1) In a two-page paper, research how physics is used in a specific profession of your choice. You should identify two physics principles used in the profession as well as explain, in detail, how they are used. Rubric: Student correctly identified principles used in chosen profession with details. Student provided accurate explanation of how physics is applied in chosen profession. 2) Identify a current problem in physics by searching for news articles and current events. One reputable source of news in physics is Phys.org. Choose one article, and in two pages, describe how the scientific method is being used to solve the problem mentioned in the article. Identify the initial observations that identified the problem, the hypothesis, tests, and any revisions of the original hypothesis. Cite the article in APA format as well as other references you might use. Rubric: Correctly identifies the steps in the scientific method represented in the current research and explained how they relate to each other within the scientific method. 3) Instructions: In a two-page paper, identify the classical physics principles contained within the following scenario. Explain how these principals connect to work done by Galileo or Newton. Finally, consider the different fields in which Galileo and Newton did research, and give an example of one of these fields in use in your life. For instance, Newton developed the field of optics. If you wear glasses or contact lenses, you are using Newton's physical optics theories every day. Aside from glasses or contacts, how do the theories of Newton or Galileo affect you in your daily life? Scenario: Mandy took a trip to Rome, Italy. She gazed out over the open ocean 20,000 feet below as her airplane began its descent to her final destination. She could watch the Sun setting in the west. Over the Eastern horizon peeked a full moon, just rising, displaying its cratered face. As the plane neared the ground, Mandy could not help but think that she was in a giant metal object hurtling through the sky. Without the specific shape of its wings, the plane would fall to the ground no differently than a large metal projectile. Rubric: Student listed physics principals including identification of a strong majority of elements and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. 4) Instructions: In a two-page paper, identify the physics principles contained within the following scenario. Explain how these principals connect to electricity, magnetism, or light in modern applications in physics. Finally, consider the different concepts in which James Clerk Maxwell did research, and give an example of one of these concepts in use in your life. For instance, Maxwell's research led to the development of radio waves. If you listen to a radio, then you are using Maxwell's research. Provide another example from your own experience, compare, and contrast your scenario to the provided scenario below. Scenario: Mandy took a trip to Rome, Italy. Once landed and inside the terminal, she turned her cell phone back on, but it was not charged. She found a charging station with a USB adaptor port. The USB was universal, providing 5 volts in any country you were in, and a small red LED next to her phone's screen told her the phone was successfully charging. This USB port seemed to have very high amperage, meaning it charged her phone quickly. She was aware, though, that almost all of Italy's electricity was generated by burning fossil fuels, and thus she was determined after this to use the portable solar charger she had bought rather than wall electricity. Rubric: Student listed physics principals including identification of a strong majority of elements, and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. 5) Instructions: In a two-page paper, identify the physics principles contained within the following scenario. Explain how these principals connect to Einstein's theory of relativity or in modern applications in physics. If you use a GPS option on your car or a mobile device, you are using Einstein's theory of relativity. Finally, provide another example from your own experience, then compare and contrast your scenario to the provided example below. Scenario: Mandy took a trip to Rome, Italy. She gazed out over the open ocean 20,000 feet below as her airplane began its descent to her final destination of Rome. It had been a long flight from New York to Rome, but as she stretched, and her bones creaked as though she was old, she knew that in fact, she was a tiny bit younger than her compatriots back home, thanks to traveling at hundreds of miles per hour. In fact, time for her was running slowly compared to her friends in New York for two reasons: the speed at which she had traveled and the height of the airplane above the Earth. Neither, though, were noticeable. Rubric: Student listed physics principals including identification of a strong majority of elements and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. 6) In a two-page paper, research three examples of technologies that use quantum mechanics. Explain, in your own words, how these applications impact society. If you or someone you know has ever had an MRI scan for a medical diagnosis, you have experienced the result of quantum physics for measuring bodily structures. Finally, provide another specific example from your own life that could be influenced by these applications. Rubric: Student listed 3 examples of technologies that used quantum mechanics including identification of a strong majority of elements and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. 1) In a two-page paper, research how physics is used in a specific profession of your choice. You should identify two physics principles used in the profession as well as explain, in detail, how they are used. Rubric: Student correctly identified principles used in chosen profession with details. Student provided accurate explanation of how physics is applied in chosen profession. The word "physics" comes from the Greek word for "nature" and hearkens back to a time when ancient Greek philosophers were beginning to wonder if the events they noticed in the natural world had causes aside from gods and magic. These physicists were self-titled "natural philosophers" and, in many ways, they had a lot of things wrong. For instance