Approaches to Learning:
Exploratory Play and Creative Arts
7
Pretest
1. Standards for early learners and
kindergarten-second grade children
are essentially similar. T/F
2. The Approaches to Learning standards stress
the development of executive functioning.
T/F
3. An arts-infused curriculum supports both
early learning standards and national
standards for the creative arts. T/F
4. Teachers support the visual arts with
activities that encourage children to use
patterns and copy adult-made examples. T/F
5. Teachers encourage children to practice,
rehearse, and perform songs, dances, and
plays in front of an audience so that they
can get over their performance anxieties.
T/F
© iStockphoto / Thinkstock
Answers can be found at end of the chapter.
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain the difference between early learning and academic standards as well as the
different ways in which curricula may be organized.
2. Describe concepts, skills, and interest areas that support the Approaches to Learning
Standards.
3. Identify four important themes in national standards for the arts and describe an artsinfused approach to curriculum.
4. Describe how teachers support the visual arts in early childhood settings.
5. Describe how teachers support the performing arts of music, creative movement/dance,
and drama in the early childhood setting.
Early Learning and Academic Standards
Chapter 7
You have put a lot of thought and work into creating an inviting and interesting classroom.
Photographs and cultural materials throughout the room represent the children in your class
and their families. You’ve labeled materials and equipment with images and words in English
and Spanish. To make a tentative plan for interest areas, you went through all the materials in your classroom and used information from your comprehensive curriculum resources
and the interest inventories you made at home visits to select books, puzzles, dramatic play
props, and other materials for activity areas that you hope will be a good match for some of
the things the children might be interested in. You’ve made sure that these areas are flexible
to accommodate working with children individually or in small or large groups. How will you
now make sure that you are incorporating activities and experiences that are consistent with
the developmentally focused early learning standards for preschoolers in your state? Do those
standards provide guidance and support for play? How do the early learning standards connect with those the children will encounter in elementary school?
In this chapter, we begin to focus on the “what’s worth knowing” (the content of curriculum) and “curriculum in action” (implementation) dimensions of curriculum. Each chapter will
emphasize important concepts, skills, and activities for interrelated areas in the early learning
standards for preschoolers and academic standards that apply to children in K-2 settings. We
begin by examining early learning standards for Approaches to Learning and the National
Content Standards for the Arts.
7.1 Early Learning and Academic Standards
Most states now have two types of standards for children in the early childhood period.
Standards for children from birth to age 5 are provided as guidelines for infants and toddlers,
and early learning standards for 3- to 5-year-old preschoolers. These standards emphasize
child development. Standards that apply to children in the primary grades are part of the
academic standards for children from kindergarten through grade 12. Each set of academic
standards articulates what children should know and be able to do in the content (subject)
area (e.g., math, literacy, science, social studies, physical education and health, and the arts).
The fifty states diverge on implementation time lines, but in general the country is moving on
a steady path toward both early learning and academic standards (Kauerz, 2006; Petersen,
Jones, & McGinley, 2008; Scott-Little, Kagan, Frelow, & Reid, 2008). Some curricula used in
early childhood classrooms provide teachers with alignments, or mapping of the elements of
the curriculum to early learning or academic standards. In other instances, teachers do that
themselves as they interpret curricular goals, planning and adapting activities to be consistent
with learning standards.
Early Learning Standards
In 1990, the president and fifty governors created the National Education Goals Panel (NEGP)
to formulate goals for education in the twenty-first century. Subsequently, in 1995, the NEGP
endorsed recommendations from the early childhood education field to write learning standards for young children from a developmental perspective, encouraging the use of common
language and terminology to promote clarity in five areas of development (Kagan, 2003;
Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995):
1. Approaches to Learning
2. Physical Well-Being and Health
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
3. Social and Emotional Development
4. Language Development
5. Cognition and General Knowledge
By 2008, more than twenty states and several territories had produced guidelines for infants
and toddlers that addressed these five domain areas (Petersen, Jones, & McGinley, 2008;
Scott-Little, Kagan, Frelow, & Reid, 2008). By 2010 more than forty states had also either
adopted or adapted the Good Start Grow Smart early learning standards template proposed
with the 2001 No Child Left Behind initiative or used the NEGP recommendations to address
the five domains in their early learning standards for preschool children (aged 3 to 5) (See
Wisconsin, for example) (NIEER, 2012).
Academic Standards
While the early learning standards clearly reflect the developmental focus from which they
are written, it can be more difficult to discern those developmental goals in K-2 standards.
For instance, the South Carolina Good Start, Grow Smart early learning standards explicitly
state one standard as: “Children [will] demonstrate initiative, engagement, and persistence
in learning” (p. 16). In contrast, this desired outcome appears in the area of social studies
(for example) not as an explicit standard to be met for learners but as part of the introductory explanation in expectations for social studies teachers about how the standards
should be taught, “Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when the learning
is active . . . . teachers gradually move from providing considerable guidance by modeling, explaining, or supplying information that builds student knowledge, to a less directive
role that encourages students to become independent and self-regulated learners” (NCSS,
2002, p. 13).
Integrating curriculum content, materials, and activities in the early childhood years from both
developmental and academic perspectives, as evident in the various sets of standards and
guidelines, can be challenging. Therefore Chapters 7 to 11 will address academic content areas
(creative arts, physical education and health, social studies, mathematics, science, and literacy)
within the context of the five early learning developmental domains (Approaches to Learning,
Physical Well-Being, Social-Emotional, Language, and Cognition/General Knowledge) listed
above. This chapter begins with the early learning standards that address Approaches to
Learning and the National Core Standards for the Arts.
7.2 Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas
for Exploratory Play
Approaches to Learning (ATL) standards are grounded in research on brain development.
They emphasize the importance of a particular set of skills and mental processes that constitute executive functioning, which is necessary for effective problem solving and higherorder thinking (Berk, 2001). Central to executive functioning are self-regulation, attention,
and memory—skills that prove highly valuable later in life for such tasks as completing homework assignments independently or planning, researching, and writing a report. The extent to
which a child exhibits these characteristics may actually be a better predictor of future success
in school than intelligence measures (Berk, 2001; McClelland, Cameron, Wanless, & Murray,
2007). Figure 7.1 displays key elements of executive functioning.
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1: Key Elements of Executive Functioning
Executive functioning is the process by which the brain organizes, processes, and applies information to active problem solving.
The Brain’s
Executive
Functions
Activation
• Organizing
• Prioritizing
• Getting to
work
Focus
• Tuning in
• Sustaining
focus
• Shifting
attention
Effort
• Regulating
alertness
• Sustaining
effort
• Adjusting
processing
speed
Emotions
• Managing
frustration
• Modulating
emotions
Memory
• Holding on
and working
with
information
• Retrieving
memories
Action
• Monitoring
and
regulating
one’s
actions
ATL early learning standards stress the importance
of mental processes that represent, “learnF07.01_ECE311
ing how to learn” (Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995). They further suggest that the mere
acquisition of knowledge, skills, and capacities is insufficient for developmental success, as having a capacity, for example, does not mean that it will be used. Children must go further and
marshal these qualities. For example, a child may have the capacity to listen (her hearing may
be intact), but she may or may not have the disposition to be a listener (Kagan, 2003, p. 2).
The five elements of ATL standards emphasize development of executive functioning via:
1. Learning through play
2. Curiosity, eagerness, and satisfaction as a learner
3. Initiative, engagement, and persistence
4. Setting and achieving goals
5. Memory, reasoning, and problem solving (Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995)
Let’s look at how learning through play, for example, the first element of ATL standards, fosters the development of executive functioning. Open-ended play is a highly integrative activity
that promotes intuitive learning in many ways (van Hoorn, Nourot, Scales, & Alward, 2011).
Play gives children opportunities to explore the properties of objects and materials, experiment and take risks, and use their imaginations to assume roles and situations grounded in
both reality and pretend. When children are encouraged to make choices about how they
play, they engage in self-talk, weighing the merits of one direction over another—the kind
of internal dialogue that leads eventually to abstract reasoning. They develop the ability to
focus and are more likely to sustain or persist in longer-term or more complex play that can
eventually extend from one play period or day to the next (Wood & Atfield, 2005).
When children experience school or care in an inviting environment that validates their curiosity about the world, their eagerness to learn translates into a willingness to try new things,
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
adding to the child’s store of experiences. These are important to establishing a knowledge
base that children will draw from as they continue to learn. Success in play, satisfaction with
the results of their efforts (such as a painting or completed block structure), and reinforcement of interests and questions also build the confidence children need to be able to set a
goal and believe that it can be achieved, despite the insecurities or lack of experience accompanying an intellectual risk.
We also know from brain research that both short- and long-term memory are needed for
reasoning and problem solving. Reasoning requires consideration and determination of
cause-and-effect relationships, and application of logic to decision making and problem solving requires that multiple possible solutions be weighed and considered. In play, children have
the opportunity to work through problems that are real to them and to practice using what
they know and remember to make decisions about how to proceed.
Now consider a classroom scenario that illustrates how the five elements of ATL apply. A child
decides to go to the painting easel, puts on a smock, and attaches a clean sheet of paper with
clothespin clips to the easel. Paint choices include red, yellow, blue, green, orange, and purple.
