Approaches to Learning: Exploratory Play and Creative Arts 7 Pretest 1. Standards for early learners and ­kindergarten-second grade children are essentially similar. T/F 2. The Approaches to Learning standards stress the development of executive functioning. T/F 3. An arts-infused curriculum supports both early learning standards and national ­standards for the creative arts. T/F 4. Teachers support the visual arts with ­activities that encourage children to use ­patterns and copy adult-made examples. T/F 5. Teachers encourage children to practice, rehearse, and perform songs, dances, and plays in front of an audience so that they can get over their performance anxieties. T/F © iStockphoto / Thinkstock Answers can be found at end of the chapter. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Explain the difference between early learning and academic standards as well as the different ways in which curricula may be organized. 2. Describe concepts, skills, and interest areas that support the Approaches to Learning Standards. 3. Identify four important themes in national standards for the arts and describe an artsinfused approach to curriculum. 4. Describe how teachers support the visual arts in early childhood settings. 5. Describe how teachers support the performing arts of music, creative movement/dance, and drama in the early childhood setting. Early Learning and Academic Standards Chapter 7 You have put a lot of thought and work into creating an inviting and interesting classroom. Photographs and cultural materials throughout the room represent the children in your class and their families. You’ve labeled materials and equipment with images and words in English and Spanish. To make a tentative plan for interest areas, you went through all the materials in your classroom and used information from your comprehensive curriculum resources and the interest inventories you made at home visits to select books, puzzles, dramatic play props, and other materials for activity areas that you hope will be a good match for some of the things the children might be interested in. You’ve made sure that these areas are flexible to accommodate working with children individually or in small or large groups. How will you now make sure that you are incorporating activities and experiences that are consistent with the developmentally focused early learning standards for preschoolers in your state? Do those standards provide guidance and support for play? How do the early learning standards connect with those the children will encounter in elementary school? In this chapter, we begin to focus on the “what’s worth knowing” (the content of curriculum) and “curriculum in action” (implementation) dimensions of curriculum. Each chapter will emphasize important concepts, skills, and activities for interrelated areas in the early learning standards for preschoolers and academic standards that apply to children in K-2 settings. We begin by examining early learning standards for Approaches to Learning and the National Content Standards for the Arts. 7.1 Early Learning and Academic Standards Most states now have two types of standards for children in the early childhood period. Standards for children from birth to age 5 are provided as guidelines for infants and toddlers, and early learning standards for 3- to 5-year-old preschoolers. These standards emphasize child development. Standards that apply to children in the primary grades are part of the academic standards for children from kindergarten through grade 12. Each set of academic standards articulates what children should know and be able to do in the content (subject) area (e.g., math, literacy, science, social studies, physical education and health, and the arts). The fifty states diverge on implementation time lines, but in general the country is moving on a steady path toward both early learning and academic standards (Kauerz, 2006; Petersen, Jones, & McGinley, 2008; Scott-Little, Kagan, Frelow, & Reid, 2008). Some curricula used in early childhood classrooms provide teachers with alignments, or mapping of the elements of the curriculum to early learning or academic standards. In other instances, teachers do that themselves as they interpret curricular goals, planning and adapting activities to be consistent with learning standards. Early Learning Standards In 1990, the president and fifty governors created the National Education Goals Panel (NEGP) to formulate goals for education in the twenty-first century. Subsequently, in 1995, the NEGP endorsed recommendations from the early childhood education field to write learning standards for young children from a developmental perspective, encouraging the use of common language and terminology to promote clarity in five areas of development (Kagan, 2003; Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995): 1. Approaches to Learning 2. Physical Well-Being and Health Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 3. Social and Emotional Development 4. Language Development 5. Cognition and General Knowledge By 2008, more than twenty states and several territories had produced guidelines for infants and toddlers that addressed these five domain areas (Petersen, Jones, & McGinley, 2008; Scott-Little, Kagan, Frelow, & Reid, 2008). By 2010 more than forty states had also either adopted or adapted the Good Start Grow Smart early learning standards template proposed with the 2001 No Child Left Behind initiative or used the NEGP recommendations to address the five domains in their early learning standards for preschool children (aged 3 to 5) (See Wisconsin, for example) (NIEER, 2012). Academic Standards While the early learning standards clearly reflect the developmental focus from which they are written, it can be more difficult to discern those developmental goals in K-2 standards. For instance, the South Carolina Good Start, Grow Smart early learning standards explicitly state one standard as: “Children [will] demonstrate initiative, engagement, and persistence in learning” (p. 16). In contrast, this desired outcome appears in the area of social studies (for example) not as an explicit standard to be met for learners but as part of the introductory explanation in expectations for social studies teachers about how the standards should be taught, “Social studies teaching and learning are powerful when the learning is active . . . . teachers gradually move from providing considerable guidance by modeling, explaining, or supplying information that builds student knowledge, to a less directive role that encourages students to become independent and self-regulated learners” (NCSS, 2002, p. 13). Integrating curriculum content, materials, and activities in the early childhood years from both developmental and academic perspectives, as evident in the various sets of standards and guidelines, can be challenging. Therefore Chapters 7 to 11 will address academic content areas (creative arts, physical education and health, social studies, mathematics, science, and literacy) within the context of the five early learning developmental domains (Approaches to Learning, Physical Well-Being, Social-Emotional, Language, and Cognition/General Knowledge) listed above. This chapter begins with the early learning standards that address Approaches to Learning and the National Core Standards for the Arts. 7.2 Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Approaches to Learning (ATL) standards are grounded in research on brain development. They emphasize the importance of a particular set of skills and mental processes that constitute executive functioning, which is necessary for effective problem solving and higherorder thinking (Berk, 2001). Central to executive functioning are self-regulation, attention, and memory—skills that prove highly valuable later in life for such tasks as completing homework assignments independently or planning, researching, and writing a report. The extent to which a child exhibits these characteristics may actually be a better predictor of future success in school than intelligence measures (Berk, 2001; McClelland, Cameron, Wanless, & Murray, 2007). Figure 7.1 displays key elements of executive functioning. Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Figure 7.1: Key Elements of Executive Functioning Executive functioning is the process by which the brain organizes, processes, and applies information to active problem solving. The Brain’s Executive Functions Activation • Organizing • Prioritizing • Getting to work Focus • Tuning in • Sustaining focus • Shifting attention Effort • Regulating alertness • Sustaining effort • Adjusting processing speed Emotions • Managing frustration • Modulating emotions Memory • Holding on and working with information • Retrieving memories Action • Monitoring and regulating one’s actions ATL early learning standards stress the importance of mental processes that represent, “learnF07.01_ECE311 ing how to learn” (Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995). They further suggest that the mere acquisition of knowledge, skills, and capacities is insufficient for developmental success, as having a capacity, for example, does not mean that it will be used. Children must go further and marshal these qualities. For example, a child may have the capacity to listen (her hearing may be intact), but she may or may not have the disposition to be a listener (Kagan, 2003, p. 2). The five elements of ATL standards emphasize development of executive functioning via: 1. Learning through play 2. Curiosity, eagerness, and satisfaction as a learner 3. Initiative, engagement, and persistence 4. Setting and achieving goals 5. Memory, reasoning, and problem solving (Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995) Let’s look at how learning through play, for example, the first element of ATL standards, fosters the development of executive functioning. Open-ended play is a highly integrative activity that promotes intuitive learning in many ways (van Hoorn, Nourot, Scales, & Alward, 2011). Play gives children opportunities to explore the properties of objects and materials, experiment and take risks, and use their imaginations to assume roles and situations grounded in both reality and pretend. When children are encouraged to make choices about how they play, they engage in self-talk, weighing the merits of one direction over another—the kind of internal dialogue that leads eventually to abstract reasoning. They develop the ability to focus and are more likely to sustain or persist in longer-term or more complex play that can eventually extend from one play period or day to the next (Wood & Atfield, 2005). When children experience school or care in an inviting environment that validates their curiosity about the world, their eagerness to learn translates into a willingness to try new things, Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 adding to the child’s store of experiences. These are important to establishing a knowledge base that children will draw from as they continue to learn. Success in play, satisfaction with the results of their efforts (such as a painting or completed block structure), and reinforcement of interests and questions also build the confidence children need to be able to set a goal and believe that it can be achieved, despite the insecurities or lack of experience accompanying an intellectual risk. We also know from brain research that both short- and long-term memory are needed for reasoning and problem solving. Reasoning requires consideration and determination of cause-and-effect relationships, and application of logic to decision making and problem solving requires that multiple possible solutions be weighed and considered. In play, children have the opportunity to work through problems that are real to them and to practice using what they know and remember to make decisions about how to proceed. Now consider a classroom scenario that illustrates how the five elements of ATL apply. A child decides to go to the painting easel, puts on a smock, and attaches a clean sheet of paper with clothespin clips to the easel. Paint choices include red, yellow, blue, green, orange, and purple. Suppose, as the child begins to paint, he notices that layering of yellow