348 C ON C E PT S A N D Q UES T I O N S
Island of opportunity: can New Guinea protect
amphibians from a globally emerging pathogen?
Deborah S Bower1,2*, Karen R Lips3, Yolarnie Amepou4, Stephen Richards5, Chris Dahl6, Elizah Nagombi1,7, Miriam Supuma1,
Lisa Dabek8,9, Ross A Alford1, Lin Schwarzkopf1, Mark Ziembicki1, Jeffrey N Noro10, Amir Hamidy11, Graeme R Gillespie12,13,
Lee Berger14, Carla Eisemberg4, Yiming Li15, Xuan Liu15, Charlotte K Jennings16, Burhan Tjaturadi17, Andrew Peters18,
Andrew K Krockenberger1, Dillian Nason19, Mirza D Kusrini20, Rebecca J Webb1, Lee F Skerratt14, Chris Banks21,
Andrew L Mack22, Arthur Georges4, and Simon Clulow23,24
The amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid) has caused the most widespread, disease-induced
declines and extinctions in vertebrates recorded to date. The largest climatically suitable landmass that may still be free of this
fungus is New Guinea. The island is home to a sizeable proportion of the world’s known frog species (an estimated 6%), as well as
many additional, yet-to-be-described species. Two decades of research on the chytrid fungus have provided a foundation for
improved management of amphibian populations. We call for urgent, unified, international, multidisciplinary action to prepare
for the arrival of B dendrobatidis in New Guinea, to prevent or slow its spread within the island after it arrives, and to limit its
impact upon the island’s frog populations. The apparent absence of the fungus in New Guinea offers an opportunity to build
capacity in advance for science, disease surveillance, and diagnosis that will have broad relevance both for non-human animal
health and for public health.
Front Ecol Environ 2019; 17(6): 348–354, doi:10.1002/fee.2057
E
arth’s sixth major mass extinction event has begun and
amphibians in particular are in peril; over 40% of amphibian species are threatened with extinction (Stuart et al. 2004).
The Global Pandemic Lineage of the amphibian chytrid fungus
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (the strain of the fungus that
In a nutshell:
• The island of New Guinea is a biodiversity hotspot for
amphibians, whose populations are – to the best of our
knowledge – currently unaffected by the amphibian chytrid
fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
• In preparation for the likely arrival of the fungus and its
spread within New Guinea, international and multidisciplinary coordination is urgently required
• To help mitigate pending disease-related impacts and conserve the island’s amphibians, we recommend several actions,
including prioritizing frog species based on their level of
susceptibility, slowing pathogen transmission, and improving
our understanding of changes in frog communities
1
James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
*(deborah.bower@gmail.com); 2University of New England, Armidale,
Australia; 3University of Maryland, College Park, MD; 4University of
Canberra, Canberra, Australia; 5South Australian Museum, Adelaide,
Australia; 6University of South Bohemia and Institute of Entomology,
Biology Center of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, České
Budějovice, Czech Republic; 7The New Guinea Binatang Research Centre,
Madang, Papua New Guinea; 8Papua New Guinea Tree Kangaroo
Conservation Program, Lae, Papua New Guinea; continued on last page
Front Ecol Environ doi:10.1002/fee.2057
has caused mass die‐offs and population declines of a mphibians
– referred to hereafter as chytrid) is the foremost example of
the impact of an emerging infectious disease on wildlife worldwide, and is responsible for the most widespread, disease-
induced declines and extinctions in vertebrates recorded
to date (Wake and Vredenburg 2008). Originating from Asia
(O’Hanlon et al. 2018), chytrid now occurs on every continent
inhabited by amphibians (Bower et al. 2017a), and the fungus
has spread repeatedly to naïve host populations, where it has
caused mass mortality, population extirpations, and species
extinctions (Berger et al. 1998; Lips et al. 2006).
New Guinea is the world’s largest tropical island and may be
the last major center of amphibian biodiversity free from
chytrid (Swei et al. 2011; Dahl et al. 2012; Bower et al. 2017a).
The lack of detection of this pathogen in New Guinea is notable because the island is home to approximately 6% of the
world’s known frog species, plus many more undescribed species. New Guinea is vulnerable to the introduction of chytrid
because of its close proximity to centers in the Asian pet trade,
as well as infected sites in both Indonesia and Australia. Rising
levels of international commerce and cross-border movement
of people elevate the risk of pathogen introduction (Natusch
and Lyons 2012), and tourism, logging, petroleum development, and mining increase access to formerly remote localities.