Suppose, as the child begins to paint, he notices that layering of yellow and blue paint results
in the color green, but it is not exactly the same shade of green as the paint in the green container. Curious, (#2) his attention shifts to reasoning (#5) that he might use different amounts
of yellow and green to achieve a goal (#4) of trying to match the green in the container in
the grass he is painting across the bottom of the paper. He takes the initiative (#3) to do so,
and begins applying and observing what happens by mixing different amounts of yellow and
green on the paper. As he works, he becomes deeply engaged (#3) and actually fills up and
changes paper three times, persisting (#3) in this activity until at last he exclaims, “I did it!”
calling the teacher to come and view his painting and recounting (#5) with great satisfaction
(#2) how he approached (#5) and solved the problem (#5).
Now imagine how this child’s learning would be affected if, for example, the teacher told the
child what or how to paint, required children to move from center to center every 20 minutes,
or limited them to one sheet of paper per painting. Would he be inclined to start his methodological trial-and-error process knowing that he might not be allowed to finish? Would
he experience satisfaction or frustration if he filled his first paper and could not continue on
another? Would he have found out what results could be achieved by mixing colors in different proportions?
Early childhood educators keep the important elements of ATL standards in mind as they plan
the environment and opportunities for open-ended play and exploration. In the remainder of
this section, we consider three major interest areas/centers in the early childhood classroom
to illustrate how play supports these most important dispositions toward learning. These areas
are sensory play, blocks/construction, and dramatic play.
Sensory Play
Teachers understand that sensory play provides a perfect context for exposing children to
both familiar and unfamiliar materials that challenge them to process and organize stimuli
through their senses. Children use their sense of touch to explore textures, surfaces, and
weight/pressure. They acquire depth perception, learn to differentiate between colors and
shapes, and develop a sight vocabulary of objects and eventually words through visual processing. They learn to distinguish tone, pitch, and volume through hearing. As a sense of
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
smell develops, children learn to identify and classify odors, acquire preferences, and acquire
an “early warning system” for things that might not be good for them. Their sense of taste is
closely correlated to smell; exposure to a wide variety of foods encourages discernment of the
sweet, sour, salty, or bitter qualities of foods.
The process of converting sensory inputs helps the brain grow and become more efficient
(Rushton, 2011). In this section we discuss open-ended sensory play in two areas common to
many early childhood settings, sand/water (sensory) tables and exploratory activities with light.
Sand/Water (Sensory) Table
A sand or water sensory table provides children with opportunities to touch, feel, and manipulate different types of solid and liquid materials. (Sand and water tables are also used to
promote the development of mathematics and science concepts, discussed in Chapter 10.)
The ATL standards are supported because children are intensely curious about materials available in this kind of experience and become deeply engaged in exploring their properties and
figuring out what happens when they try different things.
The materials used are intrinsically satisfying to the senses; many a teacher will attest to the
calming influence of a sensory table for a child who is upset or one with the sensory processing difficulties that some children on the autism spectrum experience. Technically, any
container such as a large plastic dishpan or baby bathtub can be used to hold water, sand, or
other materials, but most early childhood settings make use of equipment designed for this
purpose and sized to accommodate three
or four children at a time. Commercially
produced tables are widely available in
different sizes/heights to accommodate a
range of child age groups and contexts,
have drains for easy cleanup, and may
include space for storage or additional
features such as a water pump.
© Susan Woog-Wagner / Getty Images
Sand/water tables are functionally flexible, so teachers
have many options for activities that engage the children’s senses and foster exploration of the properties of
many different kinds of materials.
Sensory play is not limited to the indoors,
since most sand/water tables are made of
durable materials and have wheels that
enable them to be easily transported outside. In addition, a sandbox and/or dirtdigging area is a common feature of most
child-care and preschool programs.
As soon as a child can stand unassisted,
the sensory table typically becomes a
magnet for activity, beckoning the child to
touch, pour, sift, squish, poke, dig, mold,
and handle materials that behave in both predictable and unpredictable ways. The list of
materials for use in sensory play is limited only by requirements for safety and cleanliness, such
as emptying and disinfecting water tables daily. Materials should be chosen with regard to the
age of children; for instance, dried beans would not be a good choice for toddlers who might
want to put them in their noses or ears! When sand or dirt-based material is used, it should
be clean and free of any debris that could be harmful to the skin or if ingested.
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 includes a list of base materials, tools or props, and activities that can be used or
adapted for the sand/water table to promote the kinds of activities listed above.
Table 7.1: Sensory Table Materials, Tools/Props, and Activities
Water and
Additives
Sand and Other
Natural Materials
Other Media Including
Recyclables
Food-Based
Materials
Food coloring
Beach or playground
sand, plain or colored
Packing materials (peanutshaped, disc-shaped, and
so on)
Rice
Dish soap
Potting media
Cotton or fiberfill
Flour/cornstarch
Bubble liquid
Pebbles or small rocks
Buttons
Oatmeal or other
cereal
Ice cubes
Aquarium gravel
Rubber bands
Dried beans/peas
Snow
Cedar chips or shavings
Shredded paper
Dried pasta
Gelatin
Sawdust
Ribbons
Pumpkin seeds
Cornstarch (“oobleck”)
Straw (not an allergen
like hay)
Pompoms or confetti
Popcorn kernels
Baking soda and vinegar
Dried leaves, seed pods,
pine cones
Torn or cut colored tissue, or
wrapping papers
Flax seed
Natural clay
Artificial grass filler
Bird seed
Small metal objects such as
paper clips
Tools/Props
Water/Liquids
Sand/Other Solids
Cups, funnels, things that sink/float (aluminum foil,
corks, clothespins, etc.), plastic pitchers, rotary egg
beater or whisk, straws cut into different lengths,
bubble wands, items with pumps (like a hand soap
dispenser), washcloths and sponges, droppers/
poultry basters, spray bottles, small toys or plastic fish,
toothbrushes.
Kitchen utensils such as spoons, funnels, measuring
cups and spoons, ice cream scoop, strainers/sieves/
sifters, tongs or tweezers, small hand rakes or combs,
seashells and/or small toys/plastic animals, buckets,
shovels, cookie cutters, rolling pins, pie tins, magnifying
glasses, scissors, hole puncher, magnet wands
Examples of Prompts/Activities for Water, Sand, and Other Materials
Digging: bury items in sand to be uncovered (perhaps relating to a current theme) such as plastic dinosaurs,
insects, worms, coins, plastic “jewels,” small mirrors or laminated photos of the children
Washing: wash baby dolls, small cars, dishes, toys
Molding: provide molds of different kinds for damp/wet sand, dirt, or other modeling materials
Fishing: bamboo poles with magnet attached to end of string, paper clips and small paper or rubber fish with
paper clips attached
Road building: sand or dirt-based materials, small vehicles
Challenges: use tongs or giant plastic tweezers to pick up different sized colored pom-poms and put them in
plastic tubs or jars
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Sensory Material Recipes
Many materials for sensory play can be made cheaply and easily with readily available ingredients.
Following a recipe and making sensory materials with children can also be a valuable and enjoyable
activity. The distinct sensory qualities of these materials support the ATL standards because they
engage children for long periods of time in experiences that are satisfying to their senses and promote exploration and experimentation.
The following recipes can be used or adapted to make
materials that are well known and often used in early childhood classrooms and care settings.
Cooked play dough (very similar to the commercial product): 2 cups flour, 2 cups water, 1 cup table salt, 4 teaspoons cream of tartar, 2 tablespoons vegetable oil (or
baby oil), and food coloring or scents such as oil of peppermint or vanilla if desired. Mix all ingredients and heat
over medium heat, stirring constantly till mixture forms into
large ball. Remove from pot, let stand till cool enough to
handle, and then knead for several minutes.
Oobleck (also known as goop): 1 part cornstarch, 1 part
water (and food coloring if desired). When mixed together,
the material confounds children because it exhibits properties of both solids and liquids.
Silly putty (also known as gak): 1 part liquid laundry starch,
1 part white school glue. Food coloring may be used to tint
it. Mix together and knead on a flat surface until it has the
texture of silly putty.
Colored rice or pasta: 2 cups uncooked white rice or pasta
plus 1 tablespoon of rubbing alcohol and food coloring to
achieve the desired color intensity. Dissolve food coloring
in alcohol and add to pasta, stirring till evenly colored. Let
dry. Because the rubbing alcohol takes the place of water,
the rice or pasta does not become gummy and the resulting
colors are bright and durable.
© iStockphoto / Thinkstock
Many familiar commercial sensory materials such as modeling dough can easily be made
following recipes that closely
approximate the commercial
products.
Moon sand: 4 cups play sand, 2 cups cornstarch, and 1 cup of water or 9 cups sand and 1 ¼ cup
baby oil (if colored sand is desired, use powdered tempera added to dry sand for best results).
Artificial snow: Ivory Snow powder or flakes and water; mix with rotary or electric beater till light
and fluffy. Using brand-name soap achieves the best consistency.
Artificial mud: 1 or 2 toilet paper rolls and 2 bars of Ivory Soap plus hot water. Grate soap with a
cheese grater; tear toilet paper roll in pieces and soak everything in a bowl of warm water, mixing
with hands till it reaches the consistency of mud.
Slime (also known as flubber): 1 tablespoon borax powder dissolved in 1 cup water, ¼ cup school
glue (clear or white) and ¼ cup water (add food coloring if desired or glow-in-the-dark paint). Pour
both mixtures into a sealable plastic bag, seal, and knead. Keep refrigerated when not in use.