and blue paint results in the color green, but it is not exactly the same shade of green as the paint in the green container. Curious, (#2) his attention shifts to reasoning (#5) that he might use different amounts of yellow and green to achieve a goal (#4) of trying to match the green in the container in the grass he is painting across the bottom of the paper. He takes the initiative (#3) to do so, and begins applying and observing what happens by mixing different amounts of yellow and green on the paper. As he works, he becomes deeply engaged (#3) and actually fills up and changes paper three times, persisting (#3) in this activity until at last he exclaims, “I did it!” calling the teacher to come and view his painting and recounting (#5) with great satisfaction (#2) how he approached (#5) and solved the problem (#5). Now imagine how this child’s learning would be affected if, for example, the teacher told the child what or how to paint, required children to move from center to center every 20 minutes, or limited them to one sheet of paper per painting. Would he be inclined to start his methodological trial-and-error process knowing that he might not be allowed to finish? Would he experience satisfaction or frustration if he filled his first paper and could not continue on another? Would he have found out what results could be achieved by mixing colors in different proportions? Early childhood educators keep the important elements of ATL standards in mind as they plan the environment and opportunities for open-ended play and exploration. In the remainder of this section, we consider three major interest areas/centers in the early childhood classroom to illustrate how play supports these most important dispositions toward learning. These areas are sensory play, blocks/construction, and dramatic play. Sensory Play Teachers understand that sensory play provides a perfect context for exposing children to both familiar and unfamiliar materials that challenge them to process and organize stimuli through their senses. Children use their sense of touch to explore textures, surfaces, and weight/pressure. They acquire depth perception, learn to differentiate between colors and shapes, and develop a sight vocabulary of objects and eventually words through visual processing. They learn to distinguish tone, pitch, and volume through hearing. As a sense of Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 smell develops, children learn to identify and classify odors, acquire preferences, and acquire an “early warning system” for things that might not be good for them. Their sense of taste is closely correlated to smell; exposure to a wide variety of foods encourages discernment of the sweet, sour, salty, or bitter qualities of foods. The process of converting sensory inputs helps the brain grow and become more efficient (Rushton, 2011). In this section we discuss open-ended sensory play in two areas common to many early childhood settings, sand/water (sensory) tables and exploratory activities with light. Sand/Water (Sensory) Table A sand or water sensory table provides children with opportunities to touch, feel, and manipulate different types of solid and liquid materials. (Sand and water tables are also used to promote the development of mathematics and science concepts, discussed in Chapter 10.) The ATL standards are supported because children are intensely curious about materials available in this kind of experience and become deeply engaged in exploring their properties and figuring out what happens when they try different things. The materials used are intrinsically satisfying to the senses; many a teacher will attest to the calming influence of a sensory table for a child who is upset or one with the sensory processing difficulties that some children on the autism spectrum experience. Technically, any container such as a large plastic dishpan or baby bathtub can be used to hold water, sand, or other materials, but most early childhood settings make use of equipment designed for this purpose and sized to accommodate three or four children at a time. Commercially produced tables are widely available in different sizes/heights to accommodate a range of child age groups and contexts, have drains for easy cleanup, and may include space for storage or additional features such as a water pump. © Susan Woog-Wagner / Getty Images Sand/water tables are functionally flexible, so teachers have many options for activities that engage the children’s senses and foster exploration of the properties of many different kinds of materials. Sensory play is not limited to the indoors, since most sand/water tables are made of durable materials and have wheels that enable them to be easily transported outside. In addition, a sandbox and/or dirtdigging area is a common feature of most child-care and preschool programs. As soon as a child can stand unassisted, the sensory table typically becomes a magnet for activity, beckoning the child to touch, pour, sift, squish, poke, dig, mold, and handle materials that behave in both predictable and unpredictable ways. The list of materials for use in sensory play is limited only by requirements for safety and cleanliness, such as emptying and disinfecting water tables daily. Materials should be chosen with regard to the age of children; for instance, dried beans would not be a good choice for toddlers who might want to put them in their noses or ears! When sand or dirt-based material is used, it should be clean and free of any debris that could be harmful to the skin or if ingested. Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Table 7.1 includes a list of base materials, tools or props, and activities that can be used or adapted for the sand/water table to promote the kinds of activities listed above. Table 7.1: Sensory Table Materials, Tools/Props, and Activities Water and Additives Sand and Other Natural Materials Other Media Including Recyclables Food-Based Materials Food coloring Beach or playground sand, plain or colored Packing materials (peanutshaped, disc-shaped, and so on) Rice Dish soap Potting media Cotton or fiberfill Flour/cornstarch Bubble liquid Pebbles or small rocks Buttons Oatmeal or other cereal Ice cubes Aquarium gravel Rubber bands Dried beans/peas Snow Cedar chips or shavings Shredded paper Dried pasta Gelatin Sawdust Ribbons Pumpkin seeds Cornstarch (“oobleck”) Straw (not an allergen like hay) Pompoms or confetti Popcorn kernels Baking soda and vinegar Dried leaves, seed pods, pine cones Torn or cut colored tissue, or wrapping papers Flax seed Natural clay Artificial grass filler Bird seed Small metal objects such as paper clips Tools/Props Water/Liquids Sand/Other Solids Cups, funnels, things that sink/float (aluminum foil, corks, clothespins, etc.), plastic pitchers, rotary egg beater or whisk, straws cut into different lengths, bubble wands, items with pumps (like a hand soap dispenser), washcloths and sponges, droppers/ poultry basters, spray bottles, small toys or plastic fish, toothbrushes. Kitchen utensils such as spoons, funnels, measuring cups and spoons, ice cream scoop, strainers/sieves/ sifters, tongs or tweezers, small hand rakes or combs, seashells and/or small toys/plastic animals, buckets, shovels, cookie cutters, rolling pins, pie tins, magnifying glasses, scissors, hole puncher, magnet wands Examples of Prompts/Activities for Water, Sand, and Other Materials Digging: bury items in sand to be uncovered (perhaps relating to a current theme) such as plastic dinosaurs, insects, worms, coins, plastic “jewels,” small mirrors or laminated photos of the children Washing: wash baby dolls, small cars, dishes, toys Molding: provide molds of different kinds for damp/wet sand, dirt, or other modeling materials Fishing: bamboo poles with magnet attached to end of string, paper clips and small paper or rubber fish with paper clips attached Road building: sand or dirt-based materials, small vehicles Challenges: use tongs or giant plastic tweezers to pick up different sized colored pom-poms and put them in plastic tubs or jars Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Sensory Material Recipes Many materials for sensory play can be made cheaply and easily with readily available ingredients. Following a recipe and making sensory materials with children can also be a valuable and enjoyable activity. The distinct sensory qualities of these materials support the ATL standards because they engage children for long periods of time in experiences that are satisfying to their senses and promote exploration and experimentation. The following recipes can be used or adapted to make materials that are well known and often used in early childhood classrooms and care settings. Cooked play dough (very similar to the commercial product): 2 cups flour, 2 cups water, 1 cup table salt, 4 teaspoons cream of tartar, 2 tablespoons vegetable oil (or baby oil), and food coloring or scents such as oil of peppermint or vanilla if desired. Mix all ingredients and heat over medium heat, stirring constantly till mixture forms into large ball. Remove from pot, let stand till cool enough to handle, and then knead for several minutes. Oobleck (also known as goop): 1 part cornstarch, 1 part water (and food coloring if desired). When mixed together, the material confounds children because it exhibits properties of both solids and liquids. Silly putty (also known as gak): 1 part liquid laundry starch, 1 part white school glue. Food coloring may be used to tint it. Mix together and knead on a flat surface until it has the texture of silly putty. Colored rice or pasta: 2 cups uncooked white rice or pasta plus 1 tablespoon of rubbing alcohol and food coloring to achieve the desired color intensity. Dissolve food coloring in alcohol and add to pasta, stirring till evenly colored. Let dry. Because the rubbing alcohol takes the place of water, the rice or pasta does not become gummy and the resulting colors are bright and durable. © iStockphoto / Thinkstock Many familiar commercial sensory materials such as modeling dough can easily be made following recipes that closely approximate the commercial products. Moon sand: 4 cups play sand, 2 cups cornstarch, and 1 cup of water or 9 cups sand and 1 ¼ cup baby oil (if colored sand is desired, use powdered tempera added to dry sand for best results). Artificial snow: Ivory Snow powder or flakes and water; mix with rotary or electric beater till light and fluffy. Using brand-name soap achieves the best consistency. Artificial mud: 1 or 2 toilet paper rolls and 2 bars of Ivory Soap plus hot water. Grate soap with a cheese grater; tear toilet paper roll in pieces and soak everything in a bowl of warm water, mixing with hands till it reaches the consistency of mud. Slime (also known as flubber): 1 tablespoon borax powder dissolved in 1 cup water, ¼ cup school glue (clear or white) and ¼ cup water (add food coloring if desired or glow-in-the-dark paint). Pour both mixtures into a sealable plastic bag, seal, and knead. Keep refrigerated when not in use. Source: Recipes for these materials can be obtained from a wide variety of sources. These recipes come courtesy of the N. E. Miles Early Childhood Development Center, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC. (continued) Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 ▶ Stop and Reflect 1. What kind of sensory materials did you enjoy playing with as a child? Why? 2. How might engaging children in making and using one of the above recipes promote the five elements of the ATL standards? Playing with Light Over the past several decades many American early childhood educators have embraced light play as a valuable part of the curriculum. As with the sand/water table, light play delights a child’s visual and tactile senses but also promotes learning in other areas of the curriculum—such as art, science, and mathematics—that are discussed in other sections of this text. The idea of playing with light came from the Reggio Emilia programs in Italy (Fraser & Gestwicki, 2002). Light is intangible, endlessly fascinating to children, and provides opportunities to engage, manipulate, and develop visual memory and perception differently than with more concrete materials such as water, sand, or modeling dough. A