Chapter 1 Introduction to the Process of Organizational Communication Learning Objectives What We Will Be Investigating: • Examine the role of human communication in modern organizational life. • Understand the ways in which effective communication encourages coordination and cooperation with others in organizational life. • Examine the need for strategic organizational communication to achieve important organizational goals. • Recognize the complex and fragile nature of human communication. • Examine the evolutionary nature of organizing. • Understand the hierarchical levels of organizational communication, building from intrapersonal to interpersonal to group to multigroup levels of interaction. • Understand the hierarchy of power in organizations as displayed by the formal organizational chart. • Recognize the differences between formal and informal communication in organizational life, as well as ways in which formal and informal communication systems influence one another. • Examine strategic organizational communication competencies. • Preview the topics covered in the following chapters in the book. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 1 11/3/11 2:40 PM CHAPTER 1 Introduction Chapter Outline 1.1 C  ommunication in Modern Organizational Life 1.2 Organizations and Organizing 1.3 Hierarchical Levels of Organizing Levels of Communication Approach Power Approach Communication works for those who work at it. —John Powell 1.4 I nterdependence and Synergy in Organizational Life 1.5 F ormal and Informal Channels of Organizational Communication Formal Communication: Downward Communication Formal Communication: Upward Communication Formal Communication: Horizontal Communication Informal Communication 1.6 S trategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life The Perceptive Organizational Communicator The Relationally Competent Organizational Communicator The Team-Building Organizational Communicator The Culturally Sensitive Organizational Communicator Strategic Leadership in Organizations Strategic Use of Media and Technologies in Organizational Life Strategic Organizational Development Strategic External Organizational Communication Introduction Human communication is the lifeblood of any organization. Indeed, the interactive social process of communication is what enables organizational participants to elicit cooperation from others. Although eliciting cooperation from others is essential for accomplishing goals, such cooperation does not happen automatically. Each person has unique goals and needs that drive his or her actions. Agreements about goals and needs must often be negotiated. Strategic communication, communication that is carefully planned and competently performed, enables such negotiations and is needed to encourage others to cooperate with us. This book is designed to help you become a strategic organizational communicator—an informed and aware organizational participant who communicates intelligently, sensitively, and competently to accomplish important goals. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 2 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.1 Communication in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 1.1 Communication in Modern Organizational Life T o be successful in our interactions with others, we must provide clear and compelling information about what we want from them and why it is in their best interest to cooperate with us. We depend on timely, accurate, and effective human communication to accomplish just about all the challenging and important tasks we confront. In fact, it has been observed that there is very little we can accomplish by ourselves in modern organizational life. We all depend on cooperation with others to accomplish our goals, and communication is the critical human process we use to promote such cooperation. To illustrate the role of communication in eliciting cooperation in organizational life, imagine what might happen in a relatively simple situation in which a customer wants to buy a book from a bookseller. How does communication facilitate this relatively straightforward transaction for both the customer and the bookseller? The customer depends on her ability to communicate to the bookseller which book she wants to purchase: • • • • The customer could request the book in person, using face-to-face interpersonal communication. The customer could request the book by phone, using mediated interpersonal communication. The customer could send a written book request to the bookseller, using mediated written interpersonal communication. The customer could also request the book online, using computer-mediated communication. Yet requesting the book is only the first step in the transaction. Perhaps the customer isn’t sure exactly which book she wants to purchase. She might have to engage the bookseller (or others) in conversation to identify the right book for her needs. Even if the customer knows which book she wants, she will likely need to explain to the bookseller how she wants to receive the book. The customer could pick up the book in person, have it sent through the mail, or have it delivered by another shipping service. There are likely to be several shipping options, with different delivery dates and costs, which may also have to be discussed. Does the customer want the book wrapped in gift paper? Does she want it shipped to an address other than her own? The bookseller must also locate the book, determine how much it costs, arrange delivery, collect payment from the customer, record the transaction, and provide change or at least a receipt to the customer. The bookseller may have to order the book from a book distributor, arrange to have the book delivered to the store, and then inform the customer when the book arrives at the store. Communication is likely to be involved in each of these steps as well. As you can see, even in this relatively simple transaction, effective communication is critical. A breakdown in communication at any step in this process will make it difficult, even impossible, for the customer and the bookseller to accomplish their shared goals. In more challenging organizational situations, such as negotiating a corporate merger, communication is likely to be much more complex, fragile, and critical. Participants must be skilled and sensitive communicators to elicit cooperation in challenging situations and Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 3 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.2 Organizations and Organizing CHAPTER 1 to work through disparate (sometime diametrically opposed) positions, needs, and expectations to establish common ground and a shared framework for cooperation. Strategic organizational communicators develop the ability to perceptively examine the communication demands of complex situations. Based on their analysis of the situation, they use competent and adaptive communication skills to build cooperative communication relationships with the people with whom they work. This book (and the course it is being used in) is designed to help you analyze the communication demands of complex and challenging organizational situations and to develop strategic communication skills and competencies to respond effectively. Communication is a deceivingly complex and fragile human process. We often assume incorrectly that communication is easy to do well. Although engaging in communication is easy to do (all of us engage in communication all the time), it certainly is not easy to communicate well. There are multiple opportunities in the process of communication for misinterpretations of messages. Think about how often you have misinterpreted messages others have sent to you and how often you have been misinterpreted. In addition, it is not always easy to get others to do what we want them to do. Establishing and maintaining long-term satisfying interpersonal relationships can be a major challenge. Yet as we’ve made clear, the organizing process depends on effective communication. In this chapter and the chapters that follow, we will explore the unique communication demands of organizational life and explore strategies for communicating effectively as an organizational participant. 1.2 Organizations and Organizing W e all live in a complex and multifaceted organizational world, one in which we participate in a wide array of organizations: • • • • • • We may be hired by work organizations, where we pursue jobs and build careers. We may enroll in educational organizations, where we study, learn, and earn academic degrees. We may belong to religious organizations, where we seek and share spiritual support and guidance. We may recreate in social organizations, where we socialize, unwind, and have fun with friends. We may volunteer for service organizations, where we provide our time and efforts to help others. We are most likely members of family organizations, where as fathers, mothers, sons, daughters, and so on we provide mutual support and often help raise children. We are likely to perform many different roles in these organizations, as workers, managers, students, teachers, congregation members, spiritual leaders, organizers, followers, and so on. These roles often change over time, as new organizational needs arise and as our organizational abilities evolve, demanding that we develop different skills and expertise. Likewise, each role we perform demands a different set of communication competencies. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 4 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.2 Organizations and Organizing CHAPTER 1 As you will learn throughout this book, strategic organizational communicators develop appropriate communication skills to effectively perform their different roles and to adapt to new situations. Organizations are not static. Organizations are constantly changing and evolving as the societies in which they reside evolve (Weick, 1979). New organizational needs, new workers, and new products, services, regulations, technologies, and customers constantly force and enable organizing processes to evolve. Sometimes it appears that the common notion we have of an established, solid, and stable organization is merely a stereotype, a convenient way to describe a one-point-in-time view of ongoing organizational processes. The truth is that the organization we see at one point in time is likely not the same organization we see at another point in time. Do you belong to any organizations? How do you use communication skills to effectively perform your role within those organizations? Let’s take an example. Although the bank you use may seem the same every time you visit it, many changes occur within the bank that you just don’t notice. There are likely to be new personnel working at the bank, due to the retirements and relocation of older personnel. Bank policies change, interest rates change, and the technologies that bank workers use are regularly updated. And in recent years we have gone through a period of bank mergers and buyouts, which has dramatically changed the nature of banking. Meanwhile, more banking activities are being handled online than ever before, which is also changing the experience of banking. So, although you might think of your local bank as a solid, permanent, and unchanging organizational entity, the reality is that your bank is in the process of evolution, illustrating the process of organization as much as the state of organization. The true nature of organizational life becomes especially clear when we view dramatic changes such as bankruptcies, mergers, acquisitions, downsizing, leadership transitions, and rapid expansions. As strategic organizational communicators, we must be especially aware of the importance of monitoring changing organizational demands and developing new strategies for addressing these demands through adaptive communication. For example, say you are the chief information officer (CIO) for an accounting firm, and you need to make sure you are aware of new accounting regulations. Changes in the regulatory environment may mean that you must use new accounting processes and forms. You may also need to adhere to new deadlines and formats for submitting financial information. In turn, you may have to purchase new computer equipment, install and update new software, and hire and train personnel to meet the new demands. Changes like this happen regularly in modern organizational life. Strategic organizational communicators gather information to monitor ever-evolving organizational demands and to coordinate with others to adapt processes to meet these demands. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 5 11/3/11 2:40 PM CHAPTER 1 Section 1.3 Hierarchical Levels of Organizing 1.3 Hierarchical Levels of Organizing There are two different ways to view the hierarchical nature of organizational life: 1. The first approach to organizational hierarchy is the levels of communication approach. This hierarchy describes the encompassing communication roles that organizational participants perform in organizing. In this book we will describe the hierarchical levels of intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, multigroup, and interorganizational communication as increasingly more complex levels of organizational communication (Kreps, 1990). 2. The second approach to organizational hierarchy is the power approach (Kreps, 1990). This hierarchy describes the successive levels of formal influence and control that are dictated by the design of the organization. This formal design is often illustrated through organizational charts. Figure 1.1 provides an example of a typical organizational chart. Both the levels-of-communication approach to hierarchy and the power approach to hierarchy perform important roles in organizational life. Let’s look at both in more detail. Figure 1.1: Sample Organizational Chart CEO J. Smith Exec. Secretary Vice President of Marketing J. Gomez Public & Community Relations Department Vice President of Sales T. Lee Product & Services Marketing Department K. Poole Vice President of Production P. Connors Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager L. Jiminez T. Washington Manager W. Allen P. Lloyd Manager Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 6 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.3 Hierarchical Levels of Organizing CHAPTER 1 Levels of Communication Approach The levels of communication approach to organizational hierarchy may be best illustrated from the bottom-up. The most basic communication activities of organizing often begin with individual organizational actors who participate in the accomplishment of basic organizational tasks through intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal communication occurs when communicators interact with themselves to make sense of organizational demands. They do so by attending to and interpreting key messages while also developing strategies to communicate messages to others. These individual organizational participants in turn use interpersonal communication to establish relationships with other organizational participants to accomplish complex organizational tasks. Interpersonal communication is interaction between two different individuals who use communication to establish interpersonal relationships. These relational partners often work together in organizational work groups, where they engage in group communication. In turn, these groups coordinate activities with other work groups, using multigroup or organizational communication, ultimately building to divisions, organizations, and even interorganizational collaborations. Each of the higher levels of organizational communication are built upon the lower levels. Intrapersonal communication is What levels of communication are taking place the foundation upon which interpersonal in this photo? communication is built. For individuals to engage in interpersonal communication, they each must be able to interpret messages into meanings and create messages from meanings using intrapersonal communication. Group communication is composed of multiple interpersonal communication relationships. Similarly, multigroup communication is built upon group interactions. Power Approach The power approach to organizational hierarchy may be best described from the top-down. Executives (presidents, chief executive officers, and board chairs) typically sit at the top of the power hierarchy, as shown in Figure 1.1. These executives direct the activities of upper management personnel (vice presidents, division heads, and others), who direct the activities of middle management personnel (managers, supervisors, group leaders), who in turn direct the activities of main-line workers and support personnel. Formal communication travels both vertically (downward and upward) and horizontally. We will discuss vertical and horizontal formal communication in more detail later in this chapter when we examine channels of communication. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 7 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.4 Interdependence and Synergy In Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 1.4 Interdependence and Synergy In Organizational Life T he basic processes of organizing, in which communication is used to elicit cooperation and coordination, takes place at each of the multiple hierarchical organizational levels. As noted above, it begins with the individual organizational participant (such as an employee). It then moves up to work groups (departments), on to multigroup units (divisions), on to organizations, and even on to groups of connected organizations. At the individual level, each organization member is responsible for accomplishing specific assigned tasks, such as delivering internal mail, maintaining equipment, keeping employment records, selling products, and so forth. This necessitates that individuals demonstrate personal organization and coordination with other organizational participants (such as coworkers, supervisors, customers, and others). These individual tasks are connected to other individual tasks within the organization, combining to help accomplish organizational activities and goals. This connection between activities is referred to as interdependence. The different organizing activities performed within organizations are interdependent—they work together—and the individuals who perform these activities are mutually dependent on one another as well. Even when you are driving your car, you engage in interdependence—you depend on other drivers to follow traffic signals and to stop at stop signs and red lights. These other drivers also depend on you to follow traffic signals. If either of you fail to follow the rules of the road, you are likely to have an accident. Similarly, members of organizations depend on one another to work cooperatively to accomplish important goals. Organizational units are also dependent on the interdependent performance of activities by other organizational units. The more effectively these individuals and organizational units can coordinate the performance of interdependent activities, the more efficient and productive the organizing process becomes. High levels of coordination inevitably lead to enhanced outcomes, a process referred to as organizational synergy. Let’s look a little more closely at interdependence and synergy. In any organization, individuals are typically situated within work groups such as departments, where they must work in concert with other group members. To be effective, these interdependent organizational members must be able to coordinate their activities within these work groups. Communication between these interdependent workers is clearly an essential part of promoting coordinated activities. Different work groups (such as the production department, the shipping department, the accounting department, the sales department, the quality control department, and so on) also must coordinate activities to achieve shared organizational goals. For example, if members of the sales department solicit 1,000 new orders for a company product, sales department personnel need to inform the production department personnel about the new orders, so the production department can build at least 1,000 products to deliver to customers. Members of the production department must communicate with personnel in the shipping department to let them know these products are ready to be delivered and where the products should be delivered. The accounting department must be informed about these new sales so they can record the financial information. The better these interdependent departments are at sharing relevant information and coordinating activities, the more effectively the organization will operate, exhibiting synergy. Each department depends on the communication and organizing activities Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 8 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.5 Formal and Informal Channels of Organizational Communication CHAPTER 1 between interdependent individual workers, and the organization depends on effective communication and organizing activities between interdependent departments. To extend the issue of interdependence within hierarchies further, consider how interdependent work departments typically combine to compose larger divisions or even whole organizations where organizing activities also must be coordinated. Active lines of communication between these units are essential to promoting needed coordination. These divisions or organizations must communicate to share information with other interdependent divisions or organizations. The basic processes of communication to promote coordination occur at each of the multiple hierarchical levels of organization. 1.5 Formal and Informal Channels of Organizational Communication T here are numerous formal and informal patterns for organizational communication. Formal patterns of organizational communication follow the power hierarchy within organizations, whereas informal patterns of organizational communication do not necessarily follow along power hierarchy lines. Let’s look at examples of both formal and informal communication. Formal Communication: Downward Communication The most common formal organizational communication pattern is downward communication. Downward communication takes place when organizational leaders communicate down the power hierarchy to subordinate organizational members. Downward communication is essential in organizations to provide members with direction, information about the organization, and evaluative feedback about their performance. Typically, such downward communication messages carry job instructions, directives, and information about organizational policies and procedures. There are several problems associated with downward communication: Why is effective downward communication so important in organizations? 1. There are often too many downward messages for organization members to pay attention to, leading to information overload, which we’ll discuss in more detail later in this book. 2. Sometimes there are conflicting directives from different organizational leaders— and even conflicting directives from the same leader—that place followers in a double-bind. Which directive(s) should they follow? Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 9 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.5 Formal and Informal Channels of Organizational Communication CHAPTER 1 3. Downward messages are not always clear, so workers are not sure exactly what they are being directed to do or how they are supposed to accomplish the activities they are being directed to accomplish. 