Source: Recipes for these materials can be obtained from a wide variety of sources. These recipes come courtesy of the N. E. Miles
Early Childhood Development Center, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC.
(continued)
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
▶ Stop and Reflect
1. What kind of sensory materials did you enjoy playing with as a child? Why?
2. How might engaging children in making and using one of the above recipes promote the five
elements of the ATL standards?
Playing with Light
Over the past several decades many American early childhood educators have embraced light play as a valuable
part of the curriculum. As with the sand/water table, light
play delights a child’s visual and tactile senses but also promotes learning in other areas of the curriculum—such as
art, science, and mathematics—that are discussed in other
sections of this text.
The idea of playing with light came from the Reggio Emilia
programs in Italy (Fraser & Gestwicki, 2002). Light is intangible, endlessly fascinating to children, and provides opportunities to engage, manipulate, and develop visual memory
and perception differently than with more concrete materials such as water, sand, or modeling dough. A child’s visual
perception of the world changes or expands when he or
she is introduced to the element of transparency that occurs
when light shines through an object or when an object is
viewed through a colored lens. Conversely, the element of
three-dimensionality disappears in the opaque images of
shadows, challenging the ways in which children store and
remember images of shapes and objects. One only has to
observe the facial expressions of a child engaged in activities with light to see their value as an option for play.
© Eyecandy Images / Thinkstock
As children manipulate translucent and
opaque materials on a lighted surface,
they learn about color, shadow, and
transparency.
A light table is a piece of equipment with a translucent
horizontal surface lighted from below. Both stand-alone
and tabletop versions are available through education supply companies, along with a rapidly expanding commercial
selection of translucent learning materials children can use to observe and examine, manipulate, or construct on the lighted surface. These materials include two-dimensional geometric
shapes (pattern blocks), magnetic tiles, letters, numbers, color paddles, Lego-style blocks, and
three-dimensional shapes of different kinds.
An inexpensive homemade light table can be assembled easily by putting a string of rope
lights inside a translucent plastic storage tub, cutting a hole for the cord and plug, and using
the tight-fitting lid as the table top. As with materials for a sensory table, household items
or materials found at local stores are suitable or adaptable for a light table. Using a shallow
tray with a clear bottom facilitates the use of granular substances like salt or materials that
need cleanup like finger paint with no risk of scratching the surface of the table or having the
materials leak into the light chamber. Table 7.2 displays some of these materials and different
types of exploratory play in which children might engage with them.
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Table 7.2: Common Materials Suitable for Light Table Play
Materials
Applications
X-ray films; colored or black/white slides; microfiche film; shells; small clear plastic boxes for
holding specimens children might collect, such as
butterfly wings or leaves
Close observation with magnifying glasses to examine
images and/or embedded details that are enhanced when
lighted from below
Salt, flour, gelatin crystals, colored sugar or rice
Using hands and fingers for tactile exploration and making
impressions/designs, tracings, or drawings in the material
Colored cellophane, tissue, glow-in-the-dark
festival bracelets
Layering and observing color transparency, creating shapes
and images
Clear plastic tubing cut to different lengths; fill
with clear or colored liquids, oils, gels, or glitter,
and seal with hot glue
Observing movement of liquids, layering and observing
how light reveals changes in colors and density
Tightly sealed clear heavy-duty zip-locking-style
bags filled with colored hair gel, baby food,
shaving cream, or “water beads” (expandable
beads used in floral arrangements)
Tactile exploration by pressing, squishing, and moving
material inside the bags. Observing changes in density and
transparency
Colored pasta, plastic buttons, beads, jewelry, and
clear plastic ice cube trays, bowls, or small trays
Sorting/matching, moving, arranging, or stacking in
different ways to create patterns and shapes
Children can play with and explore light in other ways. Taping a white sheet of paper, poster
board, or mural paper to a wall in front of a traditional overhead projector allows children to
pantomime, create shadows, and make and use stick puppets. They can also enlarge drawings,
text, or photographs. Flashlights or strings of holiday lights can be used inside a cardboard
box to make a small shadow theater. Children can use colored cellophane and cardboard
and tubes to make “sunglasses,” binoculars, kaleidoscopes, or colored viewing
filters that alter their visual perception
of everyday scenes and objects. Children
love to trace their shadows on a sidewalk,
observe how a prism hung in a window
or oil in a puddle creates the colors of the
rainbow, and track the movement of the
shadow on a sundial over the course of
a day.
© iStockphoto / Thinkstock
Shadow play with or without props can provide endless
hours of fun, creativity, and learning about how light
affects the creation of shadows and makes them change.
Like sensory play, play and activities with
light and shadow support the ATL standards since they can engage children for
extended periods of time in open-ended
play, provoking curiosity and exploration
through introduction to unfamiliar materials and the exploration of familiar materials in unfamiliar ways.
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Blocks and Construction
Children’s use of blocks for construction play has been heavily researched and the benefits
of such play, particularly as related to later mathematical achievement, are well documented
(Shaklee, O’Hara, & Demarest, 2008). As in many other kinds of play, children playing with
blocks refine physical coordination, use language to represent thinking, and develop selfesteem, the ability to cooperate, and responsibility through social interactions (Hewitt, 2001).
Block play follows a developmental sequence over time as children between birth and age 5
acquire and internalize concepts about space, balance, weight, symmetry, shape, size, number, and operations (Shaklee, O’Hara, & Demarest, 2008). While the developmental stages of
block building have been described in many different configurations (Guanella, 1934; Reifel
& Greenfield, 1982), Figure 7.2 illustrates block building in six stages as described by Sharon
MacDonald in 2001.
Figure 7.2: Developmental Stages of Block Building
Block-building skills and concepts develop over time in a predictable sequence that requires time,
space, and an adequate number and variety of blocks and accessories.
Stage 1
Exploring
blocks, but
not building
(e.g., holding,
carrying)
Stage 2
Stacking or
laying out
blocks
vertically or
horizontally,
sometimes
with multiple
or combined
stacks or
rows
Stage 3
Bridging, by
setting up
2 blocks
vertically
and laying
another
across the
top to span
the empty
space
Stage 4
Enclosures
and problem
solving to
figure out
how to make
blocks meet
horizontally
before
incorporating
vertical
elements
Stage 5
Elaborate
structures,
incorporating
patterns,
symmetry,
and balance
Stage 6
Cooperative
building
to plan,
name, and
build—
sometimes
replicating
known
structures
F07.02_ECE311
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Block Center
There are many different kinds of building blocks and construction materials; the most familiar
to early childhood educators are unit (kindergarten) blocks, created by Caroline Pratt in
the early 1900s. These and other types of blocks of different sizes, shapes, and materials are
incorporated into the block-building area as children are physically able to handle them. The
benefit of having various types of blocks is that they provide children with different options
for the types of constructions they want to build.
Figure 7.3 displays and describes different kinds of blocks children use at different developmental stages. Teachers should also provide accessories and planning tools. As children’s
experience with blocks increases, they frequently build structures around play themes such as
airports, stores, or mapped layouts of other kinds.
Props can include things like:
• Small cars or other vehicles
• Play people and animals
• Flexible tubing or track
• Measuring tools
• Clipboards, paper, and writing tools for drawing or planning
• Miniature traffic signs
• Stickers or labels with familiar print, such as store or product logos
Figure 7.3: Building Blocks
Children benefit from having an assortment of different types of building blocks that complement
their behavior and activities at different stages of block building.
Block Type/Style
Description/Features
Stacking blocks
Blocks of uniform or
graduated size for easy
handling, primarily used
by younger children in
earliest stages of
block-building.
Soft blocks
Building blocks made of
soft materials, appropriate
for younger children.
Cardboard
bricks
Lightweight blocks usually
in cubes or rectangular
shape, made of
heavy-duty cardboard that
resemble bricks.
Filled blocks
Blocks with see-through
centers that come
pre-filled or can be filled
by teacher as desired.
Useful for accents with
accomplished builders, or
to attract and engage
children in block play.
Sample
(continued)
Cardboard
bricks
Approaches to Learning Standards
Lightweight blocks usually
in cubes or rectangular
and
Interest
shape,
made of Areas for
heavy-duty cardboard that
resemble bricks.
Block Type/Style
Description/Features
Stacking
blocks
Filled blocks
Blocks of
uniform
or
with
see-through
graduated
for easy
centers thatsize
come
handling,
primarily
used
pre-filled or
can be filled
by younger
children
teacher as
desired.in
earliest
stages
of with
Useful for
accents
block-building.
accomplished builders, or
to attract and engage
children in block play.
Soft
Unit blocks
Building
blocks or
made
of
Made of maple
other
soft
materials,
hardwood,
butappropriate
also
for
younger
children.
available
in dense
foam
and softer materials. The
standard block measures
5.5” x 2.75” x 1.375”. Other
blocks are multiples or
fractions of these
dimensions.
Cardboard
Hollow blocks
bricks
Lightweight
blocks
usually
Larger wooden
blocks,
in
cubes
or rectangular
scaled
similarly
to unit
shape,
of
blocks, made
that enable
heavy-duty
cardboard
children to build
large that
resemble
structures,bricks.
but made with
hollow center to facilitate
carrying, hoisting, etc.