Climatic modeling shows that large areas of the central highlands of New Guinea have climates favorable to the fungus
(Figure 1; see WebPanel 1 for more detailed methods). Many of
the Australian frogs that have declined since the 1970s have
close evolutionary and ecological affinities with the New
Guinean frog fauna, strongly suggesting that, as in Australia,
© The Ecological Society of America
Threat to New Guinea amphibians
CONCEP T S AND QU ES T IO NS 349
dramatic declines will occur if the pathogen
becomes established on the island. Chytrid
cannot be eradicated from large areas and can
spread rapidly once it enters a naïve region.
Stringent, well-coordinated biosecurity protocols, disease surveillance, and emergency
response plans could prevent widespread biodiversity loss in New Guinea resulting from the
presence of the chytrid fungus.
Intersection with policy and society
When global amphibian declines were first
documented (in the late 1980s), scientists’
understanding of amphibian population
dynamics was poor, the responsible agent had
not been identified, and little was known about Figure 1. Areas of climatic suitability for the amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium denthe host–pathogen interactions underlying drobatidis) in New Guinea. The central highlands (in red) provide optimal habitat for the fungus,
many population declines. This lack of knowl- and increased accessibility to these remote areas has raised the risk of its introduction. See
edge resulted in delays in appropriate man- WebPanel 1 for more detailed methods.
agement and research on imperiled amphibian
populations. Two decades of research now
Australian frog fauna has a strong affinity with that of New
provide a basis for improving management strategies for
Guinea, with many closely related species. In Australia, 22% of
amphibian populations threatened by chytrid. Given the
pelodryadid (19/88), 7% of limnodynastid (3/44), and 19% of
recorded absence of chytrid in New Guinea, preventive stratmyobatrachid (17/88) species have experienced declines or
egies are necessary now, although options to manage chytrid- extinctions since the arrival of chytrid. Using this as a guide, then
affected areas may be useful post-invasion (Scheele et al. 2014b).
on the Papua New Guinea (PNG) side of New Guinea alone (for
Knowledge of host–pathogen interactions can inform predictive
which data are available), 22 pelodryadids (n known species in
assessments; researchers can identify the most climatically
PNG = 102), 1 limnodynastid (n known species = 4), and 1 myosuitable areas for the fungus and, on a finer scale, use ecobatrachid (n known species = 4) may experience similar declines
logical information to identify high-risk guilds and consequently
(Figure 2; Table 1).
predict species’ responses (Bower et al. 2017b). For example,
It is more difficult to predict impacts on the highly speciose
stream-associated frog populations at high elevations are dismicrohylids in PNG (n = 212 species) or ranids (n = 12 speproportionately affected, further highlighting the vulnerability
cies). There are only a few microhylid species and one ranid
of New Guinean species, many of which inhabit the island’s
species in north Queensland, Australia, which does not mirror
extensive highlands (Murray and Skerratt 2012). Furthermore,
the diversity of forms in New Guinea. Microhylid frogs in
the physiological susceptibly of species can be tested by expoAustralia are represented by just two genera, restricted to the
sure to standardized densities of zoospores in the laboratory.
northern fringe of the continent, and they lack the phylogeImproved knowledge of the biology and epidemiology of declines
netic, morphological, and ecological diversity exhibited by this
provides an important opportunity to manage the threat to
group in New Guinea. Frogs with direct developing embryos
a vulnerable area with high amphibian diversity.
– a reproductive mode exhibited by all New Guinean microBiodiversity in New Guinea remains poorly documented,
hylids – experience more rapid increases in chytrid infection
hampering accurate estimates of species’ losses; moreover, the
loads and higher mortality rates than species with aquatic larinconsistent declines experienced globally due to the chytrid panvae (tadpoles), such as pelodryadid frogs (Mesquita et al.
