with ASD than in developing youth without ASD.
Environmental Factors
Evidence for environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies.
In the last few decades, controversy surrounded the idea that vaccinations may be the cause
for many cases of autism; however, these theories lack scientific evidence and are biologically
implausible. Even still, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to
lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases
in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.
31
Image is in the public domain
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Treatment
There is no known cure for ASD, and treatment tends to focus on management of symptoms.
The main goals when treating children with ASD are to lessen associated deficits and family
distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence.32 Treatment for ASD should
begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care
can reduce individuals’ difficulties while helping them learn new skills and make the most of
their strengths.
The wide range of issues facing people with ASD means that there is no single best treatment
for ASD.33 So treatment is typically tailored to the individual person's needs. Intensive,
sustained special-education programs and behavior therapy yearly in life can help children
acquire self-care, social, and job skills. The most widely used therapy is applied behavior
analysis (ABA); other available approaches include developmental models, structured teaching,
speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy.34
Figure 8.19 – A boy with ASD receiving therapy.35
There has been increasing attention to the development of evidenced-based interventions for
young children with ASD. Although evidence-based interventions for children with ASD vary in
their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive,
communication, and social skills while minimizing behaviors that are thought to be
problematic.36
32
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Autism Spectrum Disorder by the National Institute of Mental Health is in the public domain
34
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
35
Image by Edwards Air Force Base is in the public domain
36
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
33
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Conclusion
In this chapter we covered,
Piaget’s preoperational stage.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory.
Information processing.
How young children understand the world.
Typical progression of cognitive and language development (milestones).
Early childhood education.
Autism spectrum disorder.
In the next chapter, we will finish covering early childhood education by looking at how children
understand themselves and interact with the world.
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Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development in
Early Childhood
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe how preschoolers view themselves.
2. Summarize Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt.
3. Discuss the progression of social emotional development during early childhood.
4. Explain how children develop their understanding of gender.
5. Compare and contrast different styles of parenting.
6. Define characteristics of high quality child care.
7. Discuss the role of siblings and peers.
8. Describe the types of play.
9. Summarize the influence on social and emotional competence.
10. Identify the effects of stress on three- to five-year olds.
Introduction
In early childhood, children’s understanding of themselves and their role in the world expands
greatly.
Social and Emotional Milestones
That expanding understanding of themselves and others develops with age. Here is a table of
social and emotional milestones that children typically experience during early childhood.
Table 9.1 - Social and Emotional Milestones1
Typical Age
3 years
1
What Most Children Do by This Age
Copies adults and friends
Shows affection for friends without prompting
Takes turns in games
Shows concern for a crying friend
Dresses and undresses self
Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”
Shows a wide range of emotions
Separates easily from mom and dad
May get upset with major changes in routine
Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain
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Typical Age
4 years
5 years
What Most Children Do by This Age
Enjoys doing new things
Is more and more creative with make-believe play
Would rather play with other children than by self
Cooperates with other children
Plays “mom” or “dad”
Often can’t tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
Talks about what she likes and what she is interested in
Wants to please friends
Wants to be like friends
More likely to agree with rules
Likes to sing, dance, and act
Is aware of gender
Can tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
Shows more independence
Is sometimes demanding and sometimes very cooperative
Many things influence how children develop those milestones as how they view themselves and
how they interact with those around them changes. Let’s look more at these.
Interactionism and Views of Self
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. A self-concept or idea of who we
are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel is a social process that involves
taking into consideration how others view us. So, in order to develop a sense of self, you must
have interaction with others. Interactionist theorists, Cooley and Mead offer two interesting
explanations of how a sense of self develops.
Cooley
Charles Horton Cooley (1964) suggests that our self-concept comes from looking at how others
respond to us. This process, known as the looking-glass self involves looking at how others
seem to view us and interpreting this as we make judgments about whether we are good or
bad, strong or weak, beautiful or ugly, and so on. Of course, we do not always interpret their
responses accurately so our self-concept is not simply a mirror reflection of the views of others.
After forming an initial self-concept, we may use it as a mental filter screening out those
responses that do not seem to fit our ideas of who we are. Some compliments may be negated,
for example. The process of the looking-glass self is pronounced when we are preschoolers, or
perhaps when we are in a new school or job or are taking on a new role in our personal lives
and are trying to gauge our own performances. When we feel more sure of who we are, we
focus less on how we appear to others.2
2
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
211 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t
Figure 9.1 – A child looking at herself wearing glasses in a mirror.3
Mead
Herbert Mead (1967) offers an explanation of how we develop a social sense of self by being
able to see ourselves through the eyes of others. There are two parts of the self: the “I” which
is the part of the self that is spontaneous, creative, innate, and is not concerned with how
others view us and the “me” or the social definition of who we are.