4. Workers sometimes interpret downward messages as being delivered in an alienating, insulting, or condescending way. Organizational leaders must take care to communicate clearly and sensitively so that their directives are understood and are likely to be accepted. When misunderstanding of downward communication messages is likely, managers should provide lower-level employees with the opportunity to get feedback and clarification. However, as we’ll see next, in many organizations employees do not feel comfortable questioning their managers, and managers do not solicit comments and questions from their employees. Formal Communication: Upward Communication Communication that travels up the power hierarchy is known as upward communication. As noted, such communication and feedback is important for both workers and management. Upward communication enables workers to express their concerns and ideas, to provide and ask for feedback, and to seek clarification from their managers. The opportunity to provide feedback to managers can relieve tension for workers, help them gain a better understanding of what they are supposed to be doing, and help them understand the importance of their role in the organization. Upward communication is also important for managers as it allows managers to learn what their employees are thinking, what the employees’ experiences are, and when the employees are having problems. Unfortunately, upward communication is often the least well-utilized formal channel of communication in organizations. For one, there is a tendency for subordinates to refrain from telling their bosses when they are experiencing problems within the organization. Instead, employees often only tell managers about successful activities. This tendency to sugarcoat upward communication is known as the mum effect. Sometimes employees fear that if they tell their managers about problems, their managers will believe the employees themselves were the cause of the problems. Yet it is important that managers understand organizational problems so they can intercede to remedy them before they grow into crises. Strangely enough, upward communication often must start at the top by having formal leaders—those individuals such as supervisors, division heads, and executives who hold recognized positions of authority over other organizational members—demonstrate to employees that they are open and receptive to feedback. By encouraging workers to communicate honestly up the hierarchy about their experiences and ideas, formal leaders can obtain important operational information, identify emerging problems, and develop effective intervention strategies. It is also motivating and reinforcing for employees to learn that their managers are interested in their ideas and value their experiences. For example, when the division head publicly recognizes the suggestions made by a member of the sales force for improving sales reporting and provides the salesperson with an award, that salesperson will most likely be energized and encouraged to identify additional suggestions for improving organizational operations. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 10 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.5 Formal and Informal Channels of Organizational Communication CHAPTER 1 Formal Communication: Horizontal Communication Horizontal communication refers to messages that are shared between organization members who are on similar levels. For example, when coworkers share ideas about how to solve a common task, provide support about shared problems, or brainstorm new strategies, they are engaging in horizontal communication. Horizontal communication is essential for promoting coordination, problem solving, and social support among coworkers. Individuals on the same operational level of organizations share many goals and activities, so they can provide each other with important insights into common challenges found in their work. It is important for leaders to provide coworkers with opportunities to share relevant information. Unfortunately, horizontal communication is often underappreciated in organizational life. Managers sometimes prohibit communication between Why is effective horizontal communicoworkers on the job, believing that these workcation so important in organizations? ers should be more focused on their individual tasks than in communicating with one another. This is often shortsighted, however, as horizontal communication often can help to elicit cooperation for enabling coworkers to complete their tasks effectively. Informal Communication As previously noted, in addition to formal channels of communication within organizations, there are also informal channels of communication that may or may not follow the lines of the power hierarchy. These interactions are based on personal relationships that may transcend the formal hierarchy. For example, if family members or friends work for the same organization, they are likely to communicate with each other even if they don’t work together or report to one another or even if it is not mandated by the formal organizational hierarchy. Informal communication relationships develop in organizations for a wide variety of reasons. For example, organization members may form romantic relationships or friendships, or may share common goals or interests. One shared interest that connects many organization members is the ever-present thirst for relevant information about the organization, its members, and key outsiders. Those individuals who have access to the most interesting or useful information about the organization often become informal leaders in organizations. Such informal leaders do not necessarily hold the highest positions in the formal organizational hierarchy. Often, secretaries, receptionists, couriers, salespeople, or even maintenance workers have access to many different people from across the organization and outside the organization. This enables them to acquire relevant information to which others do not have access. For example, secretaries may overhear discussions by leaders Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 11 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.5 Formal and Informal Channels of Organizational Communication CHAPTER 1 and have access to sensitive documents and correspondence that enables them to acquire information about organizational activities, personnel, policies, and changes. Organizational members often covet this information because it may have direct bearing on their jobs, incomes, and futures. The spread of this information often takes place through rumors, while the channels of communication that carry this information are often referred to as the grapevine. Rumors and the grapevine do not necessarily provide incorrect information, as is often assumed; they just provide interesting information to organizational participants. Organizational members like to find out Why is the grapevine such a powerful channel about dramatic organizational events, of communication? such as changes within the organization, conflicts between organization members, or when organization members get into trouble. I refer to such information as juicy information. The more juicy information an organization member can acquire and is willing to share, the more other members will want to communicate informally with that person. Juicy information can include information that is particularly interesting to organizational members and is not easily available from the formal information system. For example, information about romantic relationships, marital difficulties, or disputes between organizational participants are juicy bits of information that are often disseminated via the grapevine. Those organizational members who possess relevant and accurate information and are willing to share that information with others often develop informal communication network roles as opinion leaders (Kreps, 1994). These opinion leaders can wield significant influence within organizations, regardless of their formal position within the hierarchy. In some organizations, formal leaders who are knowledgeable and communicative become the opinion leaders. In other organizations, formal leaders rarely communicate with other organization members and become so-called isolates in the informal communication network. Because organization members need and demand information, if the formal leaders in the organization are isolated, others within the organization will fill informal leadership positions. It is therefore wise for formal leaders to provide key organizational members with relevant information since these leaders are charged with directing organizational activities and can make sure that accurate information is disseminated. Liaisons (sometimes referred to as gatekeepers) are organizational members who connect different individuals and groups within organizations. Liaisons can exert significant power within organizations because they control access to key information and can facilitate cooperation and information sharing between organizational participants. Strategic organizational communicators pay attention to both the formal and informal channels of communication, learn which organization members perform different network roles, and learn how to utilize the different channels of communication to gain access to relevant, accurate, and timely information. They also develop the ability to share relevant information with others to help accomplish important organizational goals. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 12 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life S o far we’ve discussed how the most effective organizational participants are savvy, competent, and strategic organizational communicators. In this section, we’ll discuss how strategic organizational communicators • • • • • • • • develop communication skills to perceptively assess key messages to make sense of new organizational demands and opportunities; use communication to build cooperative and satisfying relationships with other key organizational participants; use communication to promote team building, commitment, and coordination within work groups; are sensitive to the unique individual and collective cultural factors that influence organizational participants, making sure to communicate in accordance with important cultural norms and expectations; use strategic communication to assert appropriate leadership within organizational units; use appropriate media and new information technologies to communicate effectively with others; use communication strategically to identify emergent problems in the organizing process and develop intervention strategies to enhance organizing policies and practices; and develop external relationships that connect organizations and promote interorganizational coordination. Let’s look at each of these points in a bit more detail. The Perceptive Organizational Communicator Earlier we mentioned that it is important for organizational members to carefully monitor the changing organizational landscape to identify new organizational demands. Such monitoring takes place at the individual level of communication, with individual organizational participants gathering information about organizational demands. These new demands can originate externally, such as from new customer requests, competing products or services, changing regulations, new technologies, or evolving economic conditions. The new demands can also arise internally within the organization, such as from changes in organizational leadership, reorganizations, equipment malfunctions, employee turnover, or internal conflicts. It behooves the strategic organizational communicator to stay on top of these changing demands by strategically selecting and accurately interpreting the wide range of messages available in often fast-moving organizational situations. What are the key messages that indicate when more attention is needed to accomplish a task? What information is needed to determine when processes are not being handled optimally? How can you assess levels of customer satisfaction? How can you learn when there is disruptive conflict brewing within your organization? For example, is there tension between coworkers Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 13 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 in your office? Are there individuals who are not talking with one another? Are coworkers arguing? These are typical symptoms of interpersonal conflict. Organization members work within key internal and external information environments. Internal information environments refer to the interaction patterns that occur within different programs and departments within organizations. External information environments refer to the patterns of interaction that occur between representatives of different organizations. Every situation involves careful selection of messages that provide important information identifying new organizational demands and opportunities. Strategic communicators pay attention to what people say and do. That is, they evaluate both the use of words (verbal communication) and actions (nonverbal communication). The most perceptive organizational members identify issues that need to be addressed quickly and efficiently because they are paying close attention to key messages. They identify emerging problems early so that these problems can be fixed before they develop into crises. For example, strategic organizational communicators pay attention to cues that indicate when key personnel may need training or support to help them meet new demands. Such communicators realize that information is powerful in organizational life, and by staying alert to new sources of information, they can make better decisions about how to meet organizational demands, solve organizational problems, enhance organizational processes, and help achieve important goals. In Chapter 3 we will explore the perceptual process as an essential part of intrapersonal communication in organizational life. The Relationally Competent Organizational Communicator At the relational level of communication—communication that occurs between members of interpersonal relationships—it is important for strategic organizational communicators to build strong relationships with those individuals they work with (both within and outside the organization) to accomplish organizational tasks. Such cooperative relationships need to be established and maintained with coworkers, supervisors, subordinates, suppliers, regulators, customers, and many others. Why is the relational level of communication especially important in building customer relationships? Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 14 For example, if you work as a salesperson, it is important for you to communicate strategically with potential customers to inspire their confidence and trust in you, your company, and your products. You will have to demonstrate to potential customers that you are an honest person of good character, that you are credible and have relevant expertise about the products you are trying to sell, and that you will treat them fairly and are concerned about their welfare. You will also have to persuade them that the products you are selling will meet their needs and are worth the price you are asking for them. You can accomplish this through strategic 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 relational communication with these customers. By taking the time and effort to build good relationships with your customers, you will encourage them not only to buy your products now, but to be loyal customers who will buy your products in the future and perhaps even encourage others to buy your products as well. These customers can also be important sources of information for you about customer satisfaction, changing customer needs, and competition within the marketplace. Similarly, you need to use strategic relational communication to develop good cooperative relationships with your sales manager, coworkers, those people who refer customers to you, employees who order and ship the products you sell to customers, personnel who market and advertise the products you sell, and many others. By developing cooperative and satisfying relationships with these organizational partners, you are encouraging them to coordinate activities with you to enable you to accomplish your goals. As we’ve discussed, relationships are built on shared needs and expectations. Communication that helps others recognize these shared needs and lets them know their partners plan to meet their expectations is critically important to establishing good relationships. Relationship development depends on mutual, incremental, and reciprocal disclosure of information about unique needs and expectations. It involves not only the exchange of information but also the expression of friendship, respect, affection, and inclusion (Shutz, 1958). Communication that takes into account the unique cultural backgrounds and orientations of relational partners, meets the expectations of these partners, and encourages them to reciprocate by meeting your needs and expectations ultimately helps to build strong and productive interpersonal relationships. When you disclose information and sentiment to others, the norm of reciprocity—the urge to act in-kind—often encourages these relational partners to provide you with information and treat you similarly to the way you treat them. Note, however, that the norm of reciprocity doesn’t always work since all communicators do not abide by this social norm. Less competent communicators are likely to violate the norm of reciprocity, and it may take a while for reciprocity to kick in to gear. However, more often than not, by sharing relevant information and showing respect for others, you will encourage these people to reciprocate with you. Strategic organizational communicators initiate and develop strong, effective, and satisfying relationships with others to promote cooperation and coordination in organizational life. These strong relationships also help enhance personal enjoyment and satisfaction in organizational life for strategic organizational communicators because they are major sources for social support, collegiality, and friendship. In Chapter 4 we will examine the interpersonal communication processes that lead to developing and maintaining effective relationships in organizational life. The Team-Building Organizational Communicator Many groups operate within and between organizations, including sales teams, review boards, decision-making boards, specialized committees, and teams, where many critical organizational decisions are made and implemented. Strategic organizational communicators learn how to exert leadership, build support, and elicit cooperation within these groups while utilizing the expertise and influence of group members to help inform Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 15 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 decisions and accomplish goals. As a member of a surgical team, for example, it is important to make sure everyone knows their roles and coordinates activities during an operation. Team members need to actively and accurately share information to accomplish surgical tasks. Effective team communication can mean the difference between life and death for a patient. Strategic organizational communicators recognize that with multiple relationships to manage, group communication is often complex and volatile. Competing coaliHow is team communication demonstrated in a tions (or subgroups that band together) surgical team? often develop within groups, which can lead to attempts at group domination, unproductive conflict, and gridlock, in which cooperation and organizational progress breaks down. Strategic organizational communicators learn how to mediate between different group members and coalitions, manage conflict effectively, and build support and cooperation within groups through team-building communication to promote high group performance. Communicating a strong sense of shared group purpose, inclusion, and collaboration are essential to effective group processes. Much of this relates to the leaders of the group, who have a strong influence on group processes. Although there may be an assigned group leader, leadership can be expressed by different members of the group based on their expertise and abilities. Establishing a group climate that encourages open exchange of information can also promote effective group communication. Likewise, building a sense of pride, involvement, and community within work groups can encourage high levels of group cooperation and performance. Strategic organizational communicators help build the support, structure, and exchange of information needed for effective group outcomes. In Chapter 5 we will examine the group communication processes that lead to the development of effective work teams in organizational life. The Culturally Sensitive Organizational Communicator Culture is a powerful force in modern organizational life, as it influences the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and expectations of organizational participants. Yet culture is not monolithic. We have many different cultural factors that create who we are and influence how we behave. Think about how you would describe yourself. Would you mention your gender, age, nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, occupation, and hobbies? Are there other factors you would choose to describe who you are? The identifying terms you choose to describe yourself suggest the different cultural influences in your life. What is the order in which you might mention these cultural factors? The order might indicate the relative importance of each of the factors. Do you think you would have mentioned the same cultural factors if you were asked to describe yourself 10 years ago? Would they be listed in the same order? Chances are that you would mention different factors and order them differently. This suggests that not only do you have different cultural influences in your life, Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 16 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 but that these influences are always changing. Earlier in my life, I probably would have mentioned being a motorcyclist and a member of a rock band as important cultural factors. Today, I would mention neither of those as key cultural factors in describing who I am. There are many cultural affiliations that compete for social influence within individuals. For example, we are strongly influenced by the national culture of the country in which we live. The phrase “proud to be American” illustrates a strong personal value based on national culture. There are also ethnic, racial, and religious cultural influences on how we define ourselves and interpret the world. In addition, factors such as gender and age provide strong cultural influences. Think about how being a male or female might influence your self-image, dress, and communication styles. Similarly, your level of education, income, and occupation likely exert strong influences on who you are and how you behave. Each person has a unique blend of cultural factors that make them who they are. These factors shift and change over time. And each of the cultures that you identify with exerts strong How does your cultural identity shape how influence over the beliefs you hold and the you communicate? behaviors you engage in. A primary factor in cultures is the process of socialization, where established members of cultural groups educate others and enforce adherence to established cultural rules or norms for appropriate behavior. For example, there are prescribed uses of language within different cultural groups. To demonstrate cultural membership, you learn how to use culturally approved terms and phrases in specific situations. There are norms for how you address different people, norms for how to describe different common organizational activities, and even norms for appropriate attire. Violations of these norms usually indicate lack of knowledge and perhaps even lack of respect for the cultural group. Those who violate central cultural norms are often shunned and sometimes even disciplined. For example, if an office worker wore shorts, a T-shirt, and flip-flops to the office instead of expected formal business attire, it is likely that the worker would be disciplined for breaking the rules for appropriate dress within the organization. Strategic organizational communicators learn about primary cultural norms and expectations and adapt communication patterns to fit those expectations. This is referred to as cultural sensitivity. Culturally sensitive organizational communicators adapt the messages they send to match the unique cultural makeup of the people they work with. This means using appropriate language and examples that are likely to resonate with the other person. It means being careful not to say something that violates a central cultural belief or value. Violating cultural expectations inevitably leads to deterioration of relationships, breakdowns in trust, and compromises cooperation and coordination. In essence, culturally sensitive communication can help promote coordination and social organization, whereas culturally insensitive communication is likely to hinder social organization. Just as with individuals, a wide range of cultural factors influence organizational identities. Each organization develops what is often referred to as an organizational culture, Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 17 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 with its own cultural values, goals, and