demic present challenges in predicting which specific taxa in
2017). Although declines related to chytrid infection have not
New Guinea are at risk. Even among closely related taxa, some
been reported for the small number of Australian microhylids
species are susceptible and experience rapid declines, while othand at least some species appear resistant (Hauselberger and
ers are largely unaffected (Scheele et al. 2017). This remains an
Alford 2012), declines could possibly be similar to those of
important knowledge gap, one that is complicated by the fact that
most other major frog lineages around the globe that have
many non-impacted species can still become infected and act as
been exposed to chytrid for which there are data. We therefore
reservoir hosts (Stockwell et al. 2016; Brannelly et al. 2017).
conservatively place these groups at an average risk of decline
However, observations of Australian chytrid impacts can be used
compared to other well-studied frog families in Australia (calto infer which species’ groups might be more susceptible and
culated at ~16%), which could put the number of at-risk speestimate numbers of species that might be impacted. The
cies as high as 38 microhylid and two ranid species (Table 1).
© The Ecological Society of America
Front Ecol Environ doi:10.1002/fee.2057
350 C ON C E PT S A N D Q UES T I O N S
DS Bower et al.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Relative threat of chytrid invasion to different frog families in
Papua New Guinea (PNG), projected from the proportion of frog species
in each family that declined or became extinct due to B dendrobatidis in
Australia (based on Skerratt et al. [2016]). For families where little or no
data are available (ie Microhylidae, Ceratobatrachidae, Ranidae, and
Dicroglossidae; indicated by the question marks in the figure), we used
the mean declines observed from the other families as a proxy. Values in
panels (a) and (b) are provided for PNG and are therefore expected to be
higher for the island of New Guinea overall. From a conservation management perspective, species’ groups of greatest concern can be considered
in two different ways: (a) groups containing a greater number of at-risk
species are of highest concern, while groups containing fewer at-risk
species are of less concern; and (b) groups containing small numbers of
species that are at a higher risk of being affected represent a greater proportion of unique diversity, whereas groups containing large numbers of
species have a greater number of similar species and are collectively of
less concern. Red and green indicate areas of greatest and least threat,
respectively.
Extrapolating the number of at-risk species from the various
families to the entire island of New Guinea (including both the
PNG and Indonesian sides of the island) produces a concerning result: potentially up to 100 or more of the ~500 species in
Front Ecol Environ doi:10.1002/fee.2057
New Guinea are likely at risk, with many more yet-to-be-
discovered species also at risk.
The loss of substantial numbers of frog species is likely to
have broad ecological effects. Changes to primary production
associated with loss of tadpoles and frogs can influence ecosystem structure and function, including changes to nutrient
cycling, leaf litter decomposition, and invertebrate populations
(Whiles et al. 2006, 2013), potentially leading to an overall net
loss of biodiversity.
Action is required immediately to prepare for chytrid emergence in New Guinea. To be effective, international collaborations incorporating multiple disciplines need to develop strategies to prevent and slow the spread of chytrid to and within
New Guinea (PNG and the Indonesian provinces of Papua and
West Papua). Here, we present a five-stage action framework to
guide this process (WebFigure 1).
Stage 1: preparedness
A collaborative task force of key partners in science and policy
should be formed, in conjunction with international aid, to
develop a threat abatement strategy and marshal resources to
implement that strategy (WebTable 1). Identifying the most
likely points of entry to New Guinea and the avenues by
which the pathogen will spread is needed, to help direct
resources for monitoring and subsequently abatement. It is
also critical to formulate an emergency response plan to chytrid,
and to prepare in advance any approvals and other foundations
(eg landowner approval and community consultation) required
for its rapid implementation. Risk assessments associated with
the importation of freshwater products and equipment need
to be incorporated into future policies and regulations, given
the expected damaging consequences of chytrid’s introduction
into New Guinea. Management and research need to occur
in concert with policy development that includes consultation
with landowners and increases the capacity of communities
to respond to the arrival of the fungus. Timely action will
likely rely on developing partnerships with organizations already
working in New Guinea that have established research and
community programs.
Stage 2: prevention
Reducing the probability of introduction can be achieved
through a combination of strategic actions, such as enforcing
quarantine measures through policy changes, investing in
compliance, promoting education, and minimizing risks,
including transportation of infected sources (eg frog legs, fish,
equipment). Imminent introduction of pathogens has been
averted in several locations through lobbying governmental
representatives to amend legislation to reflect newly identified
threats, implementing voluntary import and movement bans
by hobby groups and industry partners, encouraging increased
compliance through social media campaigns, and ensuring
improved capacity of quarantine stations (WebTable 1).