child’s visual perception of the world changes or expands when he or she is introduced to the element of transparency that occurs when light shines through an object or when an object is viewed through a colored lens. Conversely, the element of three-dimensionality disappears in the opaque images of shadows, challenging the ways in which children store and remember images of shapes and objects. One only has to observe the facial expressions of a child engaged in activities with light to see their value as an option for play. © Eyecandy Images / Thinkstock As children manipulate translucent and opaque materials on a lighted surface, they learn about color, shadow, and transparency. A light table is a piece of equipment with a translucent horizontal surface lighted from below. Both stand-alone and tabletop versions are available through education supply companies, along with a rapidly expanding commercial selection of translucent learning materials children can use to observe and examine, manipulate, or construct on the lighted surface. These materials include two-dimensional geometric shapes (pattern blocks), magnetic tiles, letters, numbers, color paddles, Lego-style blocks, and three-dimensional shapes of different kinds. An inexpensive homemade light table can be assembled easily by putting a string of rope lights inside a translucent plastic storage tub, cutting a hole for the cord and plug, and using the tight-fitting lid as the table top. As with materials for a sensory table, household items or materials found at local stores are suitable or adaptable for a light table. Using a shallow tray with a clear bottom facilitates the use of granular substances like salt or materials that need cleanup like finger paint with no risk of scratching the surface of the table or having the materials leak into the light chamber. Table 7.2 displays some of these materials and different types of exploratory play in which children might engage with them. Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Table 7.2: Common Materials Suitable for Light Table Play Materials Applications X-ray films; colored or black/white slides; microfiche film; shells; small clear plastic boxes for holding specimens children might collect, such as butterfly wings or leaves Close observation with magnifying glasses to examine images and/or embedded details that are enhanced when lighted from below Salt, flour, gelatin crystals, colored sugar or rice Using hands and fingers for tactile exploration and making impressions/designs, tracings, or drawings in the material Colored cellophane, tissue, glow-in-the-dark festival bracelets Layering and observing color transparency, creating shapes and images Clear plastic tubing cut to different lengths; fill with clear or colored liquids, oils, gels, or glitter, and seal with hot glue Observing movement of liquids, layering and observing how light reveals changes in colors and density Tightly sealed clear heavy-duty zip-locking-style bags filled with colored hair gel, baby food, shaving cream, or “water beads” (expandable beads used in floral arrangements) Tactile exploration by pressing, squishing, and moving material inside the bags. Observing changes in density and transparency Colored pasta, plastic buttons, beads, jewelry, and clear plastic ice cube trays, bowls, or small trays Sorting/matching, moving, arranging, or stacking in different ways to create patterns and shapes Children can play with and explore light in other ways. Taping a white sheet of paper, poster board, or mural paper to a wall in front of a traditional overhead projector allows children to pantomime, create shadows, and make and use stick puppets. They can also enlarge drawings, text, or photographs. Flashlights or strings of holiday lights can be used inside a cardboard box to make a small shadow theater. Children can use colored cellophane and cardboard and tubes to make “sunglasses,” binoculars, kaleidoscopes, or colored viewing filters that alter their visual perception of everyday scenes and objects. Children love to trace their shadows on a sidewalk, observe how a prism hung in a window or oil in a puddle creates the colors of the rainbow, and track the movement of the shadow on a sundial over the course of a day. © iStockphoto / Thinkstock Shadow play with or without props can provide endless hours of fun, creativity, and learning about how light affects the creation of shadows and makes them change. Like sensory play, play and activities with light and shadow support the ATL standards since they can engage children for extended periods of time in open-ended play, provoking curiosity and exploration through introduction to unfamiliar materials and the exploration of familiar materials in unfamiliar ways. Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Blocks and Construction Children’s use of blocks for construction play has been heavily researched and the benefits of such play, particularly as related to later mathematical achievement, are well documented (Shaklee, O’Hara, & Demarest, 2008). As in many other kinds of play, children playing with blocks refine physical coordination, use language to represent thinking, and develop selfesteem, the ability to cooperate, and responsibility through social interactions (Hewitt, 2001). Block play follows a developmental sequence over time as children between birth and age 5 acquire and internalize concepts about space, balance, weight, symmetry, shape, size, number, and operations (Shaklee, O’Hara, & Demarest, 2008). While the developmental stages of block building have been described in many different configurations (Guanella, 1934; Reifel & Greenfield, 1982), Figure 7.2 illustrates block building in six stages as described by Sharon MacDonald in 2001. Figure 7.2: Developmental Stages of Block Building Block-building skills and concepts develop over time in a predictable sequence that requires time, space, and an adequate number and variety of blocks and accessories. Stage 1 Exploring blocks, but not building (e.g., holding, carrying) Stage 2 Stacking or laying out blocks vertically or horizontally, sometimes with multiple or combined stacks or rows Stage 3 Bridging, by setting up 2 blocks vertically and laying another across the top to span the empty space Stage 4 Enclosures and problem solving to figure out how to make blocks meet horizontally before incorporating vertical elements Stage 5 Elaborate structures, incorporating patterns, symmetry, and balance Stage 6 Cooperative building to plan, name, and build— sometimes replicating known structures F07.02_ECE311 Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Block Center There are many different kinds of building blocks and construction materials; the most familiar to early childhood educators are unit (kindergarten) blocks, created by Caroline Pratt in the early 1900s. These and other types of blocks of different sizes, shapes, and materials are incorporated into the block-building area as children are physically able to handle them. The benefit of having various types of blocks is that they provide children with different options for the types of constructions they want to build. Figure 7.3 displays and describes different kinds of blocks children use at different developmental stages. Teachers should also provide accessories and planning tools. As children’s experience with blocks increases, they frequently build structures around play themes such as airports, stores, or mapped layouts of other kinds. Props can include things like: • Small cars or other vehicles • Play people and animals • Flexible tubing or track • Measuring tools • Clipboards, paper, and writing tools for drawing or planning • Miniature traffic signs • Stickers or labels with familiar print, such as store or product logos Figure 7.3: Building Blocks Children benefit from having an assortment of different types of building blocks that complement their behavior and activities at different stages of block building. Block Type/Style Description/Features Stacking blocks Blocks of uniform or graduated size for easy handling, primarily used by younger children in earliest stages of block-building. Soft blocks Building blocks made of soft materials, appropriate for younger children. Cardboard bricks Lightweight blocks usually in cubes or rectangular shape, made of heavy-duty cardboard that resemble bricks. Filled blocks Blocks with see-through centers that come pre-filled or can be filled by teacher as desired. Useful for accents with accomplished builders, or to attract and engage children in block play. Sample (continued) Cardboard bricks Approaches to Learning Standards Lightweight blocks usually in cubes or rectangular and Interest shape, made of Areas for heavy-duty cardboard that resemble bricks. Block Type/Style Description/Features Stacking blocks Filled blocks Blocks of uniform or with see-through graduated for easy centers thatsize come handling, primarily used pre-filled or can be filled by younger children teacher as desired.in earliest stages of with Useful for accents block-building. accomplished builders, or to attract and engage children in block play. Soft Unit blocks Building blocks or made of Made of maple other soft materials, hardwood, butappropriate also for younger children. available in dense foam and softer materials. The standard block measures 5.5” x 2.75” x 1.375”. Other blocks are multiples or fractions of these dimensions. Cardboard Hollow blocks bricks Lightweight blocks usually Larger wooden blocks, in cubes or rectangular scaled similarly to unit shape, of blocks, made that enable heavy-duty cardboard children to build large that resemble structures,bricks. but made with hollow center to facilitate carrying, hoisting, etc. Filled blocks Miniature unit blocks Blocks with see-through Same principle as unit centers thatincome blocks, but much pre-filled or can be filled smaller versions to enable by as desired. useteacher on tabletop or by Useful forchildren accentsnot withable younger accomplished or to yet managebuilders, traditional to attract and engage sets. Available in colored children versions.in block play. Unit Tableblocks blocks – architectural Made of maple or other Small blocks with hardwood, but also distinctive architectural available elements.in dense foam and softer materials. The standard block measures 5.5” x 2.75” x 1.375”. Other blocks are multiples or fractions of these dimensions. Hollow blocks Cardboard boxes Larger wooden blocks, Children can recycle scaled similarly cardboard boxestoofunit all blocks, kinds tothat useenable for children to build large construction activities, structures, made with particularlybut appropriate for hollow to facilitate outdoorcenter construction play. carrying, hoisting, etc. Miniature unit Playground blocks Same principle as unit Heavy-duty weatherproof blocks, but in much plastic blocks that can be smaller to enable used to versions build large or use on tabletop or by extended structures younger outdoors.children not able to yet manage traditional sets. Available in colored versions. Table blocks – architectural Small blocks with distinctive architectural elements. Exploratory Play Sample Chapter 7 Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Teachers can provide inspiration and reference information for children by displaying pictures or posters of buildings and creating a file or notebook with photographs of structures children are familiar with, such as those in the immediate neighborhood or city, as well as those they may not know that have interesting architectural features, such as arches, turrets, bridges, skyscrapers, famous buildings, and airports. Documenting structures that children build by keeping photos of them in a three-ring binder or file-card box is also highly effective, both for tracking their progress over time and “preserving” work to make it less difficult for them when blocks must be put away. Physical considerations for setting up the block center include: • As large a floor area as the room can accommodate, and protected from high traffic • Flat, sound-absorbing floor surface (such as mat or carpet) to provide a stable building surface and keep construction noise from interfering with other classroom activities • Tabletop surface