expectations. For example, a unique cultural identity has developed over time in well-known organizations like the FBI, the New York Times, Harvard University, Google, and Apple Computers. These cultural identities influence the activities of organization members and even the people these organizations serve. For example, workers from these organizations may dress similarly, use similar language, and illustrate common ways for making sense of the world. For years, IBM employees were known to wear dark suits, white shirts, and plain ties, almost like an organizational uniform. Many executives and lawyers who have graduated from Harvard still wear Harvard pins and participate in Harvard social clubs. Each of the organizations mentioned are U.S.based organizations, and their cultural image is strongly influenced by U.S. culture. The London Times is likely to have a very different culture than the New York Times, based on differences between British and U.S. culture. Since each organization resides within a larger societal culture, the cultural attributes of the larger society inevitably influence the identity, values, and expectations that people hold about the organization. Moreover, organizational cultures are also influenced by the unique history of the organization, stories about charismatic organizational members, and the primary mission, goals, and activities of the organization. Strong organizational cultures profoundly influence not only organization members but also the activities and beliefs of those outside the organizaWhat does this photo tell you about tion who have a stake in the organization, such as Google organizational culture? customers and stockholders. For example, alumni of certain colleges, like Princeton, Notre Dame, Michigan, Duke, or USC, take the symbols of their university very seriously. Many of the people who identify with these universities wear clothing emblazoned with the names and symbols of the university. Wearing a competitor university’s jersey can be seen as disloyal and even insulting to members of these cultural groups. In the Los Angeles region, for example, there is an unspoken bond between alumni and supporters of either USC or UCLA, as well as competition between these two cultural groups that is said to influence hiring and promotion decisions made by many employers. Strategic organizational communicators pay close attention to the unique cultural identities and values of the different organizations they work with and learn to abide by established norms of these organizational cultures. In Chapter 6 we will examine the communication processes used to adapt to different cultural perspectives, as well as to establish, maintain, and influence organizational cultures. Strategic Leadership in Organizations As we discussed earlier in the chapter, organizations have both formal and informal leaders. Formal leaders are typically assigned their positions of authority within the organizational hierarchy and hold titles such as president, vice president, division leader, Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 18 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 supervisor, and manager. However, just being appointed as a formal leader in an organization does not necessarily mean these individuals are asserting effective leadership. Informal leaders emerge within organizational life based on their credibility (usually a combination of charisma, dynamism, expertise, and trustworthiness), ability to accomplish complex tasks, and access to relevant information. Informal leaders often exhibit strong leadership communication skills because they have to earn their leadership positions. Formal leaders often have to learn how to communicate effectively as leaders. Effective leadership depends on strategic leadership communication. In essence, strategic leadership communication encourages others to cooperate with you, to follow your lead, and to share relevant information. Effective leaders establish strong cooperative relationships with other organization members, inspire these members to share important goals, and persuade them to willingly help accomplish those shared organizational goals. Think about the managers who you have worked for in the past. How effective was their leadership communication? How inspiring were they? Were you motivated to follow their direction and to help them accomplish their goals? Did you share those same goals? Most likely, some of these managers were effective leaders and communicated in ways that encouraged you to collaborate with them, whereas others were not particularly skilled communicators and did not consistently inspire you. Those individuals who are assigned to formal leadership positions too often assume that just holding their managerial title will make them strong leaders. However, someone merely being in a higher position of power within the formal organizational hierarchy is not a good enough reason for many organization members to blindly follow a leader. Some organization members might comply with directives from a formal leader when the leader is there to see if they comply, but when the leader is not present, they may be less likely to follow the directives. Effective leaders motivate employees to want to follow directives because the employees believe in the leader, share the leader’s organizational mission, and want to make the organization successful. The only way to get this to happen is for the leader to use strategic communication to establish strong, encouraging, and inspiring professional relationships with followers. This happens not only by communicating strong rationale (providing compelling content information) to followers for achieving organizational goals, but also by communicating in ways that personally inspire followers emotionally (providing them with engaging relational information) to cooperate and collaborate with the leader. Effective leaders must be adaptable, adjusting their leadership communication styles to different followers and different situations. This is sometimes referred to as situational leadership. Situational leaders use communication to learn about the unique characteristics of the individuals they seek to influence. Situational leaders also provide each follower with personally relevant and motivating information that is targeted to the person’s unique cultural orientation, information needs, and current state of mind. In this way, leadership communication is perceived by the follower as both appropriate and relevant. Situational leaders also evaluate the unique demands of the specific organizational context to make sure that their communication fits those unique contextual demands. Is it an emergency situation? Is it a time when the goals of the organization need to be reinforced? Is it a time when workers need to be encouraged or rewarded? Each situation demands different kinds of leadership communication. Communicating situationally means that leaders pay attention to the people they work with and also to the unique constraints of the organizational Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 19 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 context. This takes a great deal of effort, but it generally has significantly positive influences on encouraging organizational cooperation and commitment. In Chapter 7 we will examine the communication demands of effective leadership in modern organizational life. Strategic Use of Media and Technologies in Organizational Life There is growing dependence on the use of communication media and information technologies to share information and to coordinate the activities of organizational participants. This growing dependence on communication technology may be due in part to the large size and broad scope of modern organizations that need to connect and coordinate many different people who are often geographically dispersed. It is difficult to imagine modern organizations without widespread use of cell phones, BlackBerries, networked computers, email, the Internet, fax machines, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, and many other media. We live in a time of extraordinary expansion of new information technologies. Some have asserted that we are experiencing an information revolution. In the area of computer-mediated communication technologies, for example, it appears that every year new equipment, software, and applications are introduced and adopted by organizational members. There is tremendous demand to keep up with the latest computer trends. Last year’s software may not be compatible with this year’s software, leading to problems with interoperability. Different equipment brands and models may not work with one another. It is a full-time How have computer-mediated communication job just to keep up with these changing technologies changed the business landscape? communication technologies, to determine which technologies are most useful, to determine how to best use these new media, and to develop appropriate software to match the evolving goals, processes, and regulations governing organizations. The ongoing process of training organizational members to use new technologies and applications is also a major challenge in many organizations. Many organizations must employ large numbers of technology experts to install and debug new equipment, to help users solve problems with their equipment, to install new software, and to repair equipment. Meanwhile, a growing convergence between different communication technologies increases their power. For example, smart phones now do much of the work previously done with desktop computers, telephones, videoconference technologies, and other media. However, although these new technologies often make it easier for organization members to reach one another, share information, and preserve information for later use, there are also major concerns about resistance to adopt new technologies, loss of information privacy, the impersonal nature of many new media, and misuses of communication technologies. Organizational media therefore need to be used strategically to make sure they accurately convey the intended message, maintain effective organizational relationships, and Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 20 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 complement other channels of communication. It is important to realize that new communication technologies do not necessarily replace more traditional channels of communication, but offer additional and supplementary channels for organizational communication. In Chapter 8 we will examine the strategic use of the broad range of new and more traditional communication media in concert with face-to-face communication in modern organizational life. Organizations in Action Measuring Twitter Links There was a day when business organizations were able to estimate the effectiveness of their advertising in newspaper and magazine communications through readership (circulation) measurements performed by the Audit Bureau of Circulation. Later, when radio and television came on the scene, firms such as Arbitron and A.C. Nielsen reported listenership and viewership “ratings” and consumer buying behaviors. More recently, methods to estimate traffic on the web have been developed. Tools such as Omniture, Google Analytics, and comScore are able to track hits and page views on the web, but these tools cannot report the kind of link-sharing that occurs when users hit the “Like” button on Facebook or use the similar “Twitter Button” feature of Twitter. To overcome this obstacle, Twitter acquired a Canadian company called BackType, which developed a set of analytical tools that allows Twitter to capture important user click data. According to BackType’s cofounder, Chris Golda, companies have found it difficult to measure exactly how much traffic Twitter is sending to their websites. This is said to be especially important because Twitter has become an important marketing strategy for most companies, including traditional print and broadcast/cable media outlets (Ingram, 2011). As a result of this acquisition, Twitter unveiled a system that allows it to measure and report to external businesses the amount of traffic Twitter directs toward their websites. Twitter’s “analytic toolkit,” which was introduced in September 2011, provides a dashboard that indicates communication in terms of users either tweeting or using the “Twitter Button” link. According to Twitter’s director of web business development, Twitter is responsible for redirecting 100 million clicks every day (Rao, 2011). The dashboard offered to business communicators by the new analytical device will show organizations whether Twitter is effective in driving traffic to their websites by indicating which links get the most activity, and when those communications peak. Critical Thinking Questions 1. In your opinion, is this an example of appropriate monitoring of the communication environment, or is it a step toward an Orwellian “big brother” watching our every move? Explain your response. 