© The Ecological Society of America
CONCEP T S AND QU ES T IO NS 351
Threat to New Guinea amphibians
Stage 3: detection
An island-wide disease surveillance program is required, and
must include an amphibian biodiversity survey and long-
term monitoring sites that are established along the likely
pathways along which the fungus will spread. Such programs
have been successful at recording the arrival of chytrid and
other pathogens in Madagascar (WebTable 1). Community
surveillance for disease outbreaks has been an efficient component for tracking pathogen spread in other systems (eg
West Nile virus in crows [Corvus spp]), but requires education and recruitment. Research is needed to identify sites
of high biodiversity value and to assess additional threats,
including those that may act synergistically with the fungus
(eg habitat conversion).
Stage 4: response
When the pathogen arrives, predetermined and context-
specific management actions should be implemented to
minimize disease impact (WebTable 1). No known measures
can completely eradicate chytrid from large areas and current
options therefore vary in their value (Bosch et al. 2015).
Reducing the chytrid load in the wild can be achieved on
a small scale through habitat manipulation (Roznik et al.
2015; Clulow et al. 2018) or environmental disinfection, but
these actions may have consequences for other species
(Woodhams et al. 2011; Scheele et al. 2014b). Scientists’
ability to increase the resistance of hosts is still at an early
stage (McMahon et al. 2014) and conserving individuals in
threatened populations may be the only short-term option
for some species (eg captive breeding, gene banking) (Skerratt
et al. 2016). Identifying and protecting small remnant populations, such as those outside the optimum habitat for
chytrid, has been a critical component in preventing extinctions in Australia. Translocation to such habitats also has
potential (Germano et al. 2015). Creation of disease-
free
exclosures has also been successful; such exclosures are more
cost effective than captive breeding programs and avoid
some of the problems (eg behavioral modifications) associated with raising individuals that are destined for reintroduction under captive conditions (Skerratt et al. 2016).
Funding to enable these actions is required immediately.
Engagement with and assistance from international organizations that garner and administer funds, and that provide
resources not yet present in New Guinea, will facilitate the
success of these initiatives. International assistance is imperative to ensure positive outcomes and to enhance the current
national capacity for conservation action (Laurance et al. 2012;
Woodhams et al. 2018).
Stage 5: recovery
Current initiatives aimed at recovery have had limited success, and are mainly restricted to the ongoing release of
© The Ecological Society of America
Table 1. Projected declines of frogs in Papua New Guinea (PNG)
based upon declines observed in Australia
Family
Number of Percent
species
declined in
in Australia Australia
Number of
species in
PNG
Predicted
decline
(number of
species) in
PNG
Ceratobatrachidae
0
–
44
8*
Dicroglossidae
0
–
2
1*
Limnodynastidae
44
7
4
1
Microhylidae
24
0*
212
38*
Myobatrachidae
88
19
4
1
Pelodryadidae
88
22
102
22
Ranidae
1
0*
12
2
Total
245
Mean = 16
380
73
Notes: Asterisks indicate where predictions for a certain family are based upon a
mean decline of 16% calculated from the three main families in Australia collectively,
due to there being insufficient data, too few species, or no species at all in Australia
to draw robust conclusions.
individuals from captive colonies and managing specific
populations and associated habitats (WebTable 1). Technology
is emerging that may provide options for permanent recovery
with the implementation of gene banking and translocation
of disease-resistant animals but these actions require investment and proof of concept (Kouba et al. 2013). There is
evidence that some populations afflicted by disease-related
declines can recover over time, often through recruitment
from nearby persisting populations (Scheele et al. 2014a;
McKnight et al. 2017; Voyles et al. 2018). Actions aimed
at rescuing individuals during the initial disease epidemic
may therefore save species (Scheele et al. 2014b). Management
strategies can be simple, such as manipulating species or
habitats to slow or reduce growth of the fungus (eg applying
skin probiotics, translocating species, decreasing canopy cover;
Scheele et al. 2014b). Effective safeguarding of populations
requires action before chytrid arrives in New Guinea, such
as establishing and understanding captive breeding of frog
species, and gene banking a representative sample to preserve
and store genetic diversity (Clulow and Clulow 2016).