for working with small blocks • Shelving that is adequate to sort and store blocks by size, type, with silhouettes or photos taped to the shelves to show where each kind of block belongs • Containers such as bins or baskets for accessories • A “work-in-progress” sign to preserve structures that are more than one play period or day in the making • Chart with simple picture guidelines for safe and responsible play, such as handing off rather than throwing or tossing blocks • Digital or video camera at the ready for planned or spontaneous documentation of inprogress and finished structures Teachers facilitate block play by: • Understanding the developmental process of block building • Observing and describing what they see children doing • Documenting structures and using them to assist children in planning and problem solving • Engaging the children in conversations about their constructions • Asking open-ended questions that help children think about their processes and problem solving, such as “Can you tell me why you put the ramp there?” rather than questions that produce a yes or no reply, such as “Is this a ramp for cars?” Outdoor Constructions The confines of a classroom space are not an issue when construction materials are moved or provided outside. Most blocks are made of highly durable materials and can be transported and used, even if they can’t be stored, on the playground. Some large, portable blocks are specifically designed for outside use (see Figure 7.3). Materials other than blocks—such as cardboard boxes, packing crates, milk crates, or other everyday materials—can offer children opportunities to apply their understanding of building concepts on a bigger scale. Outdoor constructions have the added benefit of potentially being so large that children can crawl or maneuver inside, around, and on top of them. (Revisit Feature Box 4.1, A Box with Three Lives). Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 Nature Explore, a collaborative project of the Arbor Foundation and Dimensions Educational Research Foundation, provides guidelines and voluntary certification of outdoor habitats for children. Their recommendations include materials for outside construction activities that include: • “Tree cookies” (rounds cut horizontally from tree trunks) • Tree blocks (blocks made from or to resemble parts of tree limbs) • Miniature but real bricks that children use as they do Legos inside • Bamboo, reeds, and tree branches that children use to build enclosures Dramatic Play Research confirms strong connections between pretend or dramatic play and the development of higher-order thinking (Seifert, 2006) and early literacy (Kavanaugh, 2006). Elena Bodrova and Deborah Leong, in particular, have written extensively about the connections between sociodramatic play and executive functioning in conjunction with the Tools of the Mind curriculum (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). It begins with (1) a simple representation of one object to symbolize another (such as a plastic banana for a phone); (2) emerges through the reenactment of daily routines and events that are familiar to children from observing adults, such as cooking, taking care of doll babies, or fixing things; and (3) develops fully as children devise pretend themed scenarios, assign and take on characters/roles, and negotiate conflicts to allow play to continue. © Tree Blocks Both small and large blocks and building materials can easily be incorporated into outdoor constructions. Blocks that resemble tree limbs, for example, are well suited for outdoor use. As dramatic play becomes more complex, all the elements of ATL standards are represented. Let’s look at a sample scenario. Four-year-olds Alyssa, Noah, Niamh, and Miguel are talking about the fiberglass cast on Miguel’s arm, the result of a fall at his home. Alyssa shares what happened when her older brother broke his wrist, and Noah and Niamh ask many questions about Miguel’s experience at the emergency room, remembering when each of them visited, one for stitches in her chin and the other for an illness. Alyssa says, “I know, let’s make a hospital in the dramatic play center and the baby dolls can be our patients.” Miguel counters with, “No, let’s have real patients—I’ll be the doctor, Alyssa can be the x-ray lady, Niamh can be the kid with the broken arm, and Noah can be the daddy.” This idea appeals to the other three children and they begin to assess the equipment and props they might need to set up an emergency room. They ask their teacher for markers and permission to use an empty cardboard box to make an x-ray machine, set up three chairs in a row covered with a scarf to use as the examining table, and find white lab coats in the dressup clothing for Alyssa and Miguel. They are stymied about what to use to make a cast and ask their teacher, who brings out a box of cloth remnants and asks, “Could you do anything with these?” Noah says, “I know, we could cut it up into long strips and wind it around and Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 around.” Alyssa replies, “But it wouldn’t be hard like Miguel’s cast,” and Niahm says, “Well, if we put tape around it, it would be kind of hard. Can we have some tape too?” A clipboard, paper, and pencil complete their prop list and the children commence acting out the arrival of a crying patient; the interactions between doctor, daddy, and patient; and the medical procedures culminating in the successful application of an arm cast and discharge from treatment. The next day, they switch roles, acting out the same scenario again and deciding to invite other children to visit the ER, which extends and expands this play theme over several more days. This play addressed all ATL standards as the children (1) explored their curiosity about this kind of event, (2) applied what they already knew and learned from each other’s experiences through play, (3) displayed initiative and persistence to solve logistical challenges and differences of opinion about the direction of the play, (4) set and achieved a goal, and (5) experienced satisfaction as directors of a play that eventually included other children. The Dramatic Play Area Like construction play, dramatic play at its best is directed by children, open-ended, and closely tied to ideas children have that come from experiences they have had and imagining those they might have or wish they could have. A key to facilitating effective pretend play is to provide many real-world props for children to use, and the more similar they are to the “grownup” versions of these items, the better. Most early childhood settings include a housekeeping area, typically stocked with child-sized furniture, dishes, pots/pans, a small table and chairs, play food, baby dolls, laundry items, dress-up clothing, decorative items such as curtains or a vase with flowers, and other items that might be found in the typical home (cell phone, camera, wall art, etc.). There have been concerns over the years that this type of setup encourages gender stereotyping and a notion that “boys play with blocks, girls play in housekeeping” (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010; Gestwicki, 2011; Trawick-Smith, 1994). This can be addressed by teachers as they select materials that are attractive to all children and of sufficient variety to support their interests without establishing or encouraging predetermined ideas about what boys or girls might prefer as play themes. The dramatic play area is frequently located near blocks, since play in both areas can be noisy and integrated by the transport of items from one area to the other. It should be large enough to accommodate several children and flexible to facilitate moving furniture and supplies around per play theme or focus. Props, Accessories, and Themes To properly facilitate and encourage rich and complex dramatic play, teachers provide materials and accessories or props that children use, just like actors in a play or film, to lend credibility and realism to their language and actions. Artificial props and dress-up clothing for dramatic play may be purchased, but as noted previously, real-life items may be easily acquired and adapted if necessary, with a little help from families, neighbors, and local thrift shops and businesses. Play props should be sorted, organized, and stored in labeled boxes (copy paper cartons work well) or clear plastic storage tubs so they can be rotated in and out of the classroom as needed. A prop box focuses on a single or set of closely related themes. Because storage can be a challenge in some settings, teachers keep a primary collection of prop boxes for themes that are predictably popular with children, such as the grocery store or a restaurant, but are Approaches to Learning Standards and Interest Areas for Exploratory Play Chapter 7 always ready to create temporary collections of props by borrowing items from families or friends when an interest or theme emerges unexpectedly. Teachers should also expect that as play around a theme develops, additional props may be requested or larger items may be needed that aren’t suitable for storage in a box (like a car seat for travel play or folding beach chairs). Teachers anticipate opportunities to involve children in making incidental or unique props when possible. A single theme, such as a bakery, can take many possible directions—one group of children might pretend to be the local cupcake store, wanting pictures of cupcakes with which to create menus, name tags, and signs for the shop; they might also need a basket for deliveries. Another group might not care about cupcakes but would have great interest in designing wedding cakes, which would call for a different set of items to personalize their play. Table 7.3 lists examples of commonly used themes and basic items to support them. Table 7.3: Prop Box Themes and Materials Theme Materials Travel/Recreation Themes Beach or pool Towels, blanket, folding lawn/beach chairs, sunglasses, hats, umbrella, flip-flops, radio, water wings, inflatable raft, small cooler, beach ball, Frisbee, empty sunscreen bottle, buckets/shovels and sand molds, snorkel, lifeguard hat or T-shirt, whistle, first aid kit, bathing suits Fishing, camping, hiking Tent, camp stools, sleeping bag, cooler, fishing pole, bobbers, wading boots, tackle box, scoop or cast net, fishing license; binoculars; canteen or water bottle, compass, flashlight, backpack, small grill, hooded sweatshirts and hiking pants/shorts; hiking boots, knee high socks, utility belt, weather radio Road trip Suitcases, maps, wallet, money, credit cards, postcards, cellphone, camera, lap games, snacks, travel pillow, car seat, binoculars, tickets, pet carrier, sunglasses, travel magazines or information leaflets, such as those for national/state parks or an amusement park Airplane trip Tickets, suit jackets, name badges, security wand, cardboard box for x-ray machine, suitcases, passport, wallet, ID cards, neck pillow, cellphone, magazines, water bottles, travel posters, cart, empty snack and drink containers Retail Themes Grocery store or vegetable stand Empty, cleaned boxes, cans, egg cartons, and other food containers, apron, toy vegetables, bins/baskets, cardstock for signs, shopping cart, cash register, counter space, purses/wallets, coupons, newspaper advertising circulars, grocery bags Frozen yogurt/ ice cream store Small table and chairs, scoops, empty/cleaned ice cream and whipped cream containers, bowls, spoons, confetti for toppings, cash register, play money, apron, paper cones, clipboard/order pad and pencils, paper for signs and wipe-off or chalkboard for “specials” Pizza shop Empty pizza boxes, play money and order pads, phone, aprons, cash register, box or play oven, pizza paddle, cardboard circles and cutouts or play dough for shells, plastic pizza cutter, toppings, paper for signs, wipe-off board Local restaurant Menus from local establishments, paper for signs and wipe-off board for daily specials, table and tablecloth, table setting items, waiter/waitress tray, order pad, uniform or apron, chef hat, area for cooking, play food (continued) Creative Arts Standards Theme Chapter 7 Materials Retail Themes (continued) Salon/spa Combs, brushes, wall and hand mirror, rollers