2. What is the value of this kind of information for organizations that post content on the web? Does it really matter how an Internet content consumer is directed to an organization’s website? 3. How do you feel about this kind of analytical reporting? Should business communicators have the right to use this kind of user data? Sources Ingram, M. (2011, September 13). Twitter offers analytics to try and prove its value. Retrieved from http://gigaom.com/2011/09/13/twitter-offers-analytics-to-try-and-prove-its-value/ Rao, L. (2011, September 13). Twitter opens the kimono on web analytics; 3 million sites now using tweet button. TechCrunch Disrupt News. Retrieved from http://techcrunch.com/2011/09/13/twitteranalytics/ Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 21 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 Strategic Organizational Development Systems theory’s second law of thermodynamics describes how all systems encounter problems, break down over time, and inevitably move toward disorganization, or the state of entropy (Berrien, 1976). There is therefore a constant need to resist entropy by continually revitalizing organizational processes, achieving a state of negative entropy or highlevel organization (Berrien, 1976). Yet it is difficult to maintain a consistently high level of organizing in modern organizations, especially because organizational conditions change and the old strategies for organizing may no longer work well. In addition, there are many challenges to effective organizing caused by changing situations and demands. This may include changing customer demands, emerging societal constraints (such as a tough economic climate), harsh physical conditions (such as bad weather), new governmental regulations, and/or increased organizational competition. Strategic organizational communicators recognize the inevitable changes that challenge the organizing process, gather information to stay alert to organizational demands, and use communication to develop responsive strategies for confronting these difficult situations. This is known as the process of organizational development (Kreps, 1990). Just as there are many new demands on social organizing, there are many ways to adapt to these demands. The systems theory principle of equifinality suggests that there are many ways to achieve desired outcomes (Berrien, 1976). The key is to match the new strategies to meet emerging organizational demands and constraints. For example, if customer demand for an organization’s products wanes due to the introduction of more effective competing products, it suggests that organization members need to examine what it is about the competing products that is so attractive to customers, and based on that information refine their products to compete with the products introduced by other organizations. There may be many strategies for refining products depending on customer preferences, the potential for improving the products, and the capacity of the organization to make needed changes. Communication is a critical process for both identifying the needs for change and for directing these changes within organizations. There is a constant tension in organizational life between stability and innovation. Organizational members generally like stability and predictability in their jobs. It is comforting to know what you need to do on the job and to hone your skills. Yet the same old processes that once worked well may no longer be as effective, especially as new organizational demands arise. There is often the need to innovate processes to continue being successful. However, there is often significant resistance to organizational change. Organization members must be encouraged and supported to learn new ways to do their jobs, to adopt new technologies, and to organize in improved ways. Sometimes the changes may involve developing personnel innovations, such as retraining employees to meet new demands, restructuring roles and responsibilities to become more responsive to changing conditions, or even replacing and hiring new personnel. Sometimes the changes may focus on organizational processes, such as gathering market information about customer demand, purchasing new production equipment, or positioning products differently with marketing and advertising processes. Strategic organizational Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 22 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 communicators help identify new issues, share the need for organizational innovation, and use communication to implement needed changes within organizing processes. In Chapter 9 we will examine the communication demands and strategies for effective organizational development. Strategic External Organizational Communication Organizational communication that elicits coordination between organizational members and individuals beyond organizational boundaries (from the organization’s relevant environment) is referred to as external organizational communication. It is important for organizational representatives to develop effective external communication relationships that help them track changes in the relevant environment. Information gathered from these external relationships can help identify emerging opportunities (such as potential new customers, relevant new products or services, or potential lucrative collaborations), learn about dangerous new constraints to organizing (such as new competitors, complex government regulations, or serious external threats), and help leaders keep abreast of changing environmental situations (such as changing economic conditions, relevant new knowledge, or emerging technologies). By gathering information from external representatives, organizational leaders can learn about and seize new opportunities, adapt to potential constraints, and make strategic evidence-based plans for charting the future of the organization. It is also important for organizational members to use communication with key external representatives to influence these individuals’ relevant activities. For example, organizations need to elicit cooperation from their customers, convincing them to purchase organizational products and/or services. Leaders may need to convince financial institutions and investors to provide financial support to the organization. Organizations also depend on external communication to effectively recruit new talent to work for the organization. Public relations, marketing, and advertising are forms of external organizational communication used to provide information and influence the behaviors of relevant external organizational audiences. Employees who connect the organization to representatives of the organization’s relevant environment are often referred to as cosmopolites. These cosmopolites are often located at either the top of the organizational power hierarchy (chief executive officers, board of director members, and so on) or at the lower rungs of the power hierarchy (receptionists, clerks, and so on). Such cosmopolites have a great deal of responsibility to gather information from environmental representatives and share it internally with organizational decision makers, as well as to represent the organization positively to key environmental representatives with whom the organization needs to coordinate activities. The development of effective, trusting, and cooperative interpersonal relationships between organization representatives (cosmopolites) and key representatives from the external environment is essential to organizational survival. In Chapter 10 we will examine the unique strategic communication skills needed to develop and maintain effective interorganizational relationships. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 23 11/3/11 2:40 PM Section 1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life CHAPTER 1 Case Study “Right up Your Alley” Susie Barnett was excited about starting her new position as the general manager of the Waldorf, Maryland, AMF Bowling Center, known as AMF Waldorf Lanes. She was replacing the retiring Ernie Johnson, who had managed Waldorf Lanes for more than 20 years. It was her first top-level managerial position. She was proud of her movement up the job ladder as a relatively young (24-year-old) woman. Despite her youth, she felt prepared for the managerial position. She had studied organizational behavior at her state college, completed a management trainee program with AMF Bowling Centers, and served for three years as an assistant manager at another AMF Bowling Center in the suburbs of Baltimore. While serving as the assistant manager at the Towson Bowling Center, she learned a great deal about the bowling business. She assisted General Manager Frank Ferguson on all aspects of bowling center operations and floor management, including supervising marketing and entertainment programs, customer relations, food and beverage services, equipment and property acquisition and maintenance, and personnel management. Frank was a generous general manager who actively mentored Susie and developed strong cooperative relationships with the bowling center staff and its customers. Frank recommended Susie highly for her new position at Waldorf Lanes. The Towson Bowling Center was one of the most progressive and profitable within AMF. Frank and Susie nurtured strong relationships with local community organizations (churches, schools, and social clubs) that held bowling leagues at Towson Lanes. They gave these groups special rates, hosted parties for them at the Lanes, and held special events like “Rock-n-Bowl” nights where they dimmed the lights, brought in strobe lights, and played music, creating a party atmosphere. The staff at Towson were sorry to see Susie go but were happy for her about her new senior managerial opportunity. However, the Waldorf Lanes Bowling Center was not doing so well. At one time it had been a profitable bowling center, but over the past few years its business had slowed. Susie’s job was to find out what was going wrong at Waldorf and revitalize the center to bring it back to profitability. She began by meeting individually with customers and members of the center staff to find out why business was lagging at Waldorf Lanes. First she met with Dave Garfinkle, the longtime assistant manager. Dave was not friendly to Susie. He also had been an applicant for the general manager position but did not get the job despite his long years of service and familiarity with the facility. He did not get a strong recommendation from the retiring general manager, Ernie Johnson, and his lack of college education also hurt his chances for the job. Susie did not learn much about the problems at the bowling alley from Dave. He was gruff and standoffish and resented having a younger, less experienced woman selected for the job that he coveted. Susie learned considerably more about problems at the bowling alley from her interviews with customers and members of the Waldorf Lanes hourly staff. The food service, front desk, and service staff members (most of them high school students who were working part time) told her that the last year had been a tough one for Waldorf Lanes. A rough young crowd of teenagers began hanging out at the snack bar, and they frequently hassled customers and staff but were not interested in bowling. They appeared to be chasing away business. The staff also complained to Susie about a lack of support from upper management. The previous general manager, Ernie Johnson, had been in poor health and didn’t spend a lot of time at the bowling alley over the past year. Assistant Manager Dave Garfinkle ran the center in the absence of Ernie. He seemed to be angry a lot, didn’t connect well with staff or customers, and was not very responsive to changing conditions. He was more focused on (continued) enforcing the rules than on improving operations and performance. Susie also learned Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 24 11/3/11 2:40 PM Summary CHAPTER 1 Case Study (continued) from customers and staff that some of the bowling equipment and furnishing at the center were worn out and in disrepair. She also discovered there had been a significant drop in the number of registered bowling leagues at Waldorf Lanes. Now that Susie knew about some of the major problems facing Waldorf Lanes, it was time for her to develop strategies for rectifying these problems and revitalizing the center. What should she do? She made a few telephone calls to Ernie Johnson, who was now retired and living in Florida, to get his assessment of the situation. She also called her former boss, Frank Ferguson, to get his input. She wanted to make sure the changes she recommended were appropriate to the situation and effective in turning around Waldorf Lanes. Critical Thinking Questions 1. How well do the different managerial personnel in this case (Susie Barnett, Ernie Johnson, Frank Ferguson, and Dave Garfinkle) exhibit strategic organizational communication competencies and skills? Consider each of the following strategic communication skills: perceptiveness, relational competence, team building, intercultural sensitivity, use of media, organizational development, and external communication. 