Following this five-
stage action framework is advisable
from an economic perspective, when considering the relative
costs and benefits of staged preparation versus emergency conservation efforts. Accurate economic analyses are difficult to
achieve because it is difficult not only to equate a financial
value to biodiversity but also to predict species’ responses
under comparative scenarios. However, research and conservation become expensive and more challenging when species
are rare (Joseph et al. 2009). Initiating work before species
decline enables research to commence at much lower costs,
because accessing species is much easier logistically and less
risky, and answers can be obtained with less effort. The benefit
of early action is exemplified in the following comparison
between establishing captive breeding protocols for two closely
Front Ecol Environ doi:10.1002/fee.2057
352 C ON C E PT S A N D Q UES T I O N S
related species of barred frog in Australia (Mixophyes balbus
and Mixophyes fasciolatus), one of which was common at the
time of conservation while the other was a threatened species
(WebTable 2). The common species required less effort to
locate and source, was subject to fewer regulatory requirements and barriers, and was managed with considerably less
time and expense overall.
Not all actions are equally costly and some have more
advantages than others. For example, improving biosecurity
prevents the import of exotic pathogens, which (if effective) is
cheaper than the costs required to conserve populations after
declines have begun (eg disease exclosures). In addition, while
captive breeding is critical for the persistence of some threatened species, gene banking can provide a less expensive and
more extensive reserve of genetic material, although success
depends on preemptive planning and experimentation.
Further documentation of New Guinea amphibians is an
immediate priority to better understand patterns of existing
diversity. Understanding community composition prior to
pathogen invasion will enable scientists to detect the pathogen’s impacts, and therefore biodiversity surveys should be
conducted in tandem with disease surveillance. Surveys and
surveillance are important for understanding causes of introduction and spread, and for successful application of context-
specific management actions. Documenting the ecosystem-
scale effects of an introduced pathogen over time requires an
understanding of system function before and after invasion;
areas that are currently chytrid-
free represent important
opportunities to examine baseline conditions. How systems
are changed by the emergence of chytridiomycosis is currently
poorly understood due to the scarcity of matched pre-and
post-
invasion datasets. Disease surveillance also provides
opportunities to build the capacity of working groups in the
region (eg training individuals to become familiar with threatening processes) and to mount a coordinated management
response to the threat. A preemptive national monitoring plan
with coordinated disease surveillance in Madagascar (Weldon
et al. 2013) has provided scientists with the ability to respond
to the threat posed by the fungus. Similar responses are being
developed for mitigating the introduction and impacts of the
recently discovered salamander chytrid Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) in the US (Grant et al. 2017).
National differences in policy between PNG and Indonesia
increase the complexity of biosecurity programs, and pathways
of disease introduction will vary between the two countries.
However, the situation provides opportunities for both countries to collaborate and contribute toward advancing science
and conservation in New Guinea; the Indonesian provinces of
West Papua and Papua and the country of PNG are hugely
underrepresented in scientific research (Wilson et al. 2016).
Conservation and research in New Guinea is complicated by
local-scale social and economic factors. Establishing protected
areas and conducting research and natural resource management on traditional lands are dependent on close collaboration
with local communities. In both PNG and Indonesia, any on-
Front Ecol Environ doi:10.1002/fee.2057
DS Bower et al.
the-
ground conservation action must be approved at the
national, provincial, and local community levels. Most critically, customary landowners – indigenous communities who
own the majority of land in New Guinea (~85% in PNG; Filer
2012) – must be involved in the programs and empowered to
lead them, if success is to be achieved. The most efficient way
to do this will be to engage with and foster the growth of established organizations that have working relationships with landowners throughout the island.
Opportunities for capacity building
In New Guinea, the apparent absence of chytrid provides an
opportunity to build capacity for science, disease surveillance,
and diagnosis that will have broad relevance for human and
animal health. Coordinated monitoring should involve existing
international partnerships that support natural resource management, including initiatives for land managers and local
students from New Guinea. For example, the well-established
skill-
sharing partnership between the Port Moresby Nature
Park in PNG and Zoos Victoria in Australia is an ideal platform from which to develop captive management and research
capabilities in the PNG community. Similarly, ecotourism may
provide an opportunity for education through employment
and training of local staff. Collaboration with community-
based conservation, and research organizations in New Guinea
that have preexisting study sites (eg YUS Conservation Area
in Morobe Province, Mt Wilhelm altitudinal transect site,
Wanang in Madang Province), will also be essential because
successful engagement of landowners requires time to build
trust and cultural understanding. In addition, the establishment of long-
term monitoring sites for amphibian disease
surveillance could serve as a social benefit by directing funds
into capacity building through training and by providing a
long-
term source of income for communities that preserve
their land. It also offers a chance to increase the resources
available to in-
country museum and data repositories, and
to ensure that data are openly accessible, and that education
is part of the scientific process. Possible sources of logistical
and financial support include international non-governmental
organizations, government agencies, and industries operating
inside New Guinea with an interest in improving animal
health and maintaining biodiversity.