and hair pins, spray bottles, appointment book, chair, magazines and pictures of hair models, plastic cape, nonworking dryer and curling iron, empty shampoo and hair product bottles, towels, basin, empty nail polish bottles Bookstore/ library Books, magazines, old keyboard, cozy chairs or beanbags, library cards, wallet, credit cards, play money, boxes for book cases, cash register, “Sh-h-h” sign, reading glasses, paper coffee cups Medical Hospital Sheets, pillow, stethoscope, masks, scrubs, white coat, booties, first aid items, flashlight, latex gloves, thermometer, x-ray films, crutches, empty medicine containers, Rx pad Veterinarian White coat, stuffed animals or puppets, gloves, first aid items, stethoscope, pet carrier, leash, play money, paper and pencils, exam table, magazines about animals, splint and gauze, eye patch, paper ear cone Miscellaneous Repair shop Tool box, tools, safety glasses, broken/nonusable items such as CD player, camera, alarm clock, watches, small appliances, name tags, order pad, workbench, plastic bins and miscellaneous hardware parts, PVC, measuring tape, level, work shirt Office File folders, desk organizers, paper, markers, pens, ruler, old keyboard and/or printer, phone, paper clips, stapler, briefcase or rolling suitcase, box to make copy machine, eyeglasses, desk nameplate, photo frames, table/chairs, books, office catalogs, empty water cooler bottle and paper cups To effectively facilitate sociodramatic and pretend play, teachers must keep in mind that their goal is to balance children’s opportunities to direct their own activity with appropriate intervention or participation when needed to extend and develop play themes. Children may stop playing simply because they get “stuck” and not necessarily because they have played out an idea to their satisfaction. They may need additional props, more information about a topic, or assistance with solving an interpersonal or logistical problem. 7.3 Creative Arts Standards Creativity—considered from a broad frame of reference about how children approach, interpret, and process information—is an integral element of ATL standards (Kagan, 2003). “The creative arts are our universal language—the language of our imagination, of musicians and dancers, of painters and sculptors, storytellers and poets” (Edwards, 2009, p. iv). Early childhood curricula are also informed by 1994 national standards for the arts used in grades K–12, which can be found at the Kennedy Center Arts Edge website. New national standards for arts education—including dance, media arts, music, theater, and visual arts—were released by the National Coalition for Core Arts Standards (NCCAS) in October, 2012 (Wilkerson, 2011). The development of the new standards represents input from eight different national organizations representing different areas of the arts. The inclusion of media arts, in addition to the existing four subdisciplines in the 2012 arts standards, is explained by the NCCAS thus: Visual Arts Chapter 7 Growing interest and use of technology in classroom instruction has gained even more momentum as a wide spectrum of creative activity in media arts has taken the education scene by storm. While general instructional technology continues at all levels of public education, there are increasingly new and vigorous experiences in media arts that include cinema, animation, sound imaging design, virtual design, interactive design, as well as multimedia and intermedia. (NCCAS, April 6, 2012) The framework for the new standards indicates that they continue to emphasize four predominant themes from the 1994 standards: 1. Active creative involvement and personal expression through the various dimensions of the arts 2. Performing and sharing personal work with others 3. Responding to the works of others in modern and historical context 4. Making connections between the arts disciplines (NCCAS, 2012) The intent of the standards is comprehensive, integrated involvement of children as creators, performers, and consumers of the arts, and there are many ways in which early educators can plan and implement curricula to do so. An arts-infused approach to curriculum in early childhood settings blends the goals of both early learning standards and national arts standards. It fosters creative expression through exploratory play and intentional exposure to and experiences with the arts supported by the national arts standards (Edwards, 2009; Narey, 2009). The final two sections of this chapter focus on materials, strategies, activities, and interactive media for the visual arts, and music, creative movement, and drama. 7.4 Visual Arts The visual arts provide opportunities for children to use materials they know to engage in experiences and also create products that encourage expression and imagination. In the 100 Languages of Children, from Reggio Emilia, arts media are considered a primary means for expressing thoughts, feelings, and cognitive understandings (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998). In early childhood classrooms, the art center is usually a hub of activity, fostering delight and satisfaction, invention, imagination, and problem solving. Early childhood educators provide materials and experiences that encourage original rather than programmed or expected outcomes. The processes of engagement with visual arts media are worthwhile and satisfying in and of themselves (Edwards, 2009). When young children produce works of art, they should be encouraged to use their own creativity and imagination in ways that are meaningful to them. They should not be asked or encouraged to reproduce patterns found in adult models, use precut materials (such as parts of a face and body to construct a bunny), or be directed specifically through a series of steps that result in identical products. This type of product is neither developmentally appropriate nor creative (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Edwards, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011). Teachers can and should, however: • Encourage children to explore the properties and possibilities of different kinds of media • Demonstrate techniques for using tools and materials Visual Arts Chapter 7 • Provide inspiration with books, magazines, and print examples of realistic and abstract art that appeal to children, and photos of animals, birds, people, boats, and landscapes The Art Center Artists work in different media, including drawing, painting, print making, sculpture, collage, fabrics/fibers, and so on, choosing materials according to their intentions or ideas or what is available. With proper supervision and safety precautions, even the youngest toddlers can use a variety of materials. Table 7.4 lists a broad range of supplies for different media areas and representative applications for the kinds of skills and processes they support through open-ended exploration. Note: All art activities support to varying degrees the development of fine motor (drawing, cutting, etc.) and gross motor (easel painting, rolling out dough, etc.) skills, which are discussed in further detail in Chapter 8; the focus in this chapter is the creative enterprise. Table 7.4: Art Center Materials Media Materials Applications Drawing Pencils, crayons, markers, colored pencils, chalk/pastels, erasers, rulers, different kinds and sizes of papers to draw on (drawing paper, sandpaper, construction paper, mural paper). Exploring line quality, using tools in different ways (such as the side of a chalk as well as its point), and creating forms and shapes, with different effects. (Crayons are available in “chubby” or “block” versions for easy handling by toddlers.) Print making Rollers, water-based ink, tempera, or finger paint; Styrofoam trays, heavy string or yarn, glue, sponges, wooden spoons; papers (see above). Transferring an image from one surface to another (such as pressing a piece of paper onto an image made on another); using a tool or template to make multiple repeated images in different ways (such as using sponges or stamps to make a picture). Collage A variety of papers for cutting/tearing, such as tissue, construction paper; magazines, scissors (for children old enough to handle them); glue sticks, tape, stickers, fabric scraps, yarn, any small objects or materials that can be glued onto a flat surface, such as buttons, leaves, sequins, glitter, feathers, etc.; papers including cardboard or posterboard; staplers, hole punchers, scissors. Layering or using the kinds of materials listed to create an image design, or objects such as paper bag puppets. Modeling Play dough, modeling clay, air-dry or ceramic clay (requires firing); implements such as rolling pins, scrapers, tongue depressors, small mallets, or textured dough tools. Rolling, cutting, and making impressions in modeling materials to construct three-­ dimensional forms or objects that might also be decorated with paints or glazes. Painting Finger and tempera paint, watercolors, paint cups, brushes, sponges, Q-tips, easel/clips and paper of different kinds/sizes, including easel paper, poster paper, construction paper, finger-paint paper. Exploring color and the qualities of different kinds of paints with hands, fingers, or tools to create abstract or realistic figures, lines, and forms. (continued) Visual Arts Chapter 7 Media Materials Applications Sculpture Small boxes, wood scraps, wire, pipe cleaners, straws, toothpicks, thread spools, etc. Taping, gluing, or using other means of attaching materials together to make freestanding or relief creations. Fabric/fibers Yarn, string, twine, fabric scraps, strips or loops, felt, cotton or batting, tapestry needles (for older children), simple looms, socks. Fabrics can be used for collage and, as children acquire the skill to do so, simple weaving or sewing projects. For cleanup, the art center should be located as close to a water source and sink as possible. The center should have a table surface big enough to accommodate several children’s supplies. The art area should have at least one easel, as children like to stand while working, and the eye-level perspective afforded by an easel allows them to stand back and look at their work as it emerges. Some provision is also needed to store wet products as they dry, such as a drying rack made for that purpose to keep work horizontal or a clothesline (caution: may drip, affecting the appearance of the original image). When needed, children should be provided with smocks to protect their clothing. These can be purchased or modified from adult-sized shirts to adjust the arm length and body girth. Most “messy” materials, such as paints and markers, can and should be purchased in washable versions, and paint cups and stubby brushes are available with caps that minimize spillage and the slopping of paint from one container to another. Paints, papers, crayons, markers, modeling clay, and colored pencils are also available in multicultural colors that represent a variety of skin tones. The art center should be organized and labeled with picture or symbol labels such as those described for other interest areas. This allows for easy and independent access to and replacement of materials. Teachers must show children how to use materials and tools responsibly. For example paintbrushes should be stored with the handles down, and caps should be replaced on markers when children are finished using them. Many teachers use a block of wood with holes drilled out to hold markers upright and racks for storing scissors with the blade-side down. These make it easy for children to use the items and then put them away. General Strategies The general strategies listed in Table 7.5 are organized according to the four themes in the national arts standards, but they are developmentally appropriate for young children of any age. These practices encourage open-ended exploration and creative expression in the art center and ways to promote exposure to the visual arts through environmental planning and informal activities with children. Visual Arts-Based Themes and Studies Visual arts-based activities, thematic units or emergent investigations might focus on an artist, style, or medium and also provide a natural means for integrating different dimensions of the curriculum. One of