Chapter 7 Home Environment Early Childhood Development Essay

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The short answer assessment portion of each module will incorporate all of the pieces you have worked with throughout the previous sections. You will be expected to use information from our course resources in order to answer the questions presented here. You are discouraged from simply Googling the prompts as you may be directed to information that is off-topic, without appropriate context, or out-of-date. Your first resources should be our course resources!

These questions will require more advanced thinking and consideration to earn full credit. Make sure to support your answers with detail, data and facts presented in the resources, along with ties to cultural and societal influences. You should also include theoretical perspectives as appropriate. You should NOT quote anything directly from any resources. Instead, you should paraphrase using your own words, and cite the source appropriately (APA citation preferred, but other citation methods will be accepted). When paraphrasing, think about how you would explain the concept or idea to a classmate or parent. Show me through your writing that you understand the ideas, not just that you can locate the concept in a reading.

How does the home environment shape development in early childhood (ages 3-5)? Use concepts from this module and be specific as you address the following:

  • Overall summary of the importance of the home environment in early childhood [5pts]
    • Be sure to support your statements with information from this module.
  • What are some key influences on physical health in this early childhood stage?[5pts]
    • How does a family's SES affect this specifically?
  • How do parents influence identity development? [5pts]
  • What environmental factors can influence a child's intelligence test score, and how does culture play a role in intelligence testing? [5pts]

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Chapter 7: Physical Development in Early Childhood Objectives After this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe the physical changes that occur in early childhood. 2. Explain how to provide health nutrition for 3- to 5-year-olds. 3. Summarize how to support the progression of motor skills with age appropriate activities. 4. Discuss the sleep needs during early childhood and sleep disorders that may affect children. 5. Explain the development behind toilet training and some elimination disorders that children may experience. 6. Recognize the importance of awareness of sexual development in early childhood. 7. Discuss risks to and a variety of ways to promote and protect children’s health and safety. Introduction During the early childhood years of three to five we see significant changes in the way children look, think, communicate, regulate their emotions, and interact with others. Children are often referred to as preschoolers during this time period. We’ll examine the physical changes of the preschooler in this chapter. Figure 7.1 – Two children walking across a bridge.1 Growth in Early Childhood Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year and gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year. The 3 year old is very similar to a toddler with a 1 Image by Kevin Gent on Unsplash 165 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t large head, large stomach, short arms and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the torso has lengthened and body proportions have become more like those of adults. The average 6 year old weighs approximately 46 pounds and is about 46 inches in height. This growth rate is slower than that of infancy. Nutritional Concerns That slower rate of growth is accompanied by a reduced appetite between the ages of 2 and 6. This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead to the development of poor eating habits. However, children between the ages of 2 and 3 need 1,000 to 1,400 calories, while children between the ages of 4 and 8 need 1,200 to 2,000 calories (Mayo Clinic, 2016a).2 Caregivers who have established a feeding routine with their child can find the reduction in appetite a bit frustrating and become concerned that the child is going to starve. However, by providing adequate, sound nutrition, and limiting sugary snacks and drinks, the caregiver can be assured that 1) the child will not starve; and 2) the child will receive adequate nutrition. Preschoolers can experience iron deficiencies if not given well-balanced nutrition or if they are given too much milk as calcium interferes with the absorption of iron in the diet as well. Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this age. Young children who grow accustomed to high fat, very sweet and salty flavors may have trouble eating foods that have more subtle flavors such as fruits and vegetables. Consider the following advice about establishing eating patterns for years to come (Rice, F.P., 1997). Notice that keeping mealtime pleasant, providing sound nutrition and not engaging in power struggles over food are the main goals.3 Tips for Establishing Healthy Eating Habits 1. 2. 3. Don’t try to force your child to eat or fight over food. Of course, it is impossible to force someone to eat. But the real advice here is to avoid turning food into a power struggle so that food doesn’t become a way to gain favor with or express anger toward someone else. Recognize that appetite varies. Children may eat well at one meal and have no appetite at another. Rather than seeing this as a problem, it may help to realize that appetites do vary. Continue to provide good nutrition at each mealtime (even if children don’t choose to eat the occasional meal). Keep it pleasant. This tip is designed to help caregivers create a positive atmosphere during mealtime. Mealtimes should not be the time for arguments or expressing tensions. You do not want the child to have painful memories of mealtimes together or have nervous stomachs and problems eating and digesting food due to stress. 2 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 3 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 166 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t 4. 5. 6. 7. No short order chefs. While it is fine to prepare foods that children enjoy, preparing a different meal for each child or family member sets up an unrealistic expectation from others. Children probably do best when they are hungry and a meal is ready. Limiting snacks rather than allowing children to “graze” continuously can help create an appetite for whatever is being served. Limit choices. If you give your preschool aged child choices, make sure that you give them one or two specific choices rather than asking “What would you like for lunch?” If given an open choice, children may change their minds or choose whatever their sibling does not choose! Serve balanced meals. Meals prepared at home tend to have better nutritional value than fast food or frozen dinners. Prepared foods tend to be higher in fat and sugar content as these ingredients enhance taste and profit margin because fresh food is often more costly and less profitable. However, preparing fresh food at home is not costly. It does, however, require more activity. Including children in meal preparation can provide a fun and memorable experience. Don’t bribe. Bribing a child to eat vegetables by promising dessert is not a good idea. First, the child will likely find a way to get the dessert without eating the vegetables (by whining or fidgeting, perhaps, until the caregiver gives in). Secondly, it teaches the child that some foods are better than others. Children tend to naturally enjoy a variety of foods until they are taught that some are considered less desirable than others. A child, for example, may learn the broccoli they have enjoyed is seen as yucky by others unless it’s smothered in cheese sauce!4 Figure 7.2 – Two children cooking together.5 USDA Meal Patterns for Young Children The United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service provides the following guidance for the daytime feeding of children age 3 to 5. 4 5 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Image by the Air Force Medical Service is in the public domain 167 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Meal Patterns6 Table 7.1 Meal Breakfast Lunch or Supper Snack Ages 3-5 3/4 cup milk 1/2 cup vegetables, fruit, or both ½ ounce equivalent grains 3/4 cup milk 1½ ounces meat or meat alternative 1/4 cup vegetables 1/4 cup fruits ½ ounce equivalent of grains Select two of the following: ½ cup of milk ½ ounce meat or meat alternative ½ cup vegetables ½ cup fruit ½ ounce equivalent of grains Brain Maturation Brain Weight The brain is about 75 percent its adult weight by two years of age. By age 6, it is approximately 95 percent its adult weight. Myelination and the development of dendrites continues to occur in the cortex and as it does, we see a corresponding change in the child’s abilities. Significant development in the prefrontal cortex (the area of the brain behind the forehead that helps us to think, strategize, and control emotion) makes it increasingly possible to control emotional outbursts and to understand how to play games. Consider 4- or 5-year-old children and how they might approach a game of soccer. Chances are, every move would be a response to the commands of a coach standing nearby calling out, “Run this way! Now, stop. Look at the ball. Kick the ball!” And when the child is not being told what to do, he or she is likely to be looking at the clover on the ground or a dog on the other side of the fence! Understanding the game, thinking ahead, coordinating movement, and handling losing improve with practice and myelination.7 6 https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/cacfp/CACFP_MealBP.pdf Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 7 168 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Visual Pathways Children’s drawings are representative of the development of visual pathways; as children’s brains mature the images in their drawings change. Early scribbles and dots illustrate the use of simple motor skills. No real connection is made between an image being visualized and what is created on paper. At age 3, the child begins to draw wispy creatures with heads and not much other detail. Gradually pictures begin to have more detail and incorporate more parts of the body. Arm buds become arms and faces take on noses, lips and eventually eyelashes. Figure 7.3 – Early scribbles.8 Figure 7.4 – Creatures with heads.9 Figure 7.5 – A detailed face.10 Growth in the Hemispheres and Corpus Callosum Between ages 3 and 6, the left hemisphere of the brain grows dramatically. This side of the brain or hemisphere is typically involved in language skills. The right hemisphere continues to grow throughout early childhood and is involved in tasks that require spatial skills such as recognizing shapes and patterns. The corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres of the brain undergoes a growth spurt between ages 3 and 6 and results in improved coordination between right and left hemisphere tasks. Motor Skill Development Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song. Days are filled with jumping, running, swinging and clapping and every place becomes a playground. Even the booth at a restaurant affords the opportunity to slide around in the seat or disappear underneath and imagine being a sea creature in a cave! Of course, this can be frustrating to a caregiver, but it’s the business of early childhood. 