Filled
blocks
Miniature
unit
blocks
Blocks
with see-through
Same principle
as unit
centers
thatincome
blocks, but
much
pre-filled
or can be
filled
smaller versions
to enable
by
as desired.
useteacher
on tabletop
or by
Useful
forchildren
accentsnot
withable
younger
accomplished
or
to yet managebuilders,
traditional
to
attract
and engage
sets.
Available
in colored
children
versions.in block play.
Unit
Tableblocks
blocks –
architectural
Made
of maple
or other
Small blocks
with
hardwood,
but also
distinctive architectural
available
elements.in dense foam
and softer materials. The
standard block measures
5.5” x 2.75” x 1.375”. Other
blocks are multiples or
fractions of these
dimensions.
Hollow
blocks
Cardboard
boxes
Larger
wooden
blocks,
Children
can recycle
scaled
similarly
cardboard
boxestoofunit
all
blocks,
kinds tothat
useenable
for
children
to build
large
construction
activities,
structures,
made with
particularlybut
appropriate
for
hollow
to facilitate
outdoorcenter
construction
play.
carrying, hoisting, etc.
Miniature
unit
Playground
blocks
Same
principle
as unit
Heavy-duty
weatherproof
blocks,
but in much
plastic blocks
that can be
smaller
to enable
used to versions
build large
or
use
on tabletop
or by
extended
structures
younger
outdoors.children not able
to yet manage traditional
sets. Available in colored
versions.
Table blocks –
architectural
Small blocks with
distinctive architectural
elements.
Exploratory Play
Sample
Chapter 7
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Teachers can provide inspiration and reference information for children by displaying pictures
or posters of buildings and creating a file or notebook with photographs of structures children
are familiar with, such as those in the immediate neighborhood or city, as well as those they
may not know that have interesting architectural features, such as arches, turrets, bridges,
skyscrapers, famous buildings, and airports. Documenting structures that children build by
keeping photos of them in a three-ring binder or file-card box is also highly effective, both
for tracking their progress over time and “preserving” work to make it less difficult for them
when blocks must be put away.
Physical considerations for setting up the block center include:
• As large a floor area as the room can accommodate, and protected from high traffic
• Flat, sound-absorbing floor surface (such as mat or carpet) to provide a stable building
surface and keep construction noise from interfering with other classroom activities
• Tabletop surface for working with small blocks
• Shelving that is adequate to sort and store blocks by size, type, with silhouettes or
photos taped to the shelves to show where each kind of block belongs
• Containers such as bins or baskets for accessories
• A “work-in-progress” sign to preserve structures that are more than one play period or
day in the making
• Chart with simple picture guidelines for safe and responsible play, such as handing off
rather than throwing or tossing blocks
• Digital or video camera at the ready for planned or spontaneous documentation of inprogress and finished structures
Teachers facilitate block play by:
• Understanding the developmental process of block building
• Observing and describing what they see children doing
• Documenting structures and using them to assist children in planning and problem
solving
• Engaging the children in conversations about their constructions
• Asking open-ended questions that help children think about their processes and problem solving, such as “Can you tell me why you put the ramp there?” rather than questions that produce a yes or no reply, such as “Is this a ramp for cars?”
Outdoor Constructions
The confines of a classroom space are not an issue when construction materials are moved or
provided outside. Most blocks are made of highly durable materials and can be transported
and used, even if they can’t be stored, on the playground. Some large, portable blocks are
specifically designed for outside use (see Figure 7.3).
Materials other than blocks—such as cardboard boxes, packing crates, milk crates, or other
everyday materials—can offer children opportunities to apply their understanding of building concepts on a bigger scale. Outdoor constructions have the added benefit of potentially
being so large that children can crawl or maneuver inside, around, and on top of them. (Revisit
Feature Box 4.1, A Box with Three Lives).
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
Nature Explore, a collaborative project of the Arbor Foundation
and Dimensions Educational Research Foundation, provides
guidelines and voluntary certification of outdoor habitats for
children. Their recommendations include materials for outside
construction activities that include:
• “Tree cookies” (rounds cut horizontally from tree trunks)
• Tree blocks (blocks made from or to resemble parts of
tree limbs)
• Miniature but real bricks that children use as they do
Legos inside
• Bamboo, reeds, and tree branches that children use to
build enclosures
Dramatic Play
Research confirms strong connections between pretend or
dramatic play and the development of higher-order thinking
(Seifert, 2006) and early literacy (Kavanaugh, 2006). Elena
Bodrova and Deborah Leong, in particular, have written extensively about the connections between sociodramatic play and
executive functioning in conjunction with the Tools of the
Mind curriculum (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). It begins with (1)
a simple representation of one object to symbolize another
(such as a plastic banana for a phone); (2) emerges through the
reenactment of daily routines and events that are familiar to
children from observing adults, such as cooking, taking care of
doll babies, or fixing things; and (3) develops fully as children
devise pretend themed scenarios, assign and take on characters/roles, and negotiate conflicts to allow play to continue.
© Tree Blocks
Both small and large blocks and
building materials can easily be
incorporated into outdoor constructions. Blocks that resemble
tree limbs, for example, are well
suited for outdoor use.
As dramatic play becomes more complex, all the elements of ATL standards are represented.
Let’s look at a sample scenario. Four-year-olds Alyssa, Noah, Niamh, and Miguel are talking
about the fiberglass cast on Miguel’s arm, the result of a fall at his home. Alyssa shares what
happened when her older brother broke his wrist, and Noah and Niamh ask many questions
about Miguel’s experience at the emergency room, remembering when each of them visited,
one for stitches in her chin and the other for an illness. Alyssa says, “I know, let’s make a
hospital in the dramatic play center and the baby dolls can be our patients.” Miguel counters
with, “No, let’s have real patients—I’ll be the doctor, Alyssa can be the x-ray lady, Niamh can
be the kid with the broken arm, and Noah can be the daddy.”
This idea appeals to the other three children and they begin to assess the equipment and
props they might need to set up an emergency room. They ask their teacher for markers and
permission to use an empty cardboard box to make an x-ray machine, set up three chairs in a
row covered with a scarf to use as the examining table, and find white lab coats in the dressup clothing for Alyssa and Miguel. They are stymied about what to use to make a cast and
ask their teacher, who brings out a box of cloth remnants and asks, “Could you do anything
with these?” Noah says, “I know, we could cut it up into long strips and wind it around and
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
around.” Alyssa replies, “But it wouldn’t be hard like Miguel’s cast,” and Niahm says, “Well,
if we put tape around it, it would be kind of hard. Can we have some tape too?” A clipboard,
paper, and pencil complete their prop list and the children commence acting out the arrival
of a crying patient; the interactions between doctor, daddy, and patient; and the medical
procedures culminating in the successful application of an arm cast and discharge from treatment. The next day, they switch roles, acting out the same scenario again and deciding to
invite other children to visit the ER, which extends and expands this play theme over several
more days.
This play addressed all ATL standards as the children (1) explored their curiosity about this
kind of event, (2) applied what they already knew and learned from each other’s experiences
through play, (3) displayed initiative and persistence to solve logistical challenges and differences of opinion about the direction of the play, (4) set and achieved a goal, and (5) experienced satisfaction as directors of a play that eventually included other children.
The Dramatic Play Area
Like construction play, dramatic play at its best is directed by children, open-ended, and
closely tied to ideas children have that come from experiences they have had and imagining
those they might have or wish they could have. A key to facilitating effective pretend play
is to provide many real-world props for children to use, and the more similar they are to the
“grownup” versions of these items, the better.
Most early childhood settings include a housekeeping area, typically stocked with child-sized
furniture, dishes, pots/pans, a small table and chairs, play food, baby dolls, laundry items,
dress-up clothing, decorative items such as curtains or a vase with flowers, and other items
that might be found in the typical home (cell phone, camera, wall art, etc.). There have been
concerns over the years that this type of setup encourages gender stereotyping and a notion
that “boys play with blocks, girls play in housekeeping” (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010;
Gestwicki, 2011; Trawick-Smith, 1994). This can be addressed by teachers as they select materials that are attractive to all children and of sufficient variety to support their interests without establishing or encouraging predetermined ideas about what boys or girls might prefer
as play themes.
The dramatic play area is frequently located near blocks, since play in both areas can be
noisy and integrated by the transport of items from one area to the other. It should be large
enough to accommodate several children and flexible to facilitate moving furniture and supplies around per play theme or focus.
Props, Accessories, and Themes
To properly facilitate and encourage rich and complex dramatic play, teachers provide materials and accessories or props that children use, just like actors in a play or film, to lend credibility and realism to their language and actions. Artificial props and dress-up clothing for
dramatic play may be purchased, but as noted previously, real-life items may be easily acquired
and adapted if necessary, with a little help from families, neighbors, and local thrift shops
and businesses. Play props should be sorted, organized, and stored in labeled boxes (copy
paper cartons work well) or clear plastic storage tubs so they can be rotated in and out of the
classroom as needed.
A prop box focuses on a single or set of closely related themes. Because storage can be
a challenge in some settings, teachers keep a primary collection of prop boxes for themes
that are predictably popular with children, such as the grocery store or a restaurant, but are
Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play
Chapter 7
always ready to create temporary collections of props by borrowing items from families or
friends when an interest or theme emerges unexpectedly. Teachers should also expect that
as play around a theme develops, additional props may be requested or larger items may
be needed that aren’t suitable for storage in a box (like a car seat for travel play or folding
beach chairs).