the richest sources of inspiration for teachers is children’s picture books, since children are naturally drawn to the illustrations. Teachers can refer to winners of the Caldecott Medal, an award established in 1938, in particular for examples of children’s books with exceptional artwork. Visual Arts Chapter 7 Table 7.5: Visual Art Standards Themes and Corresponding Strategies Theme Strategies Creative involvement and expression • Rotate materials in the art center so that children are exposed to a variety of media, techniques, and processes. • Involve children in conversation about materials—for example, talking about how drawing with chalk produces results that are different from drawing with markers, or what happens if the side of a crayon is used rather than the point. • Include a florist as one of the classroom jobs; keep a selection of real or artificial flowers and greenery and a variety of interesting items on hand. • Create a file box with interesting pictures, photographs, and postcards that children can use for reference and that include images contributed by children and their families. • Display interesting items in the art area with a variety of shapes, textures, and colors. • Take “drawing walks” with clipboards and encourage children to draw what they see. (Always take clipboards/paper on field trips!) • Collect interesting natural items such as leaves, flowers, and seashells for collages. • Press flowers and leaves between sheets of waxed paper. Performing and sharing • Ask children to describe what they are working on and transcribe their comments on the back or create a label with their words for three-dimensional work. • Ask about art children might see at home—on the wall or collected by their parents. • Make blank books with different topics such as animals, flowers, and birds and encourage children to contribute pages. • Regularly display children’s artwork in the classroom and hallways with labels that represent how the children describe their work. • Be on the lookout for picture frames at garage sales and use them for displays, so that children understand that their work is important. • Periodically involve the children in creating a mural or group sculpture that will promote group discussion and decision making. Responding to the work of others • Look at artwork during group times and ask children to describe it, noting differences in the responses they provide. • Display original art or reproductions representative of the cultures of the children in the group and artists from the local region. • Invite a local artist to visit the classroom. • Visit an art museum, local gallery, or community festival where art will be on display. • Look at pictures of art from earlier periods in history. • Provide books and display examples of art from different cultures. • Display a piece of artwork with a poster (or sticky note for each child) that includes each child’s comments about it. Making connections with other areas of the arts and curriculum • Periodically, use opportunities to create artwork for a particular purpose, such as a school event, greeting cards, or “get well” cards. • Go on a walk and point out different ways art is displayed in the environment, such as murals, signs or advertising posters, artwork in an office, or a sculpture in a park. • Include examples of art in other interest areas, such as botanical prints in the science area, framed book jacket covers or posters in the book corner, an art print from the cubist period in the math center, etc. • Display examples of artworks that serve different purposes, such as a calendar, framed decorative print, wallpaper, printed fabrics, or CD covers. • Play music while children are engaged in the art center or encourage them to respond to music with different kinds of media. • Involve children in making props or backdrops for the dramatic play center or childcreated skits or plays. Visual Arts Chapter 7 For example, Eric Carle (and many other picture-book illustrators) works in a distinctive collage style that is easily recognizable to children and inviting for exploration. A teacher we visited with earlier in this book, Ms. Mary, engaged preschool children in reproducing the “Eric Carle effect.” She set up a “finger-painting factory” in the art center, and for several days the children filled 18- by 24-inch sheets of glossy finger-paint paper with every color of finger paint they could possibly manufacture by mixing and combining colors on the paper and using different kinds of tools—such as brushes, scrapers, and combs—to create textural effects. She then cut the dried papers into smaller 6- by 8-inch sheets and the children used them to create a massive “collage file,” sorting and organizing the papers according to the color spectrum (a wonderful activity for visual discrimination as well). This supply of “Eric Carle paper” was used in dozens of ways over time, from reproducing collage illustrations inspired by the characters in Carle’s books to building a rain forest in the school’s hallway, using the papers for tree trunks, leaves, exotic birds and flowers. The appendix to this book includes a selected list of author/illustrators with distinctive styles that could be used to inspire activities for exploring media. The topics/subjects of picture books are also easy to connect with science, literacy, or math activities. An extensive online resource for preservice and practicing teachers who want to use picture books to design planned explorations around a theme is the Miami University searchable database of picture books, which provides a short annotated summary of each. Interactive Media In recent years, many forms of technology that teachers can use to support visual arts activities have become increasingly available. Teachers can use these tools with discretion to introduce and involve children in experiences with visual arts (NAEYC, 2012). Note that, particularly with children, the use of any technology should enhance and expand rather than replace experiences with authentic media and concrete materials. Here are some examples of technologies that can be used to support arts activities: • The Internet can provide vicarious and sometimes interactive access to art images that teachers can use to share information about artists and examples of different kinds of artwork with children. Images can be printed for display or used in collages and displays. • Hardware such as computers or handheld devices with touch screens, whiteboards, and drawing tablets can also be used with young children to create and generate digital artwork. • Digital photography—still and video cameras are available in kid-friendly models that children can safely use with assistance to capture, print, and share images and video. Some young children can also manage video-editing software. • Software and applications made for children to use, such as KidPix, first introduced in 1989, which provides children with digital drawing and painting tools for free-form creations and the embedding of clip-art, 3D backgrounds, and animation. • Software and applications teachers can use to create digital stories with embedded images of children’s artwork and audio narration, such as Microsoft PhotoStory, Apple iMovie, or Voicethread. Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Chapter 7 7.5 Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Music, creative movement or dance activities, and experiences with drama provide natural support for both physical development and aesthetic awareness while simultaneously fostering critical thinking and problem solving through mind-body connections. (Marigliano & Russo, 2011) Listening to music, whether to classical works like Rimsky-Korsakoff’s The Flight of the Bumblebee or folk tunes like She’ll be Coming Round the Mountain, produces a range of emotional responses. Creative music and movement activities require the child to make perceptual/motor connections in order to move, balance, and develop awareness of space, time, and rhythm (Hendrick & Weissman, 2007). Extending children’s love of dramatic play to creating or acting out stories provides them with confidence and opportunities for personal expression and communication (Edwards, 2009). Attending musical, dance, or theatrical performances gives children the chance to enjoy and respond to the ways others interpret these artistic disciplines. Creative activities that promote the expression of ideas and feelings are preferable for young children over teaching them prescribed dances, steps, or memorizing/rehearsing lines to perform a scripted play (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Hendrick & Weissman, 2007). Materials for Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Space should be provided in the classroom as well as outdoors for music, movement, and drama activities. A music center in the classroom should provide storage and display space for instruments, rotated regularly to give children the opportunity to focus on the distinct features of different types. Taking musical instruments outdoors eliminates the element of noise, which can be distracting or may interfere with conversation levels indoors. A listening center, set up at a small table or in a cozy area with pillows on the floor, supports exposure to music with CD/MP3 player and a multiple-jack outlet for one or more sets of headphones. Musical selections can include those that children particularly like as well as new music from different genres. An open floor space, especially one with a large wall mirror, affords children the ability to see themselves move. If the classroom is not large enough to accommodate this, outdoor space can be used or designated for creative movement activities. In addition to the dramatic play center, provision can be made for a puppet theater, purchased or made with children from a cardboard box. Children also love creating spontaneous “sets” outdoors, with sheets, sheer fabric, large boxes, or a platform constructed from wooden planks, blocks, or bricks. Additional materials are described below for music, movement, and drama. Materials for music activities include rhythm instruments, basic pitched instruments, and other items such as media players, audio recorders, and accompanying instruments like a piano or autoharp (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2010). Rhythm instruments are those that can be struck—like sticks, triangles, gongs and cymbals—or shaken—such as maracas, tambourines, or rain sticks. Drums are readily available in a variety of shapes, sizes, forms, and cultural origins (see Figure 7.6). Pitched instruments produce a note or notes when struck, such as a xylophone or tonal bells, or blown, like a kazoo, harmonica, or recorder. Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Chapter 7 Figure 7.4: World Music A music curriculum should include experiences with instruments and music that represent cultural diversity and an appreciation for music from around the world. These examples include (from left to right and top to bottom) Native American rain sticks, marimbas, an African talking drum, a gathering drum, a Latin steel drum, a cabaca rasp, a thumb piano, a monkey drum, and a world music CD. World Music Materials for creative movement may include hoops, scarves, fans, and streamers. A prop box with dance costumes as well as ballet and tap shoes—easily procured from thrift stores—can also inspire impromptu dancing and creative dramatics. Props for dramatic activities will include masks, glasses, costumes, and other items already on hand to support the dramatic play center as well as others specifically obtained or made to Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Chapter 7 enact a particular idea or story. Hats of all kinds are wonderful and beloved by children but may not be permitted in some programs owing to the risk of transferring head lice, while they are used in others with precautions and regular disinfecting. Similarly, teachers may need to introduce items such as masks and costumes carefully with very young children, who might have fears related to animals or characters. Handheld and full-length mirrors can be very helpful for both movement and drama. Hand and finger puppets of many different kinds can be kept in the dramatic play center or rotated into the classroom for use with particular stories, poems, or songs. Children can also make stick and sock puppets and set up the type of pantomime/shadow theater described in the earlier chapter section about light play. General Strategies: Routines and Transitions Routines such as an opening/greeting circle and transitions that take place in changing from one space or activity to another provide opportunities for music, movement, and dramatic activities. For example, the opening routine could include short games such as inviting children to take turns naming a movement that starts with the first letter of a child’s name, like “jump with John” or “step high with Sally.” Some teachers do a series of “good-morning yoga” poses that emphasize stretching, bending, and breathing (Orlowski & Hart, 2010). Children can pantomime the weather report for the day or do favorite finger plays/poems that include body movements and creative expression, such as “Going on a Bear Hunt.” There are many online websites that offer downloadable children’s exercise music for purchase and some for free, including Songs for Teaching, Free Songs for Kids, and The Teacher’s Guide. Daily transitions include cleanup time, getting ready to go outside, preparing for meals, and bathroom or water breaks. Margie LaBella, an experienced music therapist, offers these simple songs on the previously mentioned Songs for Teaching website, that announce cleanup time and the end of circle time: Cleanup Time (Tune: Miss Lucy had a baby, she named him tiny Tim . . . ) It’s cleanup time everybody. It’s cleanup time right now. If I help you and you help me, Then we’ll get ready for __________. Circle Time Is Almost Done! (Tune: Buffalo girls, won’t you come out tonight . . . ) Circle time is almost done, Almost done, almost done. Circle time is almost done, Then we’re going to __________. When children have to stand in line, teachers can play simple games with them such as: • Playing “snake,” passing a ball or beanbag down the line, all using a similar motion like over the head, or under a knee, with the last child in line moving to the front to start again. • Moving within their personal space as the teacher or another child calls out “hop like a frog,” or “swing your arms like an elephant trunk.” Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Chapter 7 • Standing back to back and being instructed to move in sync up, down, and bending to the side. • “Scramble,” reordering the line by height, clothing color, birthday. • “Telephone,” but instead of whispering to start the chain, doing a movement that each child copies down the line. • Balancing on toes up and down. • Tapping knees, “chopping wood,” or doing karate chops to the side, keeping time to a favorite song. • Doing “the wave.” • Taking a pose and then switch to another, such as standing like a soldier and then a rag doll. • Playing “Simon says” with movements. • Doing the “balloon release,” or breathing in and out as if blowing up a balloon. • Doing a “spider massage” on the back of the next child (Feldman, 2012). Music, Creative Movement, and Dramatic Activities Planned music and creative movement activities should emphasize enjoyment and participation without competition; it should be used to enrich children’s exposure to diverse musical and performance traditions. For instance, at the program directed by the author, parents most recently demonstrated and engaged children in traditional scarf dancing (from China and Russia), step dancing with ribbons (from Ireland), and belly dancing with bells (from Iran); these became favorite activities for months afterward. Participating and Performing In choosing music for singing and creative movement, you should consider the children’s interests, vocal range, and language ability, including songs children may want to share from home. Nursery rhymes, simple folk songs, patriotic songs, and ballads are typically easy to learn if broken down into manageable sections or phrasing. You should make sure you have practiced and know a song before teaching it, so that you can devote your entire attention to the children without having to look at a book or sheet music. If you have the music on a CD, you may want to play it several times so that the children can clearly understand the words and know what they mean. It is best to focus on one song at a time until children are very familiar and comfortable singing it rather than trying to teach several songs at once (Edwards, 2012). Music selections for creative movement can include songs with words that children are already familiar with or instrumental music, encouraging focus on the melody, tonal qualities, and rhythms. Children don’t need much direction and should never be forced to participate, but they can certainly be encouraged with prompts or suggestions. Dramatic performances often occur spontaneously, arising from activities in the dramatic play center that children may want to share with others in the group, informally with role playing during story time, or as a means to demonstrate such things as how to invite a friend to play or solve a problem. Teachers can also facilitate more formal performances if they are careful to maintain a developmentally appropriate approach. For instance, the 4- and 5-year-old children in Ms. Mary and Ms. Jane’s class, after reading several versions of the traditional folk Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Chapter 7 tale “Stone Soup,” decided that they wanted to host a soup luncheon and dramatic performance of the story for their parents. Rather than assign parts and scripted lines, the teachers acted as narrators, with the children acting out the steps of the story in small groups. They knew the story so well that when they were performing for their parents, they spontaneously, in choral fashion, echoed some of the narration as their teacher read the story. © Banana Stock / Thinkstock Singing, playing instruments, and creative movement engage children from the very early stages of development. Responding Responding to music can be a part of the classroom in many ways. Some teachers like to play classical music, world music, or soothing lullabies during rest time to help children settle. Background music can certainly be appropriate during different times of the day as well. You might notice children in the art center quietly humming along to music or painting in time to a particular rhythm, or children in the dramatic play center using scarves to make costumes for a “fairy dance.” Free movement activities encourage discovery and release (Eliason & Jenkins, 2008); children enjoy acting out imaginary sequences such as a chick hatching from an egg, a thunderstorm, or popcorn popping. Certainly inviting performers (especially from your parent/family community) to your classroom or program and taking children out to cultural events should be a priority to the extent that is logistically and economically possible. Fortunately many communities recognize the value of these experiences and are increasingly providing free or low-cost opportunities to make them happen. For example, in the author’s community, programs for young children are available at little or no cost (less than $5); they include cultural events such as: • Children’s theater productions • Storytellers • Cultural/ethnic festivals • Concerts • Ballet and culturally diverse dance troupes • Puppet theater You can talk with children about music and creative movement or dramatic performances in much the same way you would discuss visual arts. They will develop musical preferences and respond to activities with a range of ideas and opinions. Questions and discussions encour- Music, Creative Movement, and Drama Chapter 7 age children to use language to analyze and interpret (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2010). Increasingly abstract levels of questioning include the following: • Memory—recalling details or features of a selection or performance • Closed questions (e.g., Was the music fast or slow? Which character in Peter and the Wolf was represented by the oboe?) • Open-ended questions (e.g., What do you think the dancers were thinking about in the very fast part of the music?) • Evaluative (Why did you say you felt frightened by the loud part of the music?) Understanding and Integrating Concepts Activities and games with music and movement help children learn vocabulary and concepts such as rhythm/beat, tempo, personal space, direction, melody, and harmony. The vocabulary of drama includes terms such as script, role, director, and scene that children learn and apply not just to dramatic play but also to stories and literacy activities. Magliano and Russo (2011) suggest a word bank, writing words that name body parts, different movements (twist, bend, reach, etc.), dance elements (space, pathway, level), and using terminology to describe what children are doing (e.g., “I see you slithering backward and forward like a snake”). Similarly, a display of diagrams can prompt children and help them to remember motions and concepts. Games like “paper plate twist”—giving each child two paper plates on which to put their feet and moving to Chubby Checker’s “Peppermint Twist”—reinforce rhythm, balance, spatial orientation, and bilateral movement. Likewise, the teacher can use a song like “Dueling Banjos” to perform a movement for each musical phrase, which the children can then echo/copy for the next phrase (Flynn, 2012). Keeping time comes more naturally to some children than others, and teachers can try using different parts of the body to tap, nod, or clap the children’s names, animal names, or simple rhymes to help them develop awareness of rhythm and musical patterns. Identification games or making up new words to a familiar tune can also focus on a particular element such as melody or rhythm (“name that tune”; I’m thinking of a song . . . feel the beat and identify; sing your name). Interactive Media As with visual arts, the Internet provides almost unlimited access to information, interactive experiences with the performing arts, and prerecorded or live performances if they are not readily available in the community. Audio devices such as MP3 players enable teachers to develop a rich and varied library of music, video, and podcasts. Particularly useful are sites such as: • YouTube (for a variety of musical videos and clips) • Virtual Keyboard (interactive and instructional piano as well as all sections of orchestral instruments) • Button Beats (interactive and instructional guitar) • Button Beats (xylophone) • Arts Alive (interactive music, dance, and theater) • iTunes (music, TV performances, movies, podcasts) Posttest Chapter 7 Chapter Summary • Early learning standards emphasize development in ATL, physical well-being, socialemotional, language, and cognitive development. • Academic standards for K–2 children are included in K–12 standards for each subject area of the curriculum and focus on knowledge and skills related to the content of each. • ATL standards focus on the development of executive functioning and promote such dispositions as curiosity, engagement, persistence, and problem solving through play. • In the early childhood environment, interest areas such as sensory play, construction, and dramatic play promote ATL through open-ended exploration with a variety of materials. • The 2012 National standards for the arts represent a collaborative effort to actively engage and expose students to cultural experiences and activities across the disciplines of art, music, dance, and drama, and media arts. • An arts-infused curriculum approach provides early educators with opportunities to support both open-ended exploration and intentional experiences with all dimensions of the creative/performing arts. • Activities with the visual arts that emphasize experiences with many media, creative expression, and exposure to art and artists also provide an integrated introduction to the visual arts standards for K–2. • Using high-quality children’s picture books can provide teachers with many ideas for arts experiences and connecting to other areas of the curriculum. • Materials and experiences with music, movement/dance, and drama enable and foster mind/body/aesthetic connections in many ways. • Music, movement/dance, and drama experiences can be integrated seamlessly into daily activities and routines as well as being provided through intentional activities and exposure to the performing arts. • An increasing array of technological resources provide access to informational and interactive arts experiences. Posttest 1. Early learning standards focus on development of: a. Concepts and skills in the academic subject areas. b. Obedience and rote learning. c. Preparation for kindergarten readiness tests. d. Development across all major domains. 