Documenting the island’s amphibian biodiversity is critical
for the development of the proactive, innovative, and experimental conservation measures that will be necessary should population declines begin (Figure 3). In summary, given the likelihood
of chytrid’s eventual arrival to New Guinea, we recommend prioritizing the conservation of the island’s frog species based on
their relative imperilment, quantifying changes in frog communities to better understand and mitigate the pathogen’s potential
impacts, promoting biosecurity and education to reduce the
transmission and spread of the pathogen once it arrives, and ultimately rescuing frog populations and thereby preserving
amphibian biodiversity. Achieving this requires funding, plan© The Ecological Society of America
CONCEP T S AND QU ES T IO NS 353
Threat to New Guinea amphibians
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3. An illustration of frog diversity in New Guinea. (a) Sphenophryne cornuta with young, (b) Lechriodus aganoposis, (c) Oreophryne oviprotector,
and (d) Callulops doriae.
ning, and coordinated efforts by a dedicated task force, as well as
the implementation of an active management plan, similar to the
framework proposed here. Our call to action is urgent.
Acknowledgements
We thank S Mahony for providing the photographs in
WebTable 2.
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Supporting Information
Additional, web-only material may be found in the online
version of this article at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.
1002/fee.2057/suppinfo
9
Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, WA; 10The Kainake Project, Kainake
Village, Papua New Guinea; 11Laboratory of Herpetology, Museum
Zoologicum Bogoriense (Zoology Division), Research Center for Biology,
Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia; 12Tenkile
Conservation Alliance, Wewak, Papua New Guinea; 13School of
Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia; 14Melbourne
Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Australia; 15Key
Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of
Zoology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; 16Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology, University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA;
17
Center of Environment Studies, Sanata Dharma University,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia; 18Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Charles Sturt
University, Wagga Wagga, Australia; 19Papua New Guinea Institute of
Biological Research, Goroka, Papua New Guinea; 20Department of Forest
Resources Conservation & Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor
Agricultural University, Darmaga Campus, Bogor, Indonesia; 21Zoos
Victoria, Parkville, Australia; 22Pennsylvania State University–Altoona,
Altoona, PA; 23Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University,
Sydney, Australia; 24School of Environmental and Life Sciences,
University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia
© The Ecological Society of America
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Assignment Details
BIOL 106L BIOL PRIN I LAB - (17375-FA2021)
Why and how is chytrid fungus a problem for
amphibians?
Why have mountain yellow-legged frog
populations been declining in Yosemite
National Park and how is chytrid fungus
exacerbating this issue?
From an ecological perspective, why should
we protect mountain yellow-legged frogs (or
any species, for that matter) from
extinction?
Why might New Guinea be an important area
to protect from chytrid fungus? Is it
possible?
How are scientists fighting back against
chytrid?
With knowledge of chytrid fungus and fish-
stocking in mind, how can non-native,
invasive species be harmful to ecosystems?
Write your response below by Friday, Dec.
3rdat 11:59pm and comment on at least
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Assignment Details
BIOL 106 BIOLOGIC PRIN I – (17369-FA2021)
COMPLIUILI
For the extra credit:
Dr. Nickols mentioned this article by Mary
Annaïse Heglar
https://www.thenation.com/article/environme
nt/climate-world-building/
She quote from that article, then put up this
as the assignment (which was adapted from
the end of the article)
Imagine the world you want to live in.
• What do people value in this world?
• How do they treat each other?
• What's important in this new world and
what isn't?
How does the air feel? What does it
smell like?
1 What does it look like?
• What relationship do people have with
the earth? Is there something from that
world that you can bring to this one?
Submit Assignment
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