2. How is the second law of thermodynamics, the move toward entropy, illustrated in this case study? What does this movement toward disorganization suggest about the development of new strategies for organizing and organizational communication? 3. What suggestions do you recommend for improving the performance of Waldorf Lanes? How will communication be used to develop and implement these plans? 4. What role does the development of effective and trusting relationships have in the effective management of the Towson Bowling Center and Waldorf Lanes? What communication strategies do you suggest for improving some of the strained interpersonal relationships described in this case? 5. Contrast the different organizational cultures established at the Towson Bowling Center and Waldorf Lanes. How are these cultures different? How has organizational communication contributed to the development of these organizational cultures? 6. Describe some of the existing intercultural communication barriers in this case that are complicating organizational communication. How could communication be used to overcome some of these intercultural barriers? 7. What is the role of organizational development in this case? What communication strategies are needed to promote organizational development? Summary O rganizations and the way they communicate play critical roles in our lives. We belong to many organizations and must find a way to communicate strategically within them. However, there are many layers of complexity involved. Organizations have different missions, different structures, differing levels of authority, different norms, and different ways of dealing with power and leadership. Further, organizations are not static and must find ways to balance the needs for stability and innovation. By their nature, organizations are complex and multidimensional. Communication offers a way to deal with these various organizational complexities. However, communication itself involves its own array of challenges. Effective organizational Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 25 11/3/11 2:40 PM Summary CHAPTER 1 communicators need to find ways to manage confusion, enhance connections between people, build work teams, promote organizational socialization, ensure good communication both vertically and horizontally, deal with information overload, manage formal and informal channels of communication, make intelligent use of mass-mediated messages, and deal wisely with the dynamics of power and authority. These and other challenges are the central focus of this book. Discussion Questions 1. Do you think that effective communication is more or less important to organizational success than is outlined in this chapter? Why or why not? 2. Communication is referred to in this chapter as “deceivingly complex.” Do you think there are times when it’s “deceivingly simple”? 3. Some organizations use a “family” metaphor to describe their philosophy. Do you think that “family organizations” and “work organizations” have enough in common to justify this analogy? 4. In this chapter, banks are used to illustrate that organizations are not static. What other types of organizations reflect this idea? How? 5. In what ways have you experienced “information overload” in organizations of which you have been a member? 6. Historically, organizations and organizational literature have paid more attention to “downward” communication than “upward” communication. Why, do you suppose? 7. Is there any way to deal with the “mum effect” described in this chapter? What specifically can organizations do to prevent it? 8. This chapter notes that “rumors and the grapevine do not necessarily provide incorrect information.” Does your experience in organizations contradict that claim in any way? 9. Although all organizations have “norms,” many of these norms are unwritten. If you were to explicitly state what norms operate in your organizational life, what would they be? 10. The term “strategic relational communication” is used throughout this chapter. What are the pluses and minuses of thinking about communication as a “strategy”? Key Terms Coalitions Subgroups that band together. Cosmopolites Employees who connect the organization to representatives of the organization’s relevant environment. Cultural sensitivity Strategic organizational communicators learn about primary cultural norms and expectations and adapt communication patterns to fit those expectations. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 26 Downward communication Takes place when organizational leaders communicate down the power hierarchy to subordinate organizational members. Entropy Systems theory’s second law of thermodynamics. All systems encounter problems, break down over time, and inevitably move toward disorganization. 11/3/11 2:40 PM Summary CHAPTER 1 Equifinality Systems theory principle that suggests there are many ways to achieve desired outcomes. Information revolution The idea that we live in a time of extraordinary expansion of new information technologies. External information environments The patterns of interaction that occur between representatives of different organizations. Interdependence Connection of individual tasks to other individual tasks within the organization that enables organizational activities and goals to be accomplished. External organizational communication Organizational communication that elicits coordination between organizational members and individuals beyond organizational boundaries (from the organization’s relevant environment). Formal leaders Those individuals such as supervisors, division heads, and executives who hold recognized positions of authority over other organizational members. Formal patterns of organizational communication Patterns that follow the power hierarchy within organizations. Grapevine The channels of communication that carry rumors. Group communication Communication between organizational work groups. Horizontal communication Messages that are shared between organization members who are on similar levels of the organization. Individual level of communication Level at which changes in organizational landscape are monitored. Informal leaders Those individuals who have access to the most interesting or useful information about the organization often become informal leaders in organizations. Informal patterns of organizational communication Patterns that do not necessarily follow along power hierarchy lines. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 27 Internal information environments The interaction patterns that occur within different programs and departments within organizations. Interpersonal communication The interaction between two different individuals who use communication to establish interpersonal relationships. Intrapersonal communication Communication that occurs when communicators interact with themselves to make sense of organizational demands. Isolates Group members who are loners and don’t communicate well with other members. Levels of communication approach One way to view the hierarchal nature of organizational life. This hierarchy describes the encompassing communication roles that organizational participants perform in organizing. Liaisons (sometimes referred to as gatekeepers) Organizational members who connect different individuals and groups within organizations. Mum effect The tendency to sugarcoat upward communication. Norm of reciprocity The urge to act inkind that often encourages these relational partners to provide you with information and treat you similarly to the way you treat them. 11/3/11 2:40 PM Summary Norms Cultural rules for appropriate behavior. Opinion leaders Those organizational members who possess relevant and accurate information and are willing to share that information with others often develop informal communication network roles as opinion leaders. Organizational culture The culture that each organization develops with its own unique cultural identity, with its own cultural values, goals, and expectations. Organizational development The process of organizational renewal that helps organizations resist entropy and promote ongoing organization. Organizational world The idea that we participate in a wide array of organizations including work organizations, educational organizations, religious organizations, social organizations, service organizations, and family organizations. Power approach One way to view the hierarchal nature of organizational life. This hierarchy describes the successive levels of formal influence and control that are dictated by the design of the organization. CHAPTER 1 Relationship development Process in which mutual expectations are fulfilled and new implicit contracts are developed that allows relationships to grow and prosper. Situational leadership Effective leaders must be adaptable, adjusting their leadership communication styles to different followers and different situations. This is sometimes referred to as situational leadership. Strategic communication Communication that is carefully planned and competently performed. Strategic leadership communication Encourages others to cooperate with you, to follow your lead, and to share relevant information. Strategic organizational communicator An informed and aware organizational participant who communicates intelligently, sensitively, and competently to accomplish important goals. Synergy Process that allows for high levels of coordination that leads to enhanced outcomes. Process of socialization Process where established members of cultural groups educate others and enforce adherence to established cultural rules or norms for appropriate behavior. Team-building communication Communication through which strategic organizational communicators learn how to mediate between different group members and coalitions, manage conflict effectively, and build support and cooperation within groups. Relational level of communication Communication that occurs between members of interpersonal relationships. Upward communication Communication that travels up the power hierarchy is known as upward communication. Kre66464_01_ch01_p001-028.indd 28 11/3/11 2:40 PM Chapter 2 Human Communication Processes and Principles Learning Objectives What We Will Be Investigating: • • • • • • • • • Kre66464_02_ch02_p029-052.indd 29 Understand why communication is considered difficult. Understand the difference between external and internal messages. Explain the difference between messages and meanings. Realize that communication problems can relate to encoding or decoding. Grasp what it means to call communication a process—irreversible, and transactional. Understand the difference between the content and relationship levels of communication. Explain how jargon, semantics, syntactics, and pragmatics relate to verbal messages. Understand that words have both a denotative and a connotative meaning. Become familiar with the nonverbal categories of paralinguistics, oculesics, kinesics, proxemics, artifactics, tactilics, and chronemics. 