Teachers anticipate opportunities to involve children in making incidental or unique props
when possible. A single theme, such as a bakery, can take many possible directions—one
group of children might pretend to be the local cupcake store, wanting pictures of cupcakes
with which to create menus, name tags, and signs for the shop; they might also need a basket for deliveries. Another group might not care about cupcakes but would have great interest in designing wedding cakes, which would call for a different set of items to personalize
their play.
Table 7.3 lists examples of commonly used themes and basic items to support them.
Table 7.3: Prop Box Themes and Materials
Theme
Materials
Travel/Recreation Themes
Beach or pool
Towels, blanket, folding lawn/beach chairs, sunglasses, hats, umbrella, flip-flops, radio,
water wings, inflatable raft, small cooler, beach ball, Frisbee, empty sunscreen bottle,
buckets/shovels and sand molds, snorkel, lifeguard hat or T-shirt, whistle, first aid kit,
bathing suits
Fishing,
camping, hiking
Tent, camp stools, sleeping bag, cooler, fishing pole, bobbers, wading boots, tackle box,
scoop or cast net, fishing license; binoculars; canteen or water bottle, compass, flashlight,
backpack, small grill, hooded sweatshirts and hiking pants/shorts; hiking boots, knee high
socks, utility belt, weather radio
Road trip
Suitcases, maps, wallet, money, credit cards, postcards, cellphone, camera, lap games,
snacks, travel pillow, car seat, binoculars, tickets, pet carrier, sunglasses, travel magazines or
information leaflets, such as those for national/state parks or an amusement park
Airplane trip
Tickets, suit jackets, name badges, security wand, cardboard box for x-ray machine,
suitcases, passport, wallet, ID cards, neck pillow, cellphone, magazines, water bottles, travel
posters, cart, empty snack and drink containers
Retail Themes
Grocery store or
vegetable stand
Empty, cleaned boxes, cans, egg cartons, and other food containers, apron, toy vegetables,
bins/baskets, cardstock for signs, shopping cart, cash register, counter space, purses/wallets,
coupons, newspaper advertising circulars, grocery bags
Frozen yogurt/
ice cream store
Small table and chairs, scoops, empty/cleaned ice cream and whipped cream containers,
bowls, spoons, confetti for toppings, cash register, play money, apron, paper cones,
clipboard/order pad and pencils, paper for signs and wipe-off or chalkboard for “specials”
Pizza shop
Empty pizza boxes, play money and order pads, phone, aprons, cash register, box or play
oven, pizza paddle, cardboard circles and cutouts or play dough for shells, plastic pizza
cutter, toppings, paper for signs, wipe-off board
Local restaurant
Menus from local establishments, paper for signs and wipe-off board for daily specials, table
and tablecloth, table setting items, waiter/waitress tray, order pad, uniform or apron, chef
hat, area for cooking, play food
(continued)
Creative Arts Standards
Theme
Chapter 7
Materials
Retail Themes (continued)
Salon/spa
Combs, brushes, wall and hand mirror, rollers and hair pins, spray bottles, appointment
book, chair, magazines and pictures of hair models, plastic cape, nonworking dryer and
curling iron, empty shampoo and hair product bottles, towels, basin, empty nail polish
bottles
Bookstore/
library
Books, magazines, old keyboard, cozy chairs or beanbags, library cards, wallet, credit cards,
play money, boxes for book cases, cash register, “Sh-h-h” sign, reading glasses, paper
coffee cups
Medical
Hospital
Sheets, pillow, stethoscope, masks, scrubs, white coat, booties, first aid items, flashlight,
latex gloves, thermometer, x-ray films, crutches, empty medicine containers, Rx pad
Veterinarian
White coat, stuffed animals or puppets, gloves, first aid items, stethoscope, pet carrier,
leash, play money, paper and pencils, exam table, magazines about animals, splint and
gauze, eye patch, paper ear cone
Miscellaneous
Repair shop
Tool box, tools, safety glasses, broken/nonusable items such as CD player, camera, alarm
clock, watches, small appliances, name tags, order pad, workbench, plastic bins and miscellaneous hardware parts, PVC, measuring tape, level, work shirt
Office
File folders, desk organizers, paper, markers, pens, ruler, old keyboard and/or printer, phone,
paper clips, stapler, briefcase or rolling suitcase, box to make copy machine, eyeglasses, desk
nameplate, photo frames, table/chairs, books, office catalogs, empty water cooler bottle
and paper cups
To effectively facilitate sociodramatic and pretend play, teachers must keep in mind that their
goal is to balance children’s opportunities to direct their own activity with appropriate intervention or participation when needed to extend and develop play themes. Children may stop
playing simply because they get “stuck” and not necessarily because they have played out an
idea to their satisfaction. They may need additional props, more information about a topic, or
assistance with solving an interpersonal or logistical problem.
7.3 Creative Arts Standards
Creativity—considered from a broad frame of reference about how children approach, interpret, and process information—is an integral element of ATL standards (Kagan, 2003). “The
creative arts are our universal language—the language of our imagination, of musicians and
dancers, of painters and sculptors, storytellers and poets” (Edwards, 2009, p. iv). Early childhood curricula are also informed by 1994 national standards for the arts used in grades K–12,
which can be found at the Kennedy Center Arts Edge website. New national standards for
arts education—including dance, media arts, music, theater, and visual arts—were released
by the National Coalition for Core Arts Standards (NCCAS) in October, 2012 (Wilkerson, 2011).
The development of the new standards represents input from eight different national organizations representing different areas of the arts.
The inclusion of media arts, in addition to the existing four subdisciplines in the 2012 arts
standards, is explained by the NCCAS thus:
Visual Arts
Chapter 7
Growing interest and use of technology in classroom instruction has gained even
more momentum as a wide spectrum of creative activity in media arts has taken the
education scene by storm. While general instructional technology continues at all levels of public education, there are increasingly new and vigorous experiences in media
arts that include cinema, animation, sound imaging design, virtual design, interactive
design, as well as multimedia and intermedia. (NCCAS, April 6, 2012)
The framework for the new standards indicates that they continue to emphasize four predominant themes from the 1994 standards:
1. Active creative involvement and personal expression through the various dimensions of
the arts
2. Performing and sharing personal work with others
3. Responding to the works of others in modern and historical context
4. Making connections between the arts disciplines (NCCAS, 2012)
The intent of the standards is comprehensive, integrated involvement of children as creators,
performers, and consumers of the arts, and there are many ways in which early educators can
plan and implement curricula to do so. An arts-infused approach to curriculum in early childhood settings blends the goals of both early learning standards and national arts standards.
It fosters creative expression through exploratory play and intentional exposure to and experiences with the arts supported by the national arts standards (Edwards, 2009; Narey, 2009).
The final two sections of this chapter focus on materials, strategies, activities, and interactive
media for the visual arts, and music, creative movement, and drama.
7.4 Visual Arts
The visual arts provide opportunities for children to use materials they know to engage in
experiences and also create products that encourage expression and imagination. In the 100
Languages of Children, from Reggio Emilia, arts media are considered a primary means for
expressing thoughts, feelings, and cognitive understandings (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman,
1998). In early childhood classrooms, the art center is usually a hub of activity, fostering
delight and satisfaction, invention, imagination, and problem solving.
Early childhood educators provide materials and experiences that encourage original rather
than programmed or expected outcomes. The processes of engagement with visual arts
media are worthwhile and satisfying in and of themselves (Edwards, 2009).
When young children produce works of art, they should be encouraged to use their own
creativity and imagination in ways that are meaningful to them. They should not be asked or
encouraged to reproduce patterns found in adult models, use precut materials (such as parts
of a face and body to construct a bunny), or be directed specifically through a series of steps
that result in identical products. This type of product is neither developmentally appropriate
nor creative (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Edwards, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011).
Teachers can and should, however:
• Encourage children to explore the properties and possibilities of different kinds of
media
• Demonstrate techniques for using tools and materials
Visual Arts
Chapter 7
• Provide inspiration with books, magazines, and print examples of realistic and
abstract art that appeal to children, and photos of animals, birds, people, boats, and
landscapes
The Art Center
Artists work in different media, including drawing, painting, print making, sculpture, collage,
fabrics/fibers, and so on, choosing materials according to their intentions or ideas or what is
available. With proper supervision and safety precautions, even the youngest toddlers can use
a variety of materials.
Table 7.4 lists a broad range of supplies for different media areas and representative applications for the kinds of skills and processes they support through open-ended exploration. Note:
All art activities support to varying degrees the development of fine motor (drawing, cutting,
etc.) and gross motor (easel painting, rolling out dough, etc.) skills, which are discussed in
further detail in Chapter 8; the focus in this chapter is the creative enterprise.
Table 7.4: Art Center Materials
Media
Materials
Applications
Drawing
Pencils, crayons, markers, colored pencils,
chalk/pastels, erasers, rulers, different kinds
and sizes of papers to draw on (drawing paper,
sandpaper, construction paper, mural paper).
Exploring line quality, using tools in different
ways (such as the side of a chalk as well as its
point), and creating forms and shapes, with
different effects.
(Crayons are available in “chubby” or “block”
versions for easy handling by toddlers.)