8 Image by Wikimedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 Image by torange.biz is Licensed under CC-BY 4.0 10 Image by torange.biz is Licensed under CC-BY 4.0 9 169 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Gross Motor Skills Children continue to improve their gross motor skills as they run and jump. They frequently ask their caregivers to “look at me” while they hop or roll down a hill. Children’s songs are often accompanied by arm and leg movements or cues to turn around or move from left to right. Gross Motor Milestones Here is a table showing the progression of gross motor skills that children will typically develop during early childhood: Table 7.2 - Gross Motor Milestones11 Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age 3 years     Climbs well Runs easily Pedals a tricycle (3-wheel bike) Walks up and down stairs, one foot on each step 4 years   Hops and stands on one foot up to 2 seconds Catches a bounced ball most of the time 5 years      Stands on one foot for 10 seconds or longer Hops; may be able to skip Can do a somersault Can use the toilet on own Swings and climbs Activities to Support Gross Motor Skills Here are some activities focused on play that young children enjoy and that support their gross motor skill development.  Tricycle  Slides  Swings  Sit-n-Spin  Mini trampoline  Bowling pins (can use plastic soda bottles also)  Tent (try throwing blankets over chairs and other furniture to make a fort)  Playground ladders  Suspension bridge on playground  Tunnels (try throwing a bean bag chair underneath for greater challenge)  Ball play (kick, throw, catch)  Simon Says 11 Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain 170 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t    Target games with bean bags, ball, etc. Dancing/moving to music Pushing self on scooter or skateboard while on stomach Figure 7.6 – Children riding tricycles together.12 Fine Motor Skills Fine motor skills are also being refined as they continue to develop more dexterity, strength, and endurance. Fine motor skills are very important as they are foundational to self-help skills and later academic abilities (such as writing). Fine Motor Milestones Here is a table showing how fine motor skills progress during early childhood for children that are typically developing. Table 7.3 - Fine Motor Milestones13 Typical Age 3 years 12 13 What Most Children Do by This Age     Copies a circle with pencil or crayon Turns book pages one at a time Builds towers of more than 6 blocks Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handle Image by Hanscom Air Force Base is in the public domain Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain 171 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age 4 years     Pours, cuts with supervision, and mashes own food Draws a person with 2 to 4 body parts Uses scissors Starts to copy some capital letters 5 years     Can draw a person with at least 6 body parts Can print some letters or numbers Copies a triangle and other geometric shapes Uses a fork and spoon and sometimes a table knife Activities to Support Fine Motor Skills Here are some fun activities that will help children continue to refine their fine motor abilities. Fine motor skills are slower to develop than gross motor skills, so it is important to have age appropriate expectations and play-based activities for children.  Pouring water into a container  Drawing and coloring  Using scissors  Finger painting  Fingerplays and songs (such as the Itsy, Bitsy Spider)  Play dough  Lacing and beading  Practicing with large tweezers, tongs, and eye droppers Figure 7.7 – Children coloring.14 14 Image by Spangdahlem Air Base is in the public domain 172 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Sleep and Early Childhood Along with food and water, sleep is one of the human body's most important physiological needs—we cannot live without it. Extended sleeplessness (i.e., lack of sleep for longer than a few days) has severe psychological and physical effects. Research on rats has found that a week of no sleep leads to loss of immune function, and two weeks of no sleep leads to death. Recently, neuroscientists have learned that at least one vital function of sleep is related to learning and memory. New findings suggest that sleep plays a critical role in flagging and storing important memories, both intellectual and physical, and perhaps in making subtle connections that were invisible during waking hours.15 How Much Sleep Do We Need? The amount of sleep an individual needs varies depending on multiple factors including age, physical condition, psychological condition, and energy exertion. Just like any other human characteristic, the amount of sleep people need to function best differs among individuals, even those of the same age and gender. Though there is no magic sleep number, there are general rules for how much sleep certain age groups need. For instance, children need more sleep per day in order to develop and function properly: up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as a child ages. A newborn baby spends almost 9 hours a day in REM sleep. By the age of five, only slightly over two hours is spent in REM. Studies show that young children need about 10 to 11 hours of sleep, adolescents need between 8.5 and 9.25, and adults generally need between 7 and 9 hours. Figure 7.8 – A child sleeping.16 Sleepwalking (Somnambulism) Sleepwalking (sometimes called sleepwalking disorder, somnambulism, or noctambulation) causes a person to get up and walk during the early hours of sleep. The person may sit up and look awake (though they're actually asleep), get up and walk around, move items, or dress or 15 16 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Image by Peter Griffin is in the public domain 173 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t undress themselves. They will have a blank stare and still be able to perform complex tasks. Some individuals also talk while in their sleep, saying meaningless words and even having arguments with people who are not there. A person who sleepwalks will be confused upon waking up and may also experience anxiety and fatigue. Sleepwalking can be dangerous—people have been known to seriously hurt themselves during sleepwalking episodes. It is most common in children, but it also occurs occasionally in adults. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep Terrors and Nightmare Disorder Sleep terrors are characterized by a sudden arousal from deep sleep with a scream or cry, accompanied by some behavioral manifestations of intense fear. Sleep terrors typically occur in the first few hours of sleep, during stage 3 NREM sleep. Night terrors tend to happen during periods of arousal from delta sleep (i.e., slow-wave sleep). They are worse than nightmares, causing significant disorientation, panic, and anxiety. They can last up to 10 minutes, and the person may be screaming and difficult to wake. In some cases, sleep terrors continue into adulthood. Distinct from sleep terrors is nightmare disorder. Also known as "dream anxiety disorder," nightmare disorder is characterized by frequent nightmares. The nightmares, which often portray the individual in a situation that jeopardizes their life or personal safety, usually occur during the second half of the sleeping process, called the REM stage. Though many people experience nightmares, those with nightmare disorder experience them more frequently.17 Toilet Training Toilet training typically occurs after the second birthday. Some children show interest by age 2, but others may not be ready until months later. The average age for girls to be toilet trained is 29 months and for boys it is 31 months, and 98% of children are trained by 36 months (Boyse & Fitzgerald, 2010). The child’s age is not as important as his/her physical and emotional readiness. If started too early, it might take longer to train a child. According to The Mayo Clinic (2016b) the following questions can help parents determine if a child is ready for toilet training:  Does your child seem interested in the potty chair or toilet, or in wearing underwear?  Can your child understand and follow basic directions?  Does your child tell you through words, facial expressions or posture when he or she needs to go?  Does your child stay dry for periods of two hours or longer during the day?  Does your child complain about wet or dirty diapers?  Can your child pull down his or her pants and pull them up again? 17 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 174 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t  Can your child sit on and rise from a potty chair? If a child resists being trained or it is not successful after a few weeks, it is best to take a break and try again when they show more significant interest in the process. Most children master daytime bladder control first, typically within two to three months of consistent toilet training. However, nap and nighttime training might take months or even years. Figure 7.9 – A child learning to be toilet trained.18 Elimination Disorders Some children experience elimination disorders including:  enuresis - the repeated voiding of urine into bed or clothes (involuntary or intentional) after age 5  encopresis - the repeated passage of feces into inappropriate places (involuntary or intentional). The prevalence of enuresis is 5%-10% for 5 year-olds, 3%-5% for 10 year-olds and approximately 1% for those 15 years of age or older. Around 1% of 5 year- olds have encopresis, and it is more common in males than females. These are diagnosed by a medical professional and may require treatment.19 Sexual Development in Early Childhood Self-stimulation is common in early childhood for both boys and girls. Curiosity about the body and about others’ bodies is a natural part of early childhood as well. Consider this example. A girl asks her mother: “So it’s okay to see a boy’s privates as long as it’s the boy’s mother or a doctor?” The mother hesitates a bit and then responds, “Yes. I think that’s alright.” “Hmmm,” 18 Image by Manish Bansal is licensed under CC-BY-2.0 Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 19 175 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t the girl begins, “When I grow up, I want to be a doctor!” While this subject can feel uncomfortable to deal with, caregivers can teach children to be safe and know what is appropriate without frightening them or causing shame. As children grow, they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers, and to take off their clothes and touch each other (Okami et al., 1997). Masturbation is common for both boys and girls. Boys are often shown by other boys how to masturbate. But girls tend to find out accidentally. And boys masturbate more often and touch themselves more openly than do girls (Schwartz, 1999). Caregivers should respond to this without undue alarm and without making the child feel guilty about their bodies. Instead, messages about what is going on and the appropriate time and place for such activities help the child learn what is appropriate.20 Health in Early Childhood While preschoolers are becoming more and more independent, they depend on their caregivers to keep protecting and promoting their health. 21 Childhood Obesity Childhood obesity is a complex health issue. It occurs when a child is well above the normal or healthy weight for his or her age and height. Childhood obesity is a serious problem in the United States putting children at risk for poor health. In 2015-2016, 13.9% of 2- to 5-year-olds were obese. Where people live can affect their ability to make healthy choices. Obesity disproportionally affects children from low-income families. Causes of Obesity The causes of excess weight gain in young people are similar to those in adults, including factors such as a person’s behavior and genetics. Behaviors that influence excess weight gain include:  eating high calorie, low-nutrient foods  not getting enough physical exercise  sedentary activities (such as watching television or other screen devices)  medication use  sleep routines 20 Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 21 Prevalence of Childhood Obesity in the United States by the CDC is in the public domain 176 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Figure 7.10 – A child watching TV instead of playing.22 Consequences of Obesity The consequences of childhood obesity are both immediate and long term. It can affect physical as well as social and emotional well-being.  More Immediate Health Risks o High blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). o Increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes. o Breathing problems, such as asthma and sleep apnea. o Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort. o Fatty liver disease, gallstones, and gastro-esophageal reflux (i.e., heartburn).  