11/3/11 2:41 PM CHAPTER 2 Introduction Chapter Outline 2.1 Human Communication Defined It was impossible to get a conversation going. Everybody was talking too much. —Yogi Berra What Are Messages? What Are Meanings? Encoding and Decoding 2.2 Key Principles of Human Communication Principle 1: Communication Is a Process Principle 2: Communication Is Irreversible Principle 3: Communication Is Transactional Principle 4: Communication Includes Both Content and Relationship Dimensions 2.3 V  erbal and Nonverbal Messages In Organizational Life Verbal Communication Systems Nonverbal Communication Systems 2.4 C  oordinating Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Introduction Despite the fact that we communicate all the time, it is not always easy for us to communicate well. There are many points in the communication process where the fidelity, clarity, accuracy, and intended influences of communication can and often do break down. Yet despite the potential for communication breakdowns, communicators often naively assume that when they tell others to do something, those people will understand them, agree with them, and comply with them. As you can see, there are many optimistic assumptions about communication taking place, and it is often unlikely that all these goals will be easily obtained. Unless the messages you are sending are very simple, chances are that the recipients of these messages will not fully understand what you want to convey. Your audiences may understand parts of what you want them to, but they are unlikely to understand all of your intended ideas. Certainly they won’t understand all the details and subtleties of your communication the first time. Feedback, repetition, and message redundancy can help improve the odds of getting your ideas across, but even then, certain aspects of your messages will likely elude your audience members. And even if they do develop a somewhat full understanding of your messages, they may not agree with your point of view. If listeners don’t fully understand your message and don’t agree with your perspective, what are the chances that they will comply with your requests? Not very good. And even if others understand and agree with you, they still may not comply with your requests for a host of reasons. Communication is complicated. Strategic organizational communicators recognize the fragile nature of human communication and therefore develop strategies for enhancing communication processes and outcomes. They carefully assess the potential for misunderstandings, design messages and use communication channels that will appeal to the unique characteristics of their intended audiences, evaluate the ways their messages are interpreted, and provide feedback and reinforcement to clarify misunderstandings and encourage cooperation. Kre66464_02_ch02_p029-052.indd 30 11/3/11 2:41 PM Section 2.1 Human Communication Defined CHAPTER 2 In this chapter, we will examine the key elements, processes, and channels for organizational communication. In doing so, we will explore the unique demands of effective intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, group communication, multigroup communication, and interorganizational communication. We will also examine the coordinated use of verbal and nonverbal communication as a critical component of communication competence. Along the way we will discuss how effective communicators also use multiple communication channels, such as face-to-face, print, and computermediated channels of communication. We will attempt to unpack some of the complexities of communication by outlining the major components of human communication and examining some of the underlying principles that guide the communication process. The concepts described in this chapter will become the building blocks for the following chapters since every level and approach to organizational communication is based on these basic tenets of human communication. Let’s get started with some definitions. 2.1 Human Communication Defined A relatively basic but broadly encompassing definition of communication is as follows: Human communication occurs when a person responds to a message by creating a meaning. The two critical components of this definition are messages and meanings. Let’s examine both in detail. What Are Messages? Messages are the primary symbols of the communication process; they work as cues to stimulate communicators to create meanings. There are many different sources of messages. The most obvious message sources are external messages, which derive from our external work environments. Some of the most important external messages in an organizational setting include the words our coworkers say or write to us. Such verbal messages are surrounded and strongly influenced by an array of nonverbal messages, such as the facial expressions and gestures organizational participants display when they speak or the ways that written words are displayed (such as in memos, email, or even on billboards or other advertising media). Another primary source of external messages includes the many, sometimes subtle, environmental cues we attend to that tell us about our organizational worlds, such as room temperatures, lighting levels, colors, scents, textures, music, and other background sounds. (We’ll discuss verbal and nonverbal messages in more detail later in this chapter.) We also respond to a wide array of internal messages. These internally generated messages, normally called intrapersonal communication, include a wide range of conscious and unconscious cues that we send to ourselves based on our individual thoughts, feelings, and reactions to different situations. In fact, we all spend a lot of time engaged in an ongoing dialog with ourselves in which we examine how to interpret different situations we find ourselves in and plan our best responses to them. The biggest challenge we typically face is in deciding which of these messages are most important for us to pay attention to. We may be conflicted about how to write a certain memo, or how to deal with a problem coworker, or whether to convene a meeting, and these and other internal messages are buzzing around in our heads as we go through the day. Yet we can’t deal with them all and are forced to attend to some and put others mentally aside. Kre66464_02_ch02_p029-052.indd 31 11/3/11 2:41 PM Section 2.1 Human Communication Defined CHAPTER 2 What Are Meanings? Meanings are the interpretations we make of the different external and internal messages that we attend to. Although we never have total knowledge about any situation we encounter, we strive to collect, analyze, and interpret enough relevant messages to develop a good operational sense of these situations so we can respond appropriately. For example, imagine that you see a coworker leaving his office in tears. You may not know this man very well, and you have no idea what has happened to make him cry. But nonetheless, you have seen people cry before in a variety of situations, and so you use that information to figure out what is going on and to develop an appropriate response. You have gathered enough information to establish an operational meaning for the situation that can guide your response to it. Humans have an insatiable appetite for creating meaning. We all want to know what is going on around us and to make sense out of it. Nowhere is this quest for meaning more evident than in organizational life, where organizational participants want to know about changes in their organizations, such as new job demands, emerging operational constraints, personnel changes, or fast-opening and closing opportunities for advancement. We have the capacity to create a wide array of rich and vivid meanings for different situations. However, our meanings are not just logical interpretations of the situations we encounter (captured exactly like a photograph); they are imbued with our personal feelings, concerns, goals, expectations, and experiences (resembling an abstract painting with many of our unique interpretations). The meanings we create for the messages we attend to in any given moment are rapidly compared, contrasted, and combined with older stored meanings we have developed from past What are the meanings you constructed experiences. The more fast-paced and complex when you looked at this photo? the situations we encounter, the more we work to update and create meanings that help us understand these situations. When we encounter complex situations, we may have to ponder seriously the full interpretation of new messages in comparison to previously created meanings. We regularly update our previous understandings based on the interpretation of new messages, continually building a more comprehensive and reliable set of meanings (knowledge) about the world. As we do so, each of us gives more emphasis to certain cues over others, combines new messages in different ways, and compares new messages to our own unique set of stored interpretations from past experience to create our own personal meanings of situations. The implication of these unique interpretations of messages is that there is likely to be significant difference in opinion about what different situations really mean. For example, in Kre66464_02_ch02_p029-052.indd 32 11/3/11 2:41 PM Section 2.1 Human Communication Defined CHAPTER 2 business negotiations, the different negotiating parties may have very disparate perspectives on the goals for the negotiations, the key issues under examination, and the indicators for successful resolution of the negotiations. Successful negotiators must therefore try to understand these different interpretations and provide suggestions for bridging disparate perspectives. This is strategic organizational communication in action. Indeed, it is through the process of strategic organizational communication that we can determine the different ways that organizational participants interpret situations and thereby gain a richer understanding of these situations and each other. Nowhere is this sharing of meanings more important than in modern organizational life, where we regularly need to coordinate with a broad range of organizational participants to adapt to novel, complex, and challenging situations that are difficult to make sense of and respond to effectively. To be effective communicators, we must all use organizational communication to share the challenges of making sense of complex demands and coordinate efforts to overcome problems. Let’s consider an example. When a juvenile offender enters the court system and is convicted of a crime, a probation officer must do a presentence investigation to determine the exact nature of the crime that was committed. That will involve communication with the police or the county attorney. In addition, the process will also include a home visit to find out about the offender’s family. A trip to the child’s school to see how the offender performed academically is also common, as well as interviews with any previous employers. And as a result of this process, the probation officer will need to appear in court and recommend to a judge what an appropriate sentence should be. All of these stakeholders become a part of the criminal justice system—a system comprised of several different constituencies, all of whom have a role to play in the outcome. Encoding and Decoding Two primary translation processes link messages and meanings in the process of human communication: encoding and decoding. Whenever two or more people interact, they are simultaneously sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages, verbally and/or nonverbally. Encoding is the cognitive process by which we translate the meanings we hold into strategic messages that we send to others. This is not a trivial process in which we directly translate meanings into messages. Rather, it is a complex process in which we weigh our communication goals, current knowledge, and potential audiences to craft appropriate and effective messages. In doing so, we must make decisions about what we want to say as well as how we want to say it to have the desired effects on our intended audiences. And of course, some of thos...
Purchase answer to see full attachment