Print making
Rollers, water-based ink, tempera, or finger
paint; Styrofoam trays, heavy string or yarn,
glue, sponges, wooden spoons; papers (see
above).
Transferring an image from one surface to
another (such as pressing a piece of paper
onto an image made on another); using a tool
or template to make multiple repeated images
in different ways (such as using sponges or
stamps to make a picture).
Collage
A variety of papers for cutting/tearing, such as
tissue, construction paper; magazines, scissors
(for children old enough to handle them); glue
sticks, tape, stickers, fabric scraps, yarn, any
small objects or materials that can be glued
onto a flat surface, such as buttons, leaves,
sequins, glitter, feathers, etc.; papers including
cardboard or posterboard; staplers, hole
punchers, scissors.
Layering or using the kinds of materials listed
to create an image design, or objects such as
paper bag puppets.
Modeling
Play dough, modeling clay, air-dry or ceramic
clay (requires firing); implements such as
rolling pins, scrapers, tongue depressors, small
mallets, or textured dough tools.
Rolling, cutting, and making impressions
in modeling materials to construct three-
dimensional forms or objects that might also
be decorated with paints or glazes.
Painting
Finger and tempera paint, watercolors, paint
cups, brushes, sponges, Q-tips, easel/clips
and paper of different kinds/sizes, including
easel paper, poster paper, construction paper,
finger-paint paper.
Exploring color and the qualities of different
kinds of paints with hands, fingers, or tools to
create abstract or realistic figures, lines, and
forms.
(continued)
Visual Arts
Chapter 7
Media
Materials
Applications
Sculpture
Small boxes, wood scraps, wire, pipe cleaners,
straws, toothpicks, thread spools, etc.
Taping, gluing, or using other means of
attaching materials together to make freestanding or relief creations.
Fabric/fibers
Yarn, string, twine, fabric scraps, strips or
loops, felt, cotton or batting, tapestry needles
(for older children), simple looms, socks.
Fabrics can be used for collage and, as children
acquire the skill to do so, simple weaving or
sewing projects.
For cleanup, the art center should be located as close to a water source and sink as possible.
The center should have a table surface big enough to accommodate several children’s supplies. The art area should have at least one easel, as children like to stand while working, and
the eye-level perspective afforded by an easel allows them to stand back and look at their
work as it emerges. Some provision is also needed to store wet products as they dry, such as
a drying rack made for that purpose to keep work horizontal or a clothesline (caution: may
drip, affecting the appearance of the original image).
When needed, children should be provided with smocks to protect their clothing. These can
be purchased or modified from adult-sized shirts to adjust the arm length and body girth.
Most “messy” materials, such as paints and markers, can and should be purchased in washable versions, and paint cups and stubby brushes are available with caps that minimize spillage
and the slopping of paint from one container to another. Paints, papers, crayons, markers,
modeling clay, and colored pencils are also available in multicultural colors that represent a
variety of skin tones.
The art center should be organized and labeled with picture or symbol labels such as those
described for other interest areas. This allows for easy and independent access to and replacement of materials. Teachers must show children how to use materials and tools responsibly. For example paintbrushes should be stored with the handles down, and caps should be
replaced on markers when children are finished using them. Many teachers use a block of
wood with holes drilled out to hold markers upright and racks for storing scissors with the
blade-side down. These make it easy for children to use the items and then put them away.
General Strategies
The general strategies listed in Table 7.5 are organized according to the four themes in the
national arts standards, but they are developmentally appropriate for young children of any
age. These practices encourage open-ended exploration and creative expression in the art
center and ways to promote exposure to the visual arts through environmental planning and
informal activities with children.
Visual Arts-Based Themes and Studies
Visual arts-based activities, thematic units or emergent investigations might focus on an artist, style, or medium and also provide a natural means for integrating different dimensions
of the curriculum. One of the richest sources of inspiration for teachers is children’s picture
books, since children are naturally drawn to the illustrations. Teachers can refer to winners
of the Caldecott Medal, an award established in 1938, in particular for examples of children’s
books with exceptional artwork.
Visual Arts
Chapter 7
Table 7.5: Visual Art Standards Themes and Corresponding Strategies
Theme
Strategies
Creative involvement and expression
• Rotate materials in the art center so that children are exposed to a variety of media,
techniques, and processes.
• Involve children in conversation about materials—for example, talking about how
drawing with chalk produces results that are different from drawing with markers, or
what happens if the side of a crayon is used rather than the point.
• Include a florist as one of the classroom jobs; keep a selection of real or artificial
flowers and greenery and a variety of interesting items on hand.
• Create a file box with interesting pictures, photographs, and postcards that children
can use for reference and that include images contributed by children and their
families.
• Display interesting items in the art area with a variety of shapes, textures, and colors.
• Take “drawing walks” with clipboards and encourage children to draw what they
see. (Always take clipboards/paper on field trips!)
• Collect interesting natural items such as leaves, flowers, and seashells for collages.
• Press flowers and leaves between sheets of waxed paper.
Performing and
sharing
• Ask children to describe what they are working on and transcribe their comments on
the back or create a label with their words for three-dimensional work.
• Ask about art children might see at home—on the wall or collected by their parents.
• Make blank books with different topics such as animals, flowers, and birds and
encourage children to contribute pages.
• Regularly display children’s artwork in the classroom and hallways with labels that
represent how the children describe their work.
• Be on the lookout for picture frames at garage sales and use them for displays, so
that children understand that their work is important.
• Periodically involve the children in creating a mural or group sculpture that will
promote group discussion and decision making.
Responding to the
work of others
• Look at artwork during group times and ask children to describe it, noting differences in the responses they provide.
• Display original art or reproductions representative of the cultures of the children in
the group and artists from the local region.
• Invite a local artist to visit the classroom.
• Visit an art museum, local gallery, or community festival where art will be on display.
• Look at pictures of art from earlier periods in history.
• Provide books and display examples of art from different cultures.
• Display a piece of artwork with a poster (or sticky note for each child) that includes
each child’s comments about it.
Making connections with other
areas of the arts and
curriculum
• Periodically, use opportunities to create artwork for a particular purpose, such as a
school event, greeting cards, or “get well” cards.
• Go on a walk and point out different ways art is displayed in the environment, such
as murals, signs or advertising posters, artwork in an office, or a sculpture in a park.
• Include examples of art in other interest areas, such as botanical prints in the science
area, framed book jacket covers or posters in the book corner, an art print from the
cubist period in the math center, etc.
• Display examples of artworks that serve different purposes, such as a calendar,
framed decorative print, wallpaper, printed fabrics, or CD covers.
• Play music while children are engaged in the art center or encourage them to
respond to music with different kinds of media.
• Involve children in making props or backdrops for the dramatic play center or childcreated skits or plays.
Visual Arts
Chapter 7
For example, Eric Carle (and many other picture-book illustrators) works in a distinctive collage
style that is easily recognizable to children and inviting for exploration. A teacher we visited
with earlier in this book, Ms. Mary, engaged preschool children in reproducing the “Eric Carle
effect.” She set up a “finger-painting factory” in the art center, and for several days the children filled 18- by 24-inch sheets of glossy finger-paint paper with every color of finger paint
they could possibly manufacture by mixing and combining colors on the paper and using
different kinds of tools—such as brushes, scrapers, and combs—to create textural effects.
She then cut the dried papers into smaller 6- by 8-inch sheets and the children used them
to create a massive “collage file,” sorting and organizing the papers according to the color
spectrum (a wonderful activity for visual discrimination as well). This supply of “Eric Carle
paper” was used in dozens of ways over time, from reproducing collage illustrations inspired
by the characters in Carle’s books to building a rain forest in the school’s hallway, using the
papers for tree trunks, leaves, exotic birds and flowers. The appendix to this book includes a
selected list of author/illustrators with distinctive styles that could be used to inspire activities
for exploring media.
The topics/subjects of picture books are also easy to connect with science, literacy, or math
activities. An extensive online resource for preservice and practicing teachers who want to use
picture books to design planned explorations around a theme is the Miami University searchable database of picture books, which provides a short annotated summary of each.
Interactive Media
In recent years, many forms of technology that teachers can use to support visual arts activities have become increasingly available. Teachers can use these tools with discretion to introduce and involve children in experiences with visual arts (NAEYC, 2012). Note that, particularly
with children, the use of any technology should enhance and expand rather than replace
experiences with authentic media and concrete materials.
Here are some examples of technologies that can be used to support arts activities:
• The Internet can provide vicarious and sometimes interactive access to art images that
teachers can use to share information about artists and examples of different kinds
of artwork with children. Images can be printed for display or used in collages and
displays.
• Hardware such as computers or handheld devices with touch screens, whiteboards,
and drawing tablets can also be used with young children to create and generate digital artwork.
• Digital photography—still and video cameras are available in kid-friendly models that
children can safely use with assistance to capture, print, and share images and video.
Some young children can also manage video-editing software.
• Software and applications made for children to use, such as KidPix, first introduced in
1989, which provides children with digital drawing and painting tools for free-form
creations and the embedding of clip-art, 3D backgrounds, and animation.
• Software and applications teachers can use to create digital stories with embedded
images of children’s artwork and audio narration, such as Microsoft PhotoStory, Apple
iMovie, or Voicethread.
Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Chapter 7
7.5 Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Music, creative movement or dance activities, and experiences with drama provide natural
support for both physical development and aesthetic awareness while simultaneously fostering critical thinking and problem solving through mind-body connections. (Marigliano &
Russo, 2011) Listening to music, whether to classical works like Rimsky-Korsakoff’s The Flight
of the Bumblebee or folk tunes like She’ll be Coming Round the Mountain, produces a range
of emotional responses. Creative music and movement activities require the child to make
perceptual/motor connections in order to move, balance, and develop awareness of space,
time, and rhythm (Hendrick & Weissman, 2007).
Extending children’s love of dramatic play to creating or acting out stories provides them with
confidence and opportunities for personal expression and communication (Edwards, 2009).
Attending musical, dance, or theatrical performances gives children the chance to enjoy and
respond to the ways others interpret these artistic disciplines. Creative activities that promote
the expression of ideas and feelings are preferable for young children over teaching them
prescribed dances, steps, or memorizing/rehearsing lines to perform a scripted play (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009; Hendrick & Weissman, 2007).
Materials for Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Space should be provided in the classroom as well as outdoors for music, movement, and
drama activities. A music center in the classroom should provide storage and display space for
instruments, rotated regularly to give children the opportunity to focus on the distinct features of different types. Taking musical instruments outdoors eliminates the element of noise,
which can be distracting or may interfere with conversation levels indoors.
A listening center, set up at a small table or in a cozy area with pillows on the floor, supports
exposure to music with CD/MP3 player and a multiple-jack outlet for one or more sets of
headphones. Musical selections can include those that children particularly like as well as new
music from different genres.
An open floor space, especially one with a large wall mirror, affords children the ability to see
themselves move. If the classroom is not large enough to accommodate this, outdoor space
can be used or designated for creative movement activities.
In addition to the dramatic play center, provision can be made for a puppet theater, purchased
or made with children from a cardboard box. Children also love creating spontaneous “sets”
outdoors, with sheets, sheer fabric, large boxes, or a platform constructed from wooden
planks, blocks, or bricks. Additional materials are described below for music, movement, and
drama.
Materials for music activities include rhythm instruments, basic pitched instruments, and other
items such as media players, audio recorders, and accompanying instruments like a piano or
autoharp (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2010). Rhythm instruments are those that can be
struck—like sticks, triangles, gongs and cymbals—or shaken—such as maracas, tambourines,
or rain sticks. Drums are readily available in a variety of shapes, sizes, forms, and cultural
origins (see Figure 7.6). Pitched instruments produce a note or notes when struck, such as a
xylophone or tonal bells, or blown, like a kazoo, harmonica, or recorder.
Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Chapter 7
Figure 7.4: World Music
A music curriculum should include experiences with instruments and music that represent cultural
diversity and an appreciation for music from around the world. These examples include (from left
to right and top to bottom) Native American rain sticks, marimbas, an African talking drum, a
gathering drum, a Latin steel drum, a cabaca rasp, a thumb piano, a monkey drum, and a world
music CD.
World Music
Materials for creative movement may include hoops, scarves, fans, and streamers. A prop box
with dance costumes as well as ballet and tap shoes—easily procured from thrift stores—can
also inspire impromptu dancing and creative dramatics.
Props for dramatic activities will include masks, glasses, costumes, and other items already on
hand to support the dramatic play center as well as others specifically obtained or made to
Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Chapter 7
enact a particular idea or story. Hats of all kinds are wonderful and beloved by children but
may not be permitted in some programs owing to the risk of transferring head lice, while they
are used in others with precautions and regular disinfecting. Similarly, teachers may need to
introduce items such as masks and costumes carefully with very young children, who might
have fears related to animals or characters.
Handheld and full-length mirrors can be very helpful for both movement and drama. Hand
and finger puppets of many different kinds can be kept in the dramatic play center or rotated
into the classroom for use with particular stories, poems, or songs. Children can also make
stick and sock puppets and set up the type of pantomime/shadow theater described in the
earlier chapter section about light play.
General Strategies: Routines and Transitions
Routines such as an opening/greeting circle and transitions that take place in changing from
one space or activity to another provide opportunities for music, movement, and dramatic
activities. For example, the opening routine could include short games such as inviting children to take turns naming a movement that starts with the first letter of a child’s name, like
“jump with John” or “step high with Sally.” Some teachers do a series of “good-morning
yoga” poses that emphasize stretching, bending, and breathing (Orlowski & Hart, 2010).
Children can pantomime the weather report for the day or do favorite finger plays/poems
that include body movements and creative expression, such as “Going on a Bear Hunt.” There
are many online websites that offer downloadable children’s exercise music for purchase and
some for free, including Songs for Teaching, Free Songs for Kids, and The Teacher’s Guide.
Daily transitions include cleanup time, getting ready to go outside, preparing for meals, and
bathroom or water breaks. Margie LaBella, an experienced music therapist, offers these simple songs on the previously mentioned Songs for Teaching website, that announce cleanup
time and the end of circle time:
Cleanup Time
(Tune: Miss Lucy had a baby, she named him tiny Tim . . . )
It’s cleanup time everybody.
It’s cleanup time right now.
If I help you and you help me,
Then we’ll get ready for __________.
Circle Time Is Almost Done!
(Tune: Buffalo girls, won’t you come out tonight . . . )
Circle time is almost done,
Almost done, almost done.
Circle time is almost done,
Then we’re going to __________.
When children have to stand in line, teachers can play simple games with them such as:
• Playing “snake,” passing a ball or beanbag down the line, all using a similar motion like
over the head, or under a knee, with the last child in line moving to the front to start
again.
• Moving within their personal space as the teacher or another child calls out “hop like a
frog,” or “swing your arms like an elephant trunk.”
Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Chapter 7
• Standing back to back and being instructed to move in sync up, down, and bending to
the side.
• “Scramble,” reordering the line by height, clothing color, birthday.
• “Telephone,” but instead of whispering to start the chain, doing a movement that
each child copies down the line.
• Balancing on toes up and down.
• Tapping knees, “chopping wood,” or doing karate chops to the side, keeping time to a
favorite song.
• Doing “the wave.”
• Taking a pose and then switch to another, such as standing like a soldier and then a
rag doll.
• Playing “Simon says” with movements.
• Doing the “balloon release,” or breathing in and out as if blowing up a balloon.
• Doing a “spider massage” on the back of the next child (Feldman, 2012).
Music, Creative Movement, and Dramatic Activities
Planned music and creative movement activities should emphasize enjoyment and participation without competition; it should be used to enrich children’s exposure to diverse musical
and performance traditions. For instance, at the program directed by the author, parents
most recently demonstrated and engaged children in traditional scarf dancing (from China
and Russia), step dancing with ribbons (from Ireland), and belly dancing with bells (from Iran);
these became favorite activities for months afterward.
Participating and Performing
In choosing music for singing and creative movement, you should consider the children’s
interests, vocal range, and language ability, including songs children may want to share from
home. Nursery rhymes, simple folk songs, patriotic songs, and ballads are typically easy to
learn if broken down into manageable sections or phrasing. You should make sure you have
practiced and know a song before teaching it, so that you can devote your entire attention to
the children without having to look at a book or sheet music.
If you have the music on a CD, you may want to play it several times so that the children can
clearly understand the words and know what they mean. It is best to focus on one song at
a time until children are very familiar and comfortable singing it rather than trying to teach
several songs at once (Edwards, 2012).
Music selections for creative movement can include songs with words that children are already
familiar with or instrumental music, encouraging focus on the melody, tonal qualities, and
rhythms. Children don’t need much direction and should never be forced to participate, but
they can certainly be encouraged with prompts or suggestions.
Dramatic performances often occur spontaneously, arising from activities in the dramatic play
center that children may want to share with others in the group, informally with role playing
during story time, or as a means to demonstrate such things as how to invite a friend to play
or solve a problem. Teachers can also facilitate more formal performances if they are careful to maintain a developmentally appropriate approach. For instance, the 4- and 5-year-old
children in Ms. Mary and Ms. Jane’s class, after reading several versions of the traditional folk
Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Chapter 7
tale “Stone Soup,” decided that they wanted to
host a soup luncheon and dramatic performance
of the story for their parents. Rather than assign
parts and scripted lines, the teachers acted as
narrators, with the children acting out the steps
of the story in small groups. They knew the story
so well that when they were performing for their
parents, they spontaneously, in choral fashion,
echoed some of the narration as their teacher
read the story.
© Banana Stock / Thinkstock
Singing, playing instruments, and creative movement engage children from the very early stages
of development.
Responding
Responding to music can be a part of the classroom in many ways. Some teachers like to play
classical music, world music, or soothing lullabies during rest time to help children settle.
Background music can certainly be appropriate
during different times of the day as well. You
might notice children in the art center quietly
humming along to music or painting in time to a
particular rhythm, or children in the dramatic play
center using scarves to make costumes for a “fairy
dance.” Free movement activities encourage discovery and release (Eliason & Jenkins, 2008); children enjoy acting out imaginary sequences such
as a chick hatching from an egg, a thunderstorm,
or popcorn popping.