Childhood obesity is also related to o Psychological problems such as anxiety and depression. o Low self-esteem and lower self-reported quality of life. o Social problems such as bullying and stigma.  Future Health Risks o Children who have obesity are more likely to become adults with obesity.11 Adult obesity is associated with increased risk of a number of serious health conditions including heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. o If children have obesity, their obesity and disease risk factors in adulthood are likely to be more severe.23 Food Allergies A food allergy occurs when the body has a specific and reproducible immune response to certain foods. The body’s immune response can be severe and life threatening, such as 22 23 Image by Melissa Gutierrez is licensed under CC-BY-2.0 Childhood Obesity Causes & Consequences by the CDC is in the public domain 177 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t anaphylaxis. Although the immune system normally protects people from germs, in people with food allergies, the immune system mistakenly responds to food as if it were harmful. Eight foods or food groups account for 90% of serious allergic reactions in the United States: milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, wheat, soy, peanuts, and tree nuts. The symptoms and severity of allergic reactions to food can be different between individuals, and can also be different for one person over time. Anaphylaxis is a sudden and severe allergic reaction that may cause death.4Not all allergic reactions will develop into anaphylaxis.  Children with food allergies are two to four times more likely to have asthma or other allergic conditions than those without food allergies.  The prevalence of food allergies among children increased 18% during 1997-2007, and allergic reactions to foods have become the most common cause of anaphylaxis in community health settings.  Although difficult to measure, research suggests that approximately 4% of children and adolescents are affected by food allergies. The CDC recommends that as part of maintaining a healthy and safe environment for children, caregivers should:  Be aware of any food allergies.  Educate other children and all adults that care for a child with food allergies.  Ensure the daily management of food allergies.  Prepare for food allergy emergencies.24 Oral Health Tooth decay (cavities) is one of the most common chronic conditions of childhood in the United States. Untreated tooth decay can cause pain and infections that may lead to problems with eating, speaking, playing, and learning. The good news is that tooth decay is preventable. Fluoride varnish, a high concentration fluoride coating that is painted on teeth, can prevent about one-third (33%) of decay in the primary (baby) teeth. Children living in communities with fluoridated tap water have fewer decayed teeth than children who live in areas where their tap water is not fluoridated. Similarly, children who brush daily with fluoride toothpaste will have less tooth decay. Applying dental sealants to the chewing surfaces of the back teeth is another way to prevent tooth decay. Studies in children show that sealants reduce decay in the permanent molars by 81% for 2 years after they are placed on the tooth and continue to be effective for 4 years after placement.25 24 25 Food Allergies in Schools by the CDC is in the public domain Children’s Oral Health by the CDC is in the public domain 178 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t The first visit to the dentist should happen after the first tooth erupts. After that, children should be seeing the dentist every six months.26 Figure 7.11 – A dentist checking a child’s teeth.27 Protection from Illness Two important ways to help protect children from illness are immunization and handwashing. Immunizations While vaccines begin in infancy, it is important for children to receive additional doses of vaccines to keep them protected. These boosters, given between ages 4 and 6, are doses of the vaccines they received earlier in life to help them maintain the best protection against vaccinepreventable diseases. Figure 7.12 – Vaccines.28 Many states require children to be fully vaccinated (unless they have a medical reason to be exempt) before they can enroll in licensed child care or public school. If vaccinations were 26 Content by Jennifer Paris is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Image by Keesler Air Force Base is in the public domain 28 Image by Ramstein Air Base is in the public domain 27 179 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t missed, a health care provider can help the child’s caregivers to create a catch up schedule to ensure the child correctly “catches up” with the recommended childhood vaccination schedule.29 Handwashing Handwashing is one of the best ways to prevent the spread of illness. It’s important for children (and adults) to wash their hands often, especially when they are likely to get and spread germs, including:  Before, during, and after preparing food.  Before eating food.  After blowing nose, coughing, or sneezing.  After using the toilet.  After touching an animal, animal feed, or animal waste.  After touching garbage. It’s important for children to learn how to properly wash their hands. When washing hands children (and adults) should follow these five steps every time. 1. Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold), turn off the tap, and apply soap. 2. Lather your hands by rubbing them together with the soap. Lather the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails. 3. Scrub your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer? Hum or sing the Happy Birthday song or ABCs from beginning to end twice. 4. Rinse your hands well under clean, running water. 5. Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry them.30 Figure 7.13 – A mother helping her son wash his hands.31 29 Vaccines for Your Children: Protect Your Child at Every Age by the CDC is in the public domain Wash Your Hands by the CDC is in the public domain 31 Image is in the public domain 30 180 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Caregivers can help keep children healthy by:  Teaching them good handwashing techniques.  Reminding their kids to wash their hands.  Washing their own hands with the children.32 Safety Child injuries are preventable, yet more than 9,000 children (from 0-19 years) died from injuries in the US in 2009. Car crashes, suffocation, drowning, poisoning, fires, and falls are some of the most common ways children are hurt or killed. The number of children dying from injury dropped nearly 30% over the last decade. However, injury is still the number 1 cause of death among children.33 Children during early childhood are more at risk for certain injuries. Using data from 2000-2006, the CDC determined that:  Drowning was the leading cause of injury death between 1 and 4 years of age.  Falls were the leading cause of nonfatal injury for all age groups less than 15.  For children ages 0 to 9, the next two leading causes were being struck by or against an object and animal bites or insect stings.  Rates for fires or burns, and drowning were highest for children 4 years and younger. 34 Here is a table summarizing some tips from the CDC to protect children from these injuries: Table 7.4 – Preventing Injuries Type of Injury Prevention Tips  Burns    Drowning     Have smoke alarms on every floor and in all rooms people sleep in Involve children in creating and practicing an escape plan Never leave food cooking on the stove unattended; supervise any use of microwave Make sure the water heater is set to 120 degrees or lower35 Make sure caregivers are trained in CPR Fence off pools; gates should be self-closing and self-latching Have children wear life jackets in and around natural bodies of water Supervise children in or near water (including the bathtub)36 32 Handwashing: A Family Activity by the CDC is in the public domain Child Injury by the CDC is in the public domain 34 CDC Childhood Injury Report by the CDC is in the public domain 35 Burn Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain 36 Drowning Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain 33 181 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Type of Injury Prevention Tips  Falls     Poisoning     Motor-accident, in vehicle    Motor-accident, pedestrian  Make sure playground surfaces are safe, soft, and made of impact absorbing material (such as wood chips or sand) at an appropriate depth and are well maintained Use safety devices (such as window guards) Make sure children are wearing protective gear during sports and recreation (such as bicycle helmets) Supervise children around fall hazards at all times37 Lock up all medications and toxic products (such as cleaning solutions and detergents) in original packaging out of sight and reach of children Know the number to poison control (1-800-222-1222) Read and follow labels of all medications Safely dispose of unused, unneeded, or expired prescription drugs and over the counter drugs, vitamins, and supplements38 Children should still be safely restrained in a five point harnessed car seat Children should be in back seat Children should not be seated in front of an airbag Teach children about safety including: o Walking on the sidewalk o Not assuming vehicles see you or will stop o Crossing only in crosswalks o Looking both ways before crossing o Never playing in the road o Not crossing a road without an adult Supervise children near all roadways and model safe behavior39 37 Poisoning Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain Road Traffic Safety by the CDC is in the public domain 39 Safety Tips for Pedestrians by the Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center is in the public domain 38 182 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Figure 7.14 – Children playing on a jungle gym at a park.40 Conclusion In this chapter we looked at:  The physical characteristics of preschoolers.  Healthy nutrition.  The changes in the brain.  The progression of motor skills and developmentally appropriate ways to support that development.  Sleep and sleep disorders.  Toilet training and elimination disorders  Sexual development in early childhood.  And ways to keep children healthy and safe. In the next chapter we’ll investigate how children understand the world and their communication abilities. 40 Image is in the public domain 183 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Chapter 8: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Compare and contrast Piaget and Vygotsky’s beliefs about cognitive development. 2. Explain the role of information processing in cognitive development. 3. Discuss how preschool-aged children understand their worlds. 4. Put cognitive and language milestones into the order in which they appear in typically developing children. 5. Discuss how early child education supports development and how our understanding of development influence education. 6. Describe autism spectrum disorder, including characteristics and possible interventions. Introduction Early childhood is a time of pretending, blending fact and fiction, and learning to think of the world using language. As young children move away from needing to touch, feel, and hear about the world toward learning some basic principles about how the world works, they hold some pretty interesting initial ideas. For example, while adults have no concerns with taking a bath, a child of three might genuinely worry about being sucked down the drain.1 Figure 8.1 – A child in a bathtub.2 A child might protest if told that something will happen “tomorrow” but be willing to accept an explanation that an event will occur “today after we sleep.” Or the young child may ask, “How 1 Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 2 Image by Ian Cameron is licensed under CC BY 2.0 184 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t long are we staying? From here to here?” while pointing to two points on a table. Concepts such as tomorrow, time, size and distance are not easy to grasp at this young age. Understanding size, time, distance, fact and fiction are all tasks that are part of cognitive development in the preschool years.3 Piaget’s Preoperational Intelligence Piaget’s stage that coincides with early childhood is the preoperational stage. The word operational means logical, so these children were thought to be illogical. However, they were learning to use language or to think of the world symbolically. Let’s examine some of Piaget’s assertions about children’s cognitive abilities at this age. Pretend Play Pretending is a favorite activity at this time. A toy has qualities beyond the way it was designed to function and can now be used to stand for a character or object unlike anything originally intended. A teddy bear, for example, can be a baby or the queen of a faraway land! Figure 8.2 – A child pretending to buy items at a toy grocery store. 