2. Academic standards identify and describe: a. Knowledge and skills needed for mastery of content in the subject areas. b. How teachers should teach each subject. c. Curriculum that should be used to meet the standards. d. How learning should be assessed and evaluated. Posttest Chapter 7 3. ATL Standards include five elements including all of the following except: a. Curiosity, eagerness, and satisfaction as a learner. b. Learning primarily through direct instruction. c. Initiative, engagement, and persistence. d. Setting and achieving goals. 4. Sensory, construction, and dramatic play support ATL standards because: a. The standards specifically require these areas in every early childhood setting. b. Infants and toddlers can’t learn how to learn unless these areas are included. c. These areas promote engagement, persistence, curiosity, and problem solving. d. Children learn all the skills needed for academic success through these activities. 5. The framework for 2012 National Standards for the Arts: a. Prescribes specific programs schools should put in place to develop aesthetic awareness. b. Indicates that media arts will be included as a new component of the standards. c. Promotes support for the eight organizations that contributed to their development. d. Indicates that the 2012 standards significantly depart from the priorities of the 1994 standards. 6. Early childhood educators use an arts-infused approach to curriculum when they: a. Plan and schedule art, music, movement, and drama lessons daily. b. Provide both open-ended and planned activities for creative expression and exposure to the various arts. c. Encourage parents to sign their children up for art, dance, and music lessons. d. Schedule monthly field trips to arts-based destinations and activities. 7. Guidelines for setting up an art center include: a. Distributing materials as children need them, so that they are not wasted or used improperly. b. Limiting access to messy materials, since young children aren’t ready to handle them. c. Labeling shelves and storage containers with picture/symbols so children can take out and put away materials themselves. d.eProviding materials for one medium at a time, so that children develop expertise with each one before learning about another. 8. Planned activities with the visual arts are developmentally appropriate if: a. Children are given specific instructions about how to complete a project so that the goals of an activity that has been planned to address a standard are met. b. Children receive no instruction about how to use materials so that their creativity is not compromised. c. Instruction about how to use materials, media, and tools is balanced with encouragement for children to explore their use in creative and imaginative ways. d. Activities are balanced to make sure that they integrate all areas of the curriculum. Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest Chapter 7 9. Music, creative movement, and drama activities and experiences: a. Shouldn’t be integrated into daily routines and transitions because those kinds of activities would not represent authentic arts experiences. b. Should be integrated into daily routines and transitions as the primary means for an integrated approach. c. Shouldn’t be integrated into daily routines and transitions because children don’t have the opportunity for creative expression. d. Can be integrated into daily routines and transitions as one means of engaging children in enjoyable activities with songs, movements, and drama. 10. Technologies that provide access to interactive or informational resources related to the arts: a. Can be used effectively to provide children with vicarious arts experiences as long as developmental considerations are observed. b. Are not yet well enough developed to be accessible to young children. c. Should not be used until all early childhood programs have the resources to implement technology in the classrooms. d. Can be used effectively only if children are allowed to use them independently. Answers: 1 (d); 2 (a); 3 (b); 4 (c); 5 (b); 6 (b); 7 (c); 8 (c); 9 (d); 10 (a) Discussion Questions 1. How might you explain to parents the value of a play-based approach to the early learning standards? 2. How do your own experiences with the arts affect preferences you might have for particular kinds of activities? 3. What challenges do you face as you consider the increasing role of technology in early education? Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest 1. False. Early learning standards are written from a developmental perspective; academic standards focus on skills and knowledge that emphasize learning the content of each subject area. 2. True. A primary focus of the ATL standards is the development of higher-order thinking. 3. True. An arts-infused approach to curriculum for young children emphasizes both openended play and experiences with the four themes of the national arts standards. 4. False. Visual arts activities and experiences should promote creativity and imagination rather than preprogrammed products. 5. False. Performing arts activities and experiences should also emphasize creative expression. References Chapter 7 Key Terms Approaches to Learning (ATL) standards Component of state early learning standards that focuses on executive functioning and the ways children learn and develop through play, exploration, and inquiry Arts-infused An approach to curriculum that integrates experiences with the arts Light table Piece of equipment specifically designed with a translucent surface lighted from below Media various materials and processes artists use for different effects and purposes Picture book Distinct genre of books incorporating extensive use of illustrations as an important storytelling feature Problem solving Weighing multiple possible solutions to devise a strategy for resolving an issue or challenge Prop box Set of props related to a single theme Props Items used as accessories for play Reasoning Applying understanding of cause-and-effect relationships; the application of logic to decision making Self-talk Internal dialogue, or “talking to oneself” Unit (kindergarten) blocks Wooden blocks of specific proportions children use for building structures References Berk, L. E. (2001). Private speech and self-regulation in children with impulse-control difficulties: Implications for research and practice. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 2(1), 1–21. Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Copple, C., & Bredekamp, C. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O. (2010). Anti-bias education for young children and ourselves. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Edwards, L. C. (2009). The creative arts: A process approach for teachers and children (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.) (1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach advanced reflections. Westport, CT: Ablex. Flynn, S. (June 21, 2012). Brain boosters! Fun and easy movement activities to enhance cognition in young children. Presentation at 2012 College of Charleston Early Childhood Summit, Charleston, SC., June 20–22, 2012. References Chapter 7 Fraser, S. & Gestwicki, C. (2002). Authentic childhood: Exploring Reggio Emilia in the classroom (2nd ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Publishing. Gestwicki, C. (2011). Developmentally appropriate practice: Curriculum and development in early childhood education (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Guanella, F. M. (1934). Block building activities of young children. Archives of Psychology, 174, 1–192. Hendrick, J., & Weissman, P. (2007). Total learning: Developmental curriculum for the young child (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Hewitt, K. (January 2001). Blocks as a tool for learning: Historical and contemporary perspectives. Young Children, 6–12. Kagan, S. L. (September 2003). Young children and creativity: Lessons from the National Education Goals Panel. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Kagan, S. L., Moore, E., Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (1995). Reconsidering children’s early development and learning: Toward common views and vocabulary. Washington, DC: National Education Goals Panel, U.S. Government Printing Office. Kauerz, K. (2006). K–2 Standards and assessments: A 50-state review. New York: Pew Charitable Trust. Kavanaugh, R. D. (2006). Pretend play. In E. B. Spodek & O. N. Saracho (Eds.), Handbook of research on the education of young children (2nd ed., pp. 269–278). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Kostelnik, M. J., Soderman, A. K., & Whiren, A. P. (2010). Developmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices in early childhood education (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. MacDonald, S. (2001). Block play: A complete guide to learning and playing with blocks. Lewisville, NC: Gryphon House. Marigliano, M. L., & Russo, M. J. (September 2011). Moving bodies, building minds: Foster preschoolers’ critical thinking and problem solving through movement. Young Children, 66(5), 44–49. McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Wanless, S. B., & Murray, A. (2007). Executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and social-emotional comptetence. In O. S. Spodek, Contemporary perspectives on social learning in early childhood education (pp. 83–107). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Narey, M. (Ed.). (2009). Making meaning: Constructing multi-modal perspectives of language, literacy, and learning through arts-based early childhood education. New York: Springer. National Association for the Education of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at Saint Vincent College. (2012). Technology and interactive media as tools in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: Author. National Coalition for Core Arts Standards. (April 6, 2012). Media Arts: frequently asked questions. Press release. NCCAS. Retrieved from: http://nccas.wikispaces.com/file/view/ Media+Arts+FAQ-+Final.pdf. References Chapter 7 National Council for the Social Studies. (2002). National standards for social studies teachers (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Author. National Institute for Early Education Research (May 31, 2012). 2010 NIEER state preschool yearbook. Retrieved from NIEER: http://nieer.org/sites/nieer/files/yearbook.pdf#page=188. Orlowski, M. A., & Hart, A. (September 2010). Go! Including movement during routines and transitions. Young Children, 65(5), 88–93. Peterson, S., Jones, L., & McGinley, K. A. (2008). Early learning guidelines for infants and toddlers: Recommendations to states. Washington, DC: Zero to Three. Reifel, S., & Greenfield, P. M. (1982). Structural development in a symbolic medium: The representational use of block constructions. G. Forman (Ed.). Action and thought: From sensorimotor schemes to symbolic operations (pp. 203–233). New York: Academic Press. Rushton, S. (2011). Neuroscience, early childhood education and play: We are doing it right! Early Childhood Education Journal, 39, 89–94. Scott-Little, C., Kagan, S. L., Frelows, V. S., 7 Reid, J. (May 31, 2012). Inside the content of infant-toddler early learning guidelines. Retrieved from University of North Carolina at Greensboro: http://www.uncg.edu/hdf/facultystaff/ScottLittle/FINAL%20FULL%20 REPORT%20-%202.28.08.pdf. Shaklee, H., O’Hara, P., & Demarset, P. (March 2008). Early math skills: Building blocks for the future [white paper]. Trawick-Smith, J. (1994). Interactions in the classroom: Facilitating play i...
Purchase answer to see full attachment