Certainly inviting performers (especially from your
parent/family community) to your classroom or
program and taking children out to cultural events
should be a priority to the extent that is logistically and economically possible. Fortunately
many communities recognize the value of these experiences and are increasingly providing
free or low-cost opportunities to make them happen. For example, in the author’s community, programs for young children are available at little or no cost (less than $5); they include
cultural events such as:
• Children’s theater productions
• Storytellers
• Cultural/ethnic festivals
• Concerts
• Ballet and culturally diverse dance troupes
• Puppet theater
You can talk with children about music and creative movement or dramatic performances in
much the same way you would discuss visual arts. They will develop musical preferences and
respond to activities with a range of ideas and opinions. Questions and discussions encour-
Music, Creative Movement, and Drama
Chapter 7
age children to use language to analyze and interpret (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2010).
Increasingly abstract levels of questioning include the following:
• Memory—recalling details or features of a selection or performance
• Closed questions (e.g., Was the music fast or slow? Which character in Peter and the
Wolf was represented by the oboe?)
• Open-ended questions (e.g., What do you think the dancers were thinking about in
the very fast part of the music?)
• Evaluative (Why did you say you felt frightened by the loud part of the music?)
Understanding and Integrating Concepts
Activities and games with music and movement help children learn vocabulary and concepts
such as rhythm/beat, tempo, personal space, direction, melody, and harmony. The vocabulary
of drama includes terms such as script, role, director, and scene that children learn and apply
not just to dramatic play but also to stories and literacy activities.
Magliano and Russo (2011) suggest a word bank, writing words that name body parts, different movements (twist, bend, reach, etc.), dance elements (space, pathway, level), and
using terminology to describe what children are doing (e.g., “I see you slithering backward
and forward like a snake”). Similarly, a display of diagrams can prompt children and help
them to remember motions and concepts. Games like “paper plate twist”—giving each child
two paper plates on which to put their feet and moving to Chubby Checker’s “Peppermint
Twist”—reinforce rhythm, balance, spatial orientation, and bilateral movement. Likewise,
the teacher can use a song like “Dueling Banjos” to perform a movement for each musical
phrase, which the children can then echo/copy for the next phrase (Flynn, 2012). Keeping
time comes more naturally to some children than others, and teachers can try using different
parts of the body to tap, nod, or clap the children’s names, animal names, or simple rhymes
to help them develop awareness of rhythm and musical patterns. Identification games or
making up new words to a familiar tune can also focus on a particular element such as
melody or rhythm (“name that tune”; I’m thinking of a song . . . feel the beat and identify;
sing your name).
Interactive Media
As with visual arts, the Internet provides almost unlimited access to information, interactive
experiences with the performing arts, and prerecorded or live performances if they are not
readily available in the community. Audio devices such as MP3 players enable teachers to
develop a rich and varied library of music, video, and podcasts. Particularly useful are sites
such as:
• YouTube (for a variety of musical videos and clips)
• Virtual Keyboard (interactive and instructional piano as well as all sections of orchestral
instruments)
• Button Beats (interactive and instructional guitar)
• Button Beats (xylophone)
• Arts Alive (interactive music, dance, and theater)
• iTunes (music, TV performances, movies, podcasts)
Posttest
Chapter 7
Chapter Summary
• Early learning standards emphasize development in ATL, physical well-being, socialemotional, language, and cognitive development.
• Academic standards for K–2 children are included in K–12 standards for each subject area of the curriculum and focus on knowledge and skills related to the content
of each.
• ATL standards focus on the development of executive functioning and promote such
dispositions as curiosity, engagement, persistence, and problem solving through play.
• In the early childhood environment, interest areas such as sensory play, construction,
and dramatic play promote ATL through open-ended exploration with a variety of
materials.
• The 2012 National standards for the arts represent a collaborative effort to actively
engage and expose students to cultural experiences and activities across the disciplines
of art, music, dance, and drama, and media arts.
• An arts-infused curriculum approach provides early educators with opportunities to
support both open-ended exploration and intentional experiences with all dimensions
of the creative/performing arts.
• Activities with the visual arts that emphasize experiences with many media, creative
expression, and exposure to art and artists also provide an integrated introduction to
the visual arts standards for K–2.
• Using high-quality children’s picture books can provide teachers with many ideas for
arts experiences and connecting to other areas of the curriculum.
• Materials and experiences with music, movement/dance, and drama enable and foster
mind/body/aesthetic connections in many ways.
• Music, movement/dance, and drama experiences can be integrated seamlessly into
daily activities and routines as well as being provided through intentional activities and
exposure to the performing arts.
• An increasing array of technological resources provide access to informational and
interactive arts experiences.
Posttest
1. Early learning standards focus on development of:
a. Concepts and skills in the academic subject areas.
b. Obedience and rote learning.
c. Preparation for kindergarten readiness tests.
d. Development across all major domains.
2. Academic standards identify and describe:
a. Knowledge and skills needed for mastery of content in the subject areas.
b. How teachers should teach each subject.
c. Curriculum that should be used to meet the standards.
d. How learning should be assessed and evaluated.
Posttest
Chapter 7
3. ATL Standards include five elements including all of the following except:
a. Curiosity, eagerness, and satisfaction as a learner.
b. Learning primarily through direct instruction.
c. Initiative, engagement, and persistence.
d. Setting and achieving goals.
4. Sensory, construction, and dramatic play support ATL standards because:
a. The standards specifically require these areas in every early childhood setting.
b. Infants and toddlers can’t learn how to learn unless these areas are included.
c. These areas promote engagement, persistence, curiosity, and problem solving.
d. Children learn all the skills needed for academic success through these activities.
5. The framework for 2012 National Standards for the Arts:
a. Prescribes specific programs schools should put in place to develop aesthetic
awareness.
b. Indicates that media arts will be included as a new component of the standards.
c. Promotes support for the eight organizations that contributed to their
development.
d. Indicates that the 2012 standards significantly depart from the priorities of the
1994 standards.
6. Early childhood educators use an arts-infused approach to curriculum when they:
a. Plan and schedule art, music, movement, and drama lessons daily.
b. Provide both open-ended and planned activities for creative expression and exposure to the various arts.
c. Encourage parents to sign their children up for art, dance, and music lessons.
d. Schedule monthly field trips to arts-based destinations and activities.
7. Guidelines for setting up an art center include:
a. Distributing materials as children need them, so that they are not wasted or used
improperly.
b. Limiting access to messy materials, since young children aren’t ready to handle
them.
c. Labeling shelves and storage containers with picture/symbols so children can take
out and put away materials themselves.
d.eProviding materials for one medium at a time, so that children develop expertise
with each one before learning about another.
8. Planned activities with the visual arts are developmentally appropriate if:
a. Children are given specific instructions about how to complete a project so that the
goals of an activity that has been planned to address a standard are met.
b. Children receive no instruction about how to use materials so that their creativity is
not compromised.
c. Instruction about how to use materials, media, and tools is balanced with encouragement for children to explore their use in creative and imaginative ways.
d. Activities are balanced to make sure that they integrate all areas of the curriculum.
Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest
Chapter 7
9. Music, creative movement, and drama activities and experiences:
a. Shouldn’t be integrated into daily routines and transitions because those kinds of
activities would not represent authentic arts experiences.
b. Should be integrated into daily routines and transitions as the primary means for an
integrated approach.
c. Shouldn’t be integrated into daily routines and transitions because children don’t
have the opportunity for creative expression.
d. Can be integrated into daily routines and transitions as one means of engaging children in enjoyable activities with songs, movements, and drama.
10. Technologies that provide access to interactive or informational resources related to
the arts:
a. Can be used effectively to provide children with vicarious arts experiences as long
as developmental considerations are observed.
b. Are not yet well enough developed to be accessible to young children.
c. Should not be used until all early childhood programs have the resources to implement technology in the classrooms.
d. Can be used effectively only if children are allowed to use them independently.
Answers: 1 (d); 2 (a); 3 (b); 4 (c); 5 (b); 6 (b); 7 (c); 8 (c); 9 (d); 10 (a)
Discussion Questions
1. How might you explain to parents the value of a play-based approach to the early learning standards?
2. How do your own experiences with the arts affect preferences you might have for particular kinds of activities?
3. What challenges do you face as you consider the increasing role of technology in early
education?
Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest
1. False. Early learning standards are written from a developmental perspective; academic
standards focus on skills and knowledge that emphasize learning the content of each
subject area.
2. True. A primary focus of the ATL standards is the development of higher-order thinking.
3. True. An arts-infused approach to curriculum for young children emphasizes both openended play and experiences with the four themes of the national arts standards.
4. False. Visual arts activities and experiences should promote creativity and imagination
rather than preprogrammed products.
5. False. Performing arts activities and experiences should also emphasize creative
expression.
References
Chapter 7
Key Terms
Approaches to Learning (ATL) standards Component of state early learning standards
that focuses on executive functioning and the ways children learn and develop through play,
exploration, and inquiry
Arts-infused An approach to curriculum that integrates experiences with the arts
Light table Piece of equipment specifically designed with a translucent surface lighted
from below
Media various materials and processes artists use for different effects and purposes
Picture book Distinct genre of books incorporating extensive use of illustrations as an
important storytelling feature
Problem solving Weighing multiple possible solutions to devise a strategy for resolving an
issue or challenge
Prop box Set of props related to a single theme
Props Items used as accessories for play
Reasoning Applying understanding of cause-and-effect relationships; the application of
logic to decision making
Self-talk Internal dialogue, or “talking to oneself”
Unit (kindergarten) blocks Wooden blocks of specific proportions children use for building structures
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