When we are born, we are all “I” and act without concern about how others view us. But the
socialized self begins when we are able to consider how one important person views us. This
initial stage is called “taking the role of the significant other”. For example, a child may pull a
cat’s tail and be told by his mother, “No! Don’t do that, that’s bad” while receiving a slight slap
on the hand. Later, the child may mimic the same behavior toward the self and say aloud, “No,
that’s bad” while patting his own hand. What has happened? The child is able to see himself
through the eyes of the mother. As the child grows and is exposed to many situations and rules
of culture, he begins to view the self in the eyes of many others through these cultural norms or
rules. This is referred to as “taking the role of the generalized other” and results in a sense of
self with many dimensions. The child comes to have a sense of self as student, as friend, as son,
and so on.
Exaggerated Sense of Self
One of the ways to gain a clearer sense of self is to exaggerate those qualities that are to be
incorporated into the self. Preschoolers often like to exaggerate their own qualities or to seek
validation as the biggest, smartest, or child who can jump the highest. This exaggeration tends
to be replaced by a more realistic sense of self in middle childhood.
3
Image is in the public domain
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Self-Esteem
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. Self-concept is our self-description
according to various categories, such as our external and internal qualities. In contrast, selfesteem is an evaluative judgment about who we are. The emergence of cognitive skills in this
age group results in improved perceptions of the self, but they tend to focus on external
qualities, which are referred to as the categorical self. When researchers ask young children to
describe themselves, their descriptions tend to include physical descriptors, preferred activities,
and favorite possessions. Thus, the self-description of a 3-year-old might be a 3-year-old girl
with red hair, who likes to play with blocks. However, even children as young as three know
there is more to themselves than these external characteristics.
Harter and Pike (1984) challenged the method of measuring personality with an open-ended
question as they felt that language limitations were hindering the ability of young children to
express their self-knowledge. They suggested a change to the method of measuring selfconcept in young children, whereby researchers provide statements that ask whether
something is true of the child (e.g., “I like to boss people around”, “I am grumpy most of the
time”). They discovered that in early childhood, children answer these statements in an
internally consistent manner, especially after the age of four (Goodvin, Meyer, Thompson &
Hayes, 2008) and often give similar responses to what others (parents and teachers) say about
the child (Brown, Mangelsdorf, Agathen, & Ho, 2008; Colwell & Lindsey, 2003).
Figure 9.2 – Young children don’t always feel good about themselves.4
Young children tend to have a generally positive self-image. This optimism is often the result of
a lack of social comparison when making self-evaluations (Ruble, Boggiano, Feldman, & Loeble,
1980), and with comparison between what the child once could do to what they can do now
(Kemple, 1995). However, this does not mean that preschool children are exempt from
negative self-evaluations. Preschool children with insecure attachments to their caregivers tend
to have lower self-esteem at age four (Goodvin et al., 2008). Maternal negative affect
(emotional state) was also found by Goodwin and her colleagues to produce more negative
self-evaluations in preschool children.
4
Image is licensed under CC0
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Self-Control
Self-control is not a single phenomenon, but is multi-facetted. It includes response initiation,
the ability to not initiate a behavior before you have evaluated all of the information, response
inhibition, the ability to stop a behavior that has already begun, and delayed gratification, the
ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward (Dougherty,
Marsh, Mathias, & Swann, 2005). It is in early childhood that we see the start of self-control, a
process that takes many years to fully develop. In the now classic “Marshmallow Test” (Mischel,
Ebbesen, & Zeiss, 1972) children are confronted with the choice of a small immediate reward (a
marshmallow) and a larger delayed reward (more marshmallows). Walter Mischel and his
colleagues over the years have found that the ability to delay gratification at the age of four
predicted better academic performance and health later in life (Mischel, et al., 2011). Selfcontrol is related to executive function, discussed earlier in the chapter. As executive function
improves, children become less impulsive (Traverso, Viterbori, & Usai, 2015).5
Self-Control and Play
Thanks to the new Centre for Research on Play in Education, Development and Learning
(PEDaL), Whitebread, Baker, Gibson and a team of researchers hope to provide evidence on
the role played by play in how a child develops.
“A strong possibility is that play supports the early development of children’s self-control,”
explains Baker. “These are our abilities to develop awareness of our own thinking processes –
they influence how effectively we go about undertaking challenging activities.”
In a study carried out by Baker with toddlers and young preschoolers, she found that children
with greater self-control solved problems quicker when exploring an unfamiliar set-up
requiring scientific reasoning, regardless of their IQ. “This sort of evidence makes us think
that giving children the chance to play will make them more successful and creative problemsolvers in the long run.”
If playful experiences do facilitate this aspect of development, say the researchers, it could be
extremely significant for educational practices because the ability to self-regulate has been
shown to be a key predictor of academic performance.
Gibson adds: “Playful behavior is also an important indicator of healthy social and emotional
development. In my previous research, I investigated how observing children at play can give
us important clues about their well being and can even be useful in the diagnosis of
neurodevelopmental disorders like...
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