4 According to Piaget, children’s pretend play helps them solidify new schemes they were developing cognitively. This play, then, reflects changes in their conceptions or thoughts. However, children also learn as they pretend and experiment. Their play does not simply represent what they have learned (Berk, 2007). Egocentrism Egocentrism in early childhood refers to the tendency of young children to think that everyone sees things in the same way as the child. Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism involved showing children a 3-dimensional model of a mountain and asking them to describe what a doll that is looking at the mountain from a different angle might see. Children tend to choose a 3 Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 4 Image by Ermalfaro is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 185 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t picture that represents their own view, rather than that of the doll. However, children tend to use different sentence structures and vocabulary when addressing a younger child or an older adult. This indicates some awareness of the views of others. Figure 8.3 – Piaget’s egocentrism experiment.5 Syncretism Syncretism refers to a tendency to think that if two events occur simultaneously, one caused the other. An example of this is a child putting on their bathing suit to turn it to summertime. Animism Attributing lifelike qualities to objects is referred to as animism. The cup is alive, the chair that falls down and hits the child’s ankle is mean, and the toys need to stay home because they are tired. Cartoons frequently show objects that appear alive and take on lifelike qualities. Young children do seem to think that objects that move may be alive but after age 3, they seldom refer to objects as being alive (Berk, 2007). Classification Errors Preoperational children have difficulty understanding that an object can be classified in more than one way. For example, if shown three white buttons and four black buttons and asked whether there are more black buttons or buttons, the child is likely to respond that there are more black buttons. As the child’s vocabulary improves and more schemes are developed, the ability to classify objects improves.6 5 Image by Rosenfeld Media is licensed under CC BY 2.0 Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 6 186 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Conservation Errors Conservation refers to the ability to recognize that moving or rearranging matter does not change the quantity. Let’s look at an example. A father gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to 3-year-old Kenny. Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Kenny did not understand that cutting the pizza into smaller pieces did not increase the overall amount. This was because Kenny exhibited Centration, or focused on only one characteristic of an object to the exclusion of others. Kenny focused on the five pieces of pizza to his sister’s one piece even though the total amount was the same. Keiko was able to consider several characteristics of an object than just one. Because children have not developed this understanding of conservation, they cannot perform mental operations. The classic Piagetian experiment associated with conservation involves liquid (Crain, 2005). As seen below, the child is shown two glasses (as shown in a) which are filled to the same level and asked if they have the same amount. Usually the child agrees they have the same amount. The researcher then pours the liquid from one glass to a taller and thinner glass (as shown in b). The child is again asked if the two glasses have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child will typically say the taller glass now has more liquid because it is taller. The child has concentrated on the height of the glass and fails to conserve.7 Figure 8.4 – Piagetian liquid conservation experiments.8 Cognitive Schemas As introduced in the first chapter, Piaget believed that in a quest for cognitive equilibrium, we use schemas (categories of knowledge) to make sense of the world. And when new experiences fit into existing schemas, we use assimilation to add that new knowledge to the schema. But when new experiences do not match an existing schema, we use accommodation to add a new schema. During early childhood, children use accommodation often as they build their understanding of the world around them. 7 Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 8 Image by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 187 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development As introduced in Chapter 1, Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development. He believed that the social interactions with adults and more knowledgeable peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some of Vygotsky’s key concepts. Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding Vygotsky’s best known concept is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotsky stated that children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can perform a task with assistance, but not quite yet on their own. With the right kind of teaching, however, they can accomplish it successfully. A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then perform the task unaided. Researchers have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary platforms on which construction workers stand) to this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task. Figure 8.5 – Zone of proximal development.9 Private Speech Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a situation. Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or a practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view. Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve problems or clarify thoughts. As 9 Image by Dcoetzee is licensed under CC0 1.0 188 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t children learn to think in words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their lips and engaging in private speech or inner speech. Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and talking to oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn something or remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).10 Contrast with Piaget Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction, believing that teachers who take control of the child’s learning place the child into a passive role (Crain, 2005). Further, teachers may present abstract ideas without the child’s true understanding, and instead they just repeat back what they heard. Piaget believed children must be given opportunities to discover concepts on their own. As previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe children could reach a higher cognitive level without instruction from more learned individuals. Who is correct? Both theories certainly contribute to our understanding of how children learn. Information Processing Information processing researchers have focused on several issues in cognitive development for this age group, including improvements in attention skills, changes in the capacity, and the emergence of executive functions in working memory. Additionally, in early childhood memory strategies, memory accuracy, and autobiographical memory emerge. Early childhood is seen by many researchers as a crucial time period in memory development (Posner & Rothbart, 2007). Figure 8.6 – How information is processed.11 Attention Changes in attention have been described by many as the key to changes in human memory (Nelson & Fivush, 2004; Posner & Rothbart, 2007). However, attention is not a unified function; it is comprised of sub-processes. The ability to switch our focus between tasks or external stimuli is called divided attention or multitasking. This is separate from our ability to focus on a 10 Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 11 Image by Gradient drift is in the public domain 189 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t single task or stimulus, while ignoring distracting information, called selective attention. Different from these is sustained attention, or the ability to stay on task for long periods of time. Moreover, we also have attention processes that influence our behavior and enable us to inhibit a habitual or dominant response, and others that enable us to distract ourselves when upset or frustrated. Divided Attention Young children (age 3-4) have considerable difficulties in dividing their attention between two tasks, and often perform at levels equivalent to our closest relative, the chimpanzee, but by age five they have surpassed the chimp (Hermann, Misch, Hernandez-Lloreda & Tomasello, 2015; Hermann & Tomasello, 2015). Despite these improvements, 5-year-olds continue to perform below the level of school-age children, adolescents, and adults. Selective Attention Children’s ability with selective attention tasks improve as they age. However, this ability is also greatly influenced by the child’s temperament (Rothbart & Rueda, 2005), the complexity of the stimulus or task (Porporino, Shore, Iarocci & Burack, 2004), and along with whether the stimuli are visual or auditory (Guy, Rogers & Cornish, 2013). Guy et al. (2013) found that children’s ability to selectively attend to visual information outpaced that of auditory stimuli. This may explain why young children are not able to hear the voice of the teacher over the cacophony of sounds in the typical preschool classroom (Jones, Moore & Amitay, 2015). Jones and his colleagues found that 4 to 7 year-olds could not filter out background noise, especially when its frequencies were close in sound to the target sound. In comparison, 8- to 11-year-old children often performed similar to adults. Figure 8.7 – A group of children making crafts.12 Sustained Attention Most measures of sustained attention typically ask children to spend several minutes focusing on one task, while waiting for an infrequent event, while there are multiple distractors for 12 Image by Joint Base Charleston is in the public domain 190 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t several minutes. Berwid, Curko-Kera, Marks & Halperin (2005) asked children between the ages of 3 and 7 to push a button whenever a “target” image was displayed, but they had to refrain from pushing the button when a non-target image was shown. The younger the child, the more difficulty he or she had maintaining their attention. Figure 8.8 – A child playing a game that measures her sustained attention.13 Memory Based on studies of adults, people with amnesia, and neurological research on memory, researchers have proposed several “types” of memory (see Figure 4.14). Sensory memory (also called the sensory register) is the first stage of the memory system, and it stores sensory input in its raw form for a very brief duration; essentially long enough for the brain to register and start processing the information. Studies of auditory sensory memory show that it lasts about one second in 2 year-olds, two seconds in 3-year-olds, more than two seconds in 4-year-olds, and three to five seconds in 6-year-olds (Glass, Sachse, & von Suchodoletz, 2008). Other researchers have also found that young children hold sounds for a shorter duration than do older children and adults, and that this deficit is not due to attentional differences between these age groups, but reflects differences in the performance of the sensory memory system (Gomes et al., 1999). The second stage of the memory system is called short-term or working memory. Working memory is the component of memory in which current conscious mental activity occurs. Working memory often requires conscious effort and adequate use of attention to function effectively. As you read earlier, children in this age group struggle with many aspects of attention and this greatly diminishes their ability to consciously juggle several pieces of information in memory. The capacity of working memory, that is the amount of information someone can hold in consciousness, is smaller in young children than in older children and adults. The typical adult and teenager can hold a 7 digit number active in their short-term memory. The typical 5-year-old can hold only a 4 digit number active. This means that the more 13 Image by Fabrice Florin is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 191 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t complex a mental task is, the less efficient a younger child will be in paying attention to, and actively processing, information in order to complete the task. Figure 8.8 – A child thinking.14 Changes in attention and the working memory system also involve changes in executive function. Executive function (EF) refers to self-regulatory processes, such as the ability to inhibit a behavior or cognitive flexibility, that enable adaptive responses to new situations or to reach a specific goal. Executive function skills gradually emerge during early childhood and continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. Like many cognitive changes, brain maturation, especially the prefrontal cortex, along with experience influence the development of executive function skills. A child shows higher executive functioning skills when the parents are more warm and responsive, use scaffolding when the child is trying to solve a problem, and provide cognitively stimulating environments for the child (Fay-Stammbach, Hawes & Meredith, 2014). For instance, scaffolding was positively correlated with greater cognitive flexibility at age two and inhibitory control at age four (Bibok, Carpendale & Müller, 2009). In Schneider, Kron-Sperl and Hunnerkopf’s (2009) longitudinal study of 102 kindergarten children, the majority of children used no strategy to remember information, a finding that was consistent with previous research. As a result, their memory performance was poor when compared to their abilities as they aged and started to use more effective memory strategies. The third component in memory is long-term memory, which is also known as permanent memory. A basic division of long-term memory is between declarative and non-declarative memory.  Declarative memories, sometimes referred to as explicit memories, are memories for facts or events that we can consciously recollect. Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory. 14 Image by Leonid Mamchenkov is licensed under CC BY 2.0 192 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t  o Semantic memories are memories for facts and knowledge that are not tied to a timeline, o Episodic memories are tied to specific events in time. Non- declarative memories, sometimes referred to as implicit memories, are typically automated skills that do not require conscious recollection. Autobiographical memory is our personal narrative. Adults rarely remember events from the first few years of life. In other words, we lack autobiographical memories from our experiences as an infant, toddler and very young preschooler. Several factors contribute to the emergence of autobiographical memory including brain maturation, improvements in language, opportunities to talk about experiences with parents and others, the development of theory of mind, and a representation of “self” (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Two-year-olds do remember fragments of personal experiences, but these are rarely coherent accounts of past events (Nelson & Ross, 1980). Between 2 and 2 1⁄2 years of age children can provide more information about past experiences. However, these recollections require considerable prodding by adults (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Over the next few years children will form more detailed autobiographical memories and engage in more reflection of the past. Neo-Piagetians As previously discussed, Piaget’s theory has been criticized on many fronts, and updates to reflect more current research have been provided by the Neo-Piagetians, or those theorists who provide “new” interpretations of Piaget’s theory. Morra, Gobbo, Marini and Sheese (2008) reviewed Neo-Piagetian theories, which were first presented in the 1970s, and identified how these “new” theories combined Piagetian concepts with those found in Information Processing. Similar to Piaget’s theory, Neo-Piagetian theories believe in constructivism, assume cognitive development can be separated into different stages with qualitatively different characteristics, and advocate that children’s thinking becomes more complex in advanced stages. Unlike Piaget, Neo-Piagetians believe that aspects of information processing change the complexity of each stage, not logic as determined by Piaget. Neo-Piagetians propose that working memory capacity is affected by biological maturation, and therefore restricts young children’s ability to acquire complex thinking and reasoning skills. Increases in working memory performance and cognitive skills development coincide with the timing of several neurodevelopmental processes. These include myelination, axonal and synaptic pruning, changes in cerebral metabolism, and changes in brain activity (Morra et al., 2008). Myelination especially occurs in waves between birth and adolescence, and the degree of myelination in particular areas explains the increasing efficiency of certain skills. Therefore, brain maturation, which occurs in spurts, affects how and when cognitive skills develop. 193 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Additionally, all Neo-Piagetian theories support that experience and learning interact with biological maturation in shaping cognitive development.15 Children’s Understanding of the World Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that children actively try to understand the world around them. More recently developmentalists have added to this understanding by examining how children organize information and develop their own theories about the world. Theory-Theory The tendency of children to generate theories to explain everything they encounter is called theory-theory. This concept implies that humans are naturally inclined to find reasons and generate explanations for why things occur. Children frequently ask question about what they see or hear around them. When the answers provided do not satisfy their curiosity or are too complicated for them to understand, they generate their own theories. In much the same way that scientists construct and revise their theories, children do the same with their intuitions about the world as they encounter new experiences (Gopnik & Wellman, 2012). One of the theories they start to generate in early childhood centers on the mental states; both their own and those of others. Figure 8.9 - What theories might this boy be creating?16 Theory of Mind Theory of mind refers to the ability to think about other people’s thoughts. This mental mind reading helps humans to understand and predict the reactions of others, thus playing a crucial role in social development. One common method for determining if a child has reached this mental milestone is the false belief task, described below. 15 Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 16 Image by Eglin Air Force Base is in the public domain 194 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t The research began with a clever experiment by Wimmer and Perner (1983), who tested whether children can pass a false-belief test (see Figure 4.17). The child is shown a picture story of Sally, who puts her ball in a basket and leaves the room. While Sally is out of the room, Anne comes along and takes the ball from the basket and puts it inside a box. The child is then asked where Sally thinks the ball is located when she comes back to the room. Is she going to look first in the box or in the basket? The right answer is that she will look in the basket, because that’s where she put it and thinks it is; but we have to infer this false belief against our own better knowledge that the ball is in the box. Figure 8.10 – A ball.17 Figure 8.11 – A basket.18 Figure 8.12 – A box.19 This is very difficult for children before the age of four because of the cognitive effort it takes. Three-year-olds have difficulty distinguishing between what they once thought was true and what they now know to be true. They feel confident that what they know now is what they have always known (Birch & Bloom, 2003). Even adults need to think through this task (Epley, Morewedge, & Keysar, 2004). To be successful at solving this type of task the child must separate what he or she “knows” to be true from what someone else might “think” is true. In Piagetian terms, they must give up a tendency toward egocentrism. The child must also understand that what guides people’s actions and responses are what they “believe” rather than what is reality. In other words, people can mistakenly believe things that are false and will act based on this false knowledge. Consequently, prior to age four children are rarely successful at solving such a task (Wellman, Cross & Watson, 2001). Researchers examining the development of theory of mind have been concerned by the overemphasis on the mastery of false belief as the primary measure of whether a child has attained theory of mind. Wellman and his colleagues (Wellman, Fang, Liu, Zhu & Liu, 2006) suggest that theory of mind is comprised of a number of components, each with its own developmental timeline (see Table 4.2). Two-year-olds understand the diversity of desires, yet as noted earlier it is not until age four or five that children grasp false belief, and often not until middle childhood do they understand 17 Image is in the public domain Image is licensed under CC0 19 Image is in the public domain 18 195 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t that people may hide how they really feel. In part, because children in early childhood have difficulty hiding how they really feel. Cultural Differences in Theory of Mind Those in early childhood in the US, Australia, and Germany develop theory of mind in the sequence outlined above. Yet, Chinese and Iranian preschoolers acquire knowledge access before diverse beliefs (Shahaeian, Peterson, Slaughter & Wellman, 2011). Shahaeian and colleagues suggested that cultural differences in childrearing may account for this reversal. Parents in collectivistic cultures, such as China and Iran, emphasize conformity to the family and cultural values, greater respect for elders, and the acquisition of knowledge and academic skills more than they do autonomy and social skills (Frank, Plunkett & Otten, 2010). This could reduce the degree of familial conflict of opinions expressed in the family. In contrast, individualistic cultures encourage children to think for themselves and assert their own opinion, and this could increase the risk of conflict in beliefs being expressed by family members. Figure 8.13 – A family from a non-Western culture.20 As a result, children in individualistic cultures would acquire insight into the question of diversity of belief earlier, while children in collectivistic cultures would acquire knowledge access earlier in the sequence. The role of conflict in aiding the development of theory of mind may account for the earlier age of onset of an understanding of false belief in children with siblings, especially older siblings (McAlister & Petersen, 2007; Perner, Ruffman & Leekman, 1994). This awareness of the existence of theory of mind is part of social intelligence, such as recognizing that others can think differently about situations. It helps us to be self-conscious or aware that others can think of us in different ways and it helps us to be able to be 20 Image by Giorgio Montersino is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 196 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t understanding or be empathetic toward others. Moreover, this mind reading ability helps us to anticipate and predict people’s actions. The awareness of the mental states of others is important for communication and social skills.21 Milestones of Cognitive Development The many theories of cognitive development and the different research that has been done about how children understand the world, has allowed researchers to study the milestones that children who are typically developing experience in early childhood. Here is a table that summarizes those. Table 8.1 - Cognitive Milestones22 Typical Age 3 years 4 years 5 years What Most Children Do by This Age            Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people Does puzzles with 3 or 4 pieces Understands what “two” means Names some colors and some numbers Understands the idea of counting Starts to understand time Remembers parts of a story Understands the idea of “same” and “different” Plays board or card games Tells you what he thinks is going to happen next in a book   Counts 10 or more things Knows about things used every day, like money and food Language Development Vocabulary Growth A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about 200 words to over 10,000 words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known. The parts of speech that are learned depend on the language and what is emphasized. Children speaking verb-friendly languages such as Chinese and Japanese, tend to learn nouns more readily. But, those learning less verb-friendly languages such as English, seem to need assistance in grammar to master the use of verbs (Imai, et al, 2008). 21 Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 22 Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain 197 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Figure 8.14 – A woman instructing a girl on vocabulary.23 Literal Meanings Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only once or twice. But they do not always understand the meaning of the words or phrases. This is especially true of expressions or figures of speech which are taken literally. For example, two preschool-aged girls began to laugh loudly while listening to a tape-recording of Disney’s “Sleeping Beauty” when the narrator reports, “Prince Phillip lost his head!” They imagine his head popping off and rolling down the hill as he runs and searches for it. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the teacher say, “Wow! That was a piece of cake!” The children began asking “Cake? Where is my cake? I want cake!” Overregularization Children learn rules of grammar as they learn language but may apply these rules inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to add “ed” to the end of a word to indicate past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This is typical at ages 2 and 3. They will soon learn new words such as “went” and “did” to be used in those situations. The Impact of Training Remember Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development? Children can be assisted in learning language by others who listen attentively, model more accurate pronunciations and encourage elaboration. The child exclaims, “I goed there!” and the adult responds, “You went there? Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be ripe for language as Chomsky suggests, but active participation in helping them learn is important for language development as well. The process of scaffolding is one in which the adult (or more skilled peer) provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned. Language Milestones The prior aspects of language development in early childhood can also be summarized into the progression of milestones children typically experience from ages 3 to 5. Here is a table of those. 23 Image by the U.S. Department of the Interior is in the public domain 198 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Table 8.2 - Language Milestones24 Typical Age 3 years What Most Children Do By This Age          4 years 5 years Follows instructions with 2 or 3 steps Can name most familiar things Understands words like “in,” “on,” and “under” Says first name, age, and sex Names a friend Says words like “I,” “me,” “we,” and “you” and some plurals (cars, dogs, cats) Talks well enough for strangers to understand most of the time Carries on a conversation using 2 to 3 sentences   Knows some basic rules of grammar, such as correctly using “he” and “she” Sings a song or says a poem from memory such as the “Itsy Bitsy Spider” or the “Wheels on the Bus” Tells stories Can say first and last name     Speaks very clearly Tells a simple story using full sentences Uses future tense; for example, “Grandma will be here.” Says name and address  Now that we have addressed some of the cognitive areas of growth in early childhood, let’s take a look at the topic of school and its various applications. Early Childhood Education Providing universal preschool has become an important lobbying point for federal, state, and local leaders throughout our country. In his 2013 State of the Union address, President Obama called upon congress to provide high quality preschool for all children. He continued to support universal preschool in his legislative agenda, and in December 2014 the President convened state and local policymakers for the White House Summit on Early Education (White House Press Secretary, 2014). However, universal preschool covering all four-year olds in the country would require significant funding. Further, how effective preschools are in preparing children for elementary school, and what constitutes high quality early childhood education have been debated. To set criteria for designation as a high quality preschool, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) identifies 10 standards (NAEYC, 2016). These include: 24 Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain 199 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t           Positive relationships among all children and adults are promoted. A curriculum that supports learning and development in social, emotional, physical, language, and cognitive areas. Teaching approaches that are developmentally, culturally and linguistically appropriate. Assessment of children’s progress to provide information on learning and development. The health and nutrition of children are promoted, while they are protected from illness and injury. Teachers possess the educational qualifications, knowledge, and commitment to promote children’s learning. Collaborative relationships with families are established and maintained. Relationships with agencies and institutions in the children’s communities are established to support the program’s goals. The indoor and outdoor physical environments are safe and well-maintained. Leadership and management personnel are well qualified, effective, and maintain licensure status with the applicable state agency. Parents should review preschool programs using the NAEYC criteria as a guide and template for asking questions that will assist them in choosing the best program for their child. Figure 8.15 – Children making crafts at preschool.25 Selecting the right preschool is also difficult because there are so many types of preschools available. Zachry (2013) identified Montessori, Waldorf, Reggio Emilia, High Scope, Creative Curriculum and Bank Street as types of early childhood education programs that focus on children learning through discovery. Teachers act as facilitators of children’s learning and development and create activities based on the child’s developmental level. Here is a table summarizes characteristics of each type of program. 25 Image by Seattle City Council is in the public domain 200 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Table 8.3 - Types of Early Childhood Education Programs26 Program Montessori Founder Dr. Maria Montessori Characteristics       Waldorf Rudolf Steiner        Reggio Emilia Loris Malaguzzi          High Scope David Weikart   Refers to children’s activity as work (not play); children are given long periods of time to work Focus on individual learning Features child-sized furniture and defined work areas Materials are carefully chosen and introduced to children by teacher Features mixed-aged grouping Teachers should be certified Focus on whole child Features connections to nature, sensory learning, and imagination Provides large blocks of time for play Delay formal academic instruction Environment protects children from negative influences Relationships are important so groupings last for several years (looping) Teachers should be certified Teachers and children co-construct the curriculum Teachers are researchers Environment is the third teacher and features beauty and order Children’s learning is documented through the multiple methods (100 languages of children) Have atelier (art studio) with an atelierista (artist) to instruct children Believe children are competent and capable Children stay together for 3 years Parents partner with teachers Community is extension of school Features defined learning areas Has 8 content areas with 58 key developmental indicators 26 Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (2016). Beginning essentials in early childhood education. (3rd ed.). Cengage: Boston. 201 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Program Founder Characteristics     Bank Street Lucy Sprague Mitchell       Creative Curriculum Diane Trister Dodge      Consistency of daily routine is important Uses plan-do-review sequence in which they make a plan, act on it, and then reflect on the results Teachers are partners and use the Child Observation Record (COR) to help assess children and plan curriculum Utilizes 6 step process to teach children conflict resolution Also referred to as the DevelopmentalInteractionist Approach Environment is arranged into learning centers Focus on hands-on experience with long periods of time given Teacher uses questions to further children’s exploration Blocks are primary material in the classroom Field trips are frequently used Focus on children’s play and self-selected activities Environment is arranged into learning areas Large blocks of time are given for self-selected play Uses projects as basis for curriculum Is researched based and includes assessment system Head Start For children who live in poverty, Head Start has been providing preschool education since 1965 when it was begun by President Lyndon Johnson as part of his war on poverty. It currently serves nearly one million children and annually costs approximately 7.5 billion dollars (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). However, concerns about the effectiveness of Head Start have been ongoing since the program began. Armor (2015) reviewed existing research on Head Start and found there were no lasting gains, and the average child in Head Start had not learned more than children who did not receive preschool education. 202 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Head Start Figure 8.16 – A photograph from when Head Start began. 27 A recent report dated July 2015 evaluating the effectiveness of Head Start comes from the What Works Clearinghouse. The What Works Clearinghouse identifies research that provides reliable evidence of the effectiveness of programs and practices in education, and is managed by the Institute of Education Services for the United States Department of Education. After reviewing 90 studies on the effectiveness of Head Start, only one study was deemed scientifically acceptable and this study showed disappointing results (Barshay, 2015). This study showed that 3- and 4-year-old children in Head Start received “potentially positive effects” on general reading achievement, but no noticeable effects on math achievement and social-emotional development. Nonexperimental designs are a significant problem in determining the effectiveness of Head Start programs because a control group is needed to show group differences that would demonstrate educational benefits. Because of ethical reasons, low income children are usually provided with some type of pre-school programming in an alternative setting. Additionally, Head Start programs are different depending on the location, and these differences include the length of the day or qualification of the teachers. Lastly, testing young children is difficult and strongly dependent on their language skills and comfort level with an evaluator (Barshay, 2015).28 Applications to Early Education Understanding how children think and learn has proven useful for improving education. Activities like playing games that involve working with numbers and spatial relationships can give young children a developmental advantage over peers who have less exposure to the same concepts. 27 Image by Children’s Bureau Centennial Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 28 203 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Mathematics Even before they enter kindergarten, the mathematical knowledge of children from low-income backgrounds lags far behind that of children from more affluent backgrounds. Ramani and Siegler (2008) hypothesized that this difference is due to the children in middle- and upperincome families engaging more frequently in numerical activities, for example playing numerical board games such as Chutes and Ladders. Chutes and Ladders is a game with a number in each square; children start at the number one and spin a spinner or throw a dice to determine how far to move their token. Playing this game seemed likely to teach children about numbers, because in it, larger numbers are associated with greater values on a variety of dimensions. In particular, the higher the number that a child’s token reaches, the greater the distance the token will have traveled from the starting point, the greater the number of physical movements the child will have made in moving the token from one square to another, the greater the number of number-words the child will have said and heard, and the more time will have passed since the beginning of the game. These spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and timebased cues provide a broad-based, multisensory foundation for knowledge of numerical magnitudes (the sizes of numbers), a type of knowledge that is closely related to mathematics achievement test scores (Booth & Siegler, 2006). Playing this numerical board game for roughly 1 hour, distributed over a 2-week period, improved low-income children’s knowledge of numerical magnitudes, ability to read printed numbers, and skill at learning novel arithmetic problems. The gains lasted for months after the game-playing experience (Ramani & Siegler, 2008; Siegler & Ramani, 2009). An advantage of this type of educational intervention is that it has minimal if any cost—a parent could just draw a game on a piece of paper. Reading Cognitive developmental research has shown that phonemic awareness—that is, awareness of the component sounds within words—is a crucial skill in learning to read. To measure awareness of the component sounds within words, researchers ask children to decide whether two words rhyme, to decide whether the words start with the same sound, to identify the component sounds within words, and to indicate what would be left if a given sound were removed from a word. Kindergartners’ performance on these tasks is the strongest predictor of reading achievement in third and fourth grade, even stronger than IQ or social class background (Nation, 2008). Moreover, teaching these skills to randomly chosen 4- and 5-year-olds results in their being better readers years later (National Reading Panel, 2000). Continuing Brain Maturation Understanding of cognitive development is advancing on many different fronts. One exciting area is linking changes in brain activity to changes in children’s thinking (Nelson et al., 2006). Although many people believe that brain maturation is something that occurs before birth, the brain actually continues to change in large ways for many years thereafter. For example, a part of the brain called the prefrontal cortex, which is located at the front of the brain and is particularly involved with planning and flexible problem solving, continues to develop 204 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t throughout adolescence (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). Such new research domains, as well as enduring issues such as nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and how to apply cognitive development research to education, insure that cognitive development will continue to be an exciting area of research in the coming years.29 Cognitive Differences Sometimes children’s brains work differently. One form of this neurodiversity is Autism spectrum disorder. Autism: Defining Spectrum Disorder Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) describes a range of conditions classified as neurodevelopmental disorders in the fifth revision of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The DSM-5, published in 2013, redefined the autism spectrum to encompass the previous (DSM-IV-TR) diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and childhood disintegrative disorder. These disorders are characterized by social deficits and communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory issues, and in some cases, cognitive delays. Asperger syndrome was distinguished from autism in the earlier DSM-IV by the lack of delay or deviance in early language development. Additionally, individuals diagnosed with Asperger syndrome did not have significant cognitive delays. PDD-NOS was considered "subthreshold autism" and "atypical autism" because it was often characterized by milder symptoms of autism or symptoms in only one domain (such as social difficulties). In the DSM-5, both of these diagnoses have been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder. Autism spectrum disorders are considered to be on a spectrum because each individual with ASD expresses the disorder uniquely and has varying degrees of functionality. Many have above-average intellectual abilities and excel in visual skills, music, math, and the arts, while others have significant disabilities and are unable to live independently. About 25 percent of individuals with ASD are nonverbal; however, they may learn to communicate using other means. Social Communication Symptoms Social impairments in children with autism can be characterized by a distinctive lack of intuition about others. Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Infants with ASD show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Toddlers with ASD differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they may show less eye contact and turn-taking and may not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves. Individuals with severe forms of ASD do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. 29 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 205 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors Children with ASD may exhibit repetitive or restricted behavior, including:  Stereotypy—repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.  Compulsive behavior—exhibiting intention to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines.  Sameness—resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or sticking to an unvarying pattern of daily activities.  Restricted behavior—limits in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.  Self-injury—movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, skin picking, hand biting, and head banging. Figure 8.17 – A boy stacking cans.30 Etiology While specific causes of ASD have yet to be found, many risk factors have been identified in the research literature that may contribute to its development. These risk factors include genetics, prenatal and perinatal factors, neuroanatomical abnormalities, and environmental factors. It is possible to identify general risk factors, but much more difficult to pinpoint specific factors. Genetics ASD affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; thus, it is categorized as a neuro-developmental disorder. The results of family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in the etiology of ASD and other pervasive developmental disorders. Studies have consistently found that the prevalence of ASD in siblings of children with ASD is approximately 15 to 30 times greater than the rate in the general population. In addition, research suggests that there is a much higher concordance rate among monozygotic (identical) twins compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins. It appears that 30 Image by Countincr is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 206 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t there is no single gene that can account for ASD; instead, there seem to be multiple genes involved, each of which is a risk factor for part of the autism syndrome through various groups. It is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations or by combinations of common genetic variants. The Diversity of the Autism Spectrum The rainbow-colored infinity symbol represents the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as the greater neurodiversity movement. The neurodiversity movement suggests that diverse neurological conditions appear as a result of normal variations in the human genome. It challenges the idea that such neurological differences are inherently pathological, instead asserting that differences should be recognized and respected as a social category on a par with gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability status. Figure 8.18 – A symbol of the autism spectrum.31 Prenatal and Perinatal Factors A number of prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors for ASD. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age over 30, bleeding after first trimester, use of prescription medication (such as valproate) during pregnancy, and meconium (the earliest stool of an infant) in the amniotic fluid. While research is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to ASD, each of these factors has been identified more frequently in children with ASD than in developing youth without ASD. Environmental Factors Evidence for environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies. In the last few decades, controversy surrounded the idea that vaccinations may be the cause for many cases of autism; however, these theories lack scientific evidence and are biologically implausible. Even still, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children. 31 Image is in the public domain 207 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Treatment There is no known cure for ASD, and treatment tends to focus on management of symptoms. The main goals when treating children with ASD are to lessen associated deficits and family distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence.32 Treatment for ASD should begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care can reduce individuals’ difficulties while helping them learn new skills and make the most of their strengths. The wide range of issues facing people with ASD means that there is no single best treatment for ASD.33 So treatment is typically tailored to the individual person's needs. Intensive, sustained special-education programs and behavior therapy yearly in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills. The most widely used therapy is applied behavior analysis (ABA); other available approaches include developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy.34 Figure 8.19 – A boy with ASD receiving therapy.35 There has been increasing attention to the development of evidenced-based interventions for young children with ASD. Although evidence-based interventions for children with ASD vary in their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive, communication, and social skills while minimizing behaviors that are thought to be problematic.36 32 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Autism Spectrum Disorder by the National Institute of Mental Health is in the public domain 34 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 35 Image by Edwards Air Force Base is in the public domain 36 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 33 208 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Conclusion In this chapter we covered,  Piaget’s preoperational stage.  Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory.  Information processing.  How young children understand the world.  Typical progression of cognitive and language development (milestones).  Early childhood education.  Autism spectrum disorder. In the next chapter, we will finish covering early childhood education by looking at how children understand themselves and interact with the world. 209 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe how preschoolers view themselves. 2. Summarize Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt. 3. Discuss the progression of social emotional development during early childhood. 4. Explain how children develop their understanding of gender. 5. Compare and contrast different styles of parenting. 6. Define characteristics of high quality child care. 7. Discuss the role of siblings and peers. 8. Describe the types of play. 9. Summarize the influence on social and emotional competence. 10. Identify the effects of stress on three- to five-year olds. Introduction In early childhood, children’s understanding of themselves and their role in the world expands greatly. Social and Emotional Milestones That expanding understanding of themselves and others develops with age. Here is a table of social and emotional milestones that children typically experience during early childhood. Table 9.1 - Social and Emotional Milestones1 Typical Age 3 years 1 What Most Children Do by This Age          Copies adults and friends Shows affection for friends without prompting Takes turns in games Shows concern for a crying friend Dresses and undresses self Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers” Shows a wide range of emotions Separates easily from mom and dad May get upset with major changes in routine Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain 210 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Typical Age 4 years 5 years What Most Children Do by This Age                Enjoys doing new things Is more and more creative with make-believe play Would rather play with other children than by self Cooperates with other children Plays “mom” or “dad” Often can’t tell what’s real and what’s make-believe Talks about what she likes and what she is interested in Wants to please friends Wants to be like friends More likely to agree with rules Likes to sing, dance, and act Is aware of gender Can tell what’s real and what’s make-believe Shows more independence Is sometimes demanding and sometimes very cooperative Many things influence how children develop those milestones as how they view themselves and how they interact with those around them changes. Let’s look more at these. Interactionism and Views of Self Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. A self-concept or idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel is a social process that involves taking into consideration how others view us. So, in order to develop a sense of self, you must have interaction with others. Interactionist theorists, Cooley and Mead offer two interesting explanations of how a sense of self develops. Cooley Charles Horton Cooley (1964) suggests that our self-concept comes from looking at how others respond to us. This process, known as the looking-glass self involves looking at how others seem to view us and interpreting this as we make judgments about whether we are good or bad, strong or weak, beautiful or ugly, and so on. Of course, we do not always interpret their responses accurately so our self-concept is not simply a mirror reflection of the views of others. After forming an initial self-concept, we may use it as a mental filter screening out those responses that do not seem to fit our ideas of who we are. Some compliments may be negated, for example. The process of the looking-glass self is pronounced when we are preschoolers, or perhaps when we are in a new school or job or are taking on a new role in our personal lives and are trying to gauge our own performances. When we feel more sure of who we are, we focus less on how we appear to others.2 2 Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 211 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Figure 9.1 – A child looking at herself wearing glasses in a mirror.3 Mead Herbert Mead (1967) offers an explanation of how we develop a social sense of self by being able to see ourselves through the eyes of others. There are two parts of the self: the “I” which is the part of the self that is spontaneous, creative, innate, and is not concerned with how others view us and the “me” or the social definition of who we are. When we are born, we are all “I” and act without concern about how others view us. But the socialized self begins when we are able to consider how one important person views us. This initial stage is called “taking the role of the significant other”. For example, a child may pull a cat’s tail and be told by his mother, “No! Don’t do that, that’s bad” while receiving a slight slap on the hand. Later, the child may mimic the same behavior toward the self and say aloud, “No, that’s bad” while patting his own hand. What has happened? The child is able to see himself through the eyes of the mother. As the child grows and is exposed to many situations and rules of culture, he begins to view the self in the eyes of many others through these cultural norms or rules. This is referred to as “taking the role of the generalized other” and results in a sense of self with many dimensions. The child comes to have a sense of self as student, as friend, as son, and so on. Exaggerated Sense of Self One of the ways to gain a clearer sense of self is to exaggerate those qualities that are to be incorporated into the self. Preschoolers often like to exaggerate their own qualities or to seek validation as the biggest, smartest, or child who can jump the highest. This exaggeration tends to be replaced by a more realistic sense of self in middle childhood. 3 Image is in the public domain 212 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Self-Esteem Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. Self-concept is our self-description according to various categories, such as our external and internal qualities. In contrast, selfesteem is an evaluative judgment about who we are. The emergence of cognitive skills in this age group results in improved perceptions of the self, but they tend to focus on external qualities, which are referred to as the categorical self. When researchers ask young children to describe themselves, their descriptions tend to include physical descriptors, preferred activities, and favorite possessions. Thus, the self-description of a 3-year-old might be a 3-year-old girl with red hair, who likes to play with blocks. However, even children as young as three know there is more to themselves than these external characteristics. Harter and Pike (1984) challenged the method of measuring personality with an open-ended question as they felt that language limitations were hindering the ability of young children to express their self-knowledge. They suggested a change to the method of measuring selfconcept in young children, whereby researchers provide statements that ask whether something is true of the child (e.g., “I like to boss people around”, “I am grumpy most of the time”). They discovered that in early childhood, children answer these statements in an internally consistent manner, especially after the age of four (Goodvin, Meyer, Thompson & Hayes, 2008) and often give similar responses to what others (parents and teachers) say about the child (Brown, Mangelsdorf, Agathen, & Ho, 2008; Colwell & Lindsey, 2003). Figure 9.2 – Young children don’t always feel good about themselves.4 Young children tend to have a generally positive self-image. This optimism is often the result of a lack of social comparison when making self-evaluations (Ruble, Boggiano, Feldman, & Loeble, 1980), and with comparison between what the child once could do to what they can do now (Kemple, 1995). However, this does not mean that preschool children are exempt from negative self-evaluations. Preschool children with insecure attachments to their caregivers tend to have lower self-esteem at age four (Goodvin et al., 2008). Maternal negative affect (emotional state) was also found by Goodwin and her colleagues to produce more negative self-evaluations in preschool children. 4 Image is licensed under CC0 213 | C h i l d G r o w t h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Self-Control Self-control is not a single phenomenon, but is multi-facetted. It includes response initiation, the ability to not initiate a behavior before you have evaluated all of the information, response inhibition, the ability to stop a behavior that has already begun, and delayed gratification, the ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward (Dougherty, Marsh, Mathias, & Swann, 2005). It is in early childhood that we see the start of self-control, a process that takes many years to fully develop. In the now classic “Marshmallow Test” (Mischel, Ebbesen, & Zeiss, 1972) children are confronted with the choice of a small immediate reward (a marshmallow) and a larger delayed reward (more marshmallows). Walter Mischel and his colleagues over the years have found that the ability to delay gratification at the age of four predicted better academic performance and health later in life (Mischel, et al., 2011). Selfcontrol is related to executive function, discussed earlier in the chapter. As executive function improves, children become less impulsive (Traverso, Viterbori, & Usai, 2015).5 Self-Control and Play Thanks to the new Centre for Research on Play in Education, Development and Learning (PEDaL), Whitebread, Baker, Gibson and a team of researchers hope to provide evidence on the role played by play in how a child develops. “A strong possibility is that play supports the early development of children’s self-control,” explains Baker. “These are our abilities to develop awareness of our own thinking processes – they influence how effectively we go about undertaking challenging activities.” In a study carried out by Baker with toddlers and young preschoolers, she found that children with greater self-control solved problems quicker when exploring an unfamiliar set-up requiring scientific reasoning, regardless of their IQ. “This sort of evidence makes us think that giving children the chance to play will make them more successful and creative problemsolvers in the long run.” If playful experiences do facilitate this aspect of development, say the researchers, it could be extremely significant for educational practices because the ability to self-regulate has been shown to be a key predictor of academic performance. Gibson adds: “Playful behavior is also an important indicator of healthy social and emotional development. In my previous research, I investigated how observing children at play can give us important clues about their well being and can even be useful in the diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders like...
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Home Environment: Early Childhood Development

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Summary
A home environment is an essential factor in early childhood development as it affects
the growth of the brain, which controls behavior. An enriching home environment provides a
child a space to grow healthy and develop emotionally. A child's brain develops positively when
provided with emotional support, positive virtues, learning opportunities, and the space to
explore. Parents have the central role in delivering the economic and emotional resources
required by a child for development. In Chapter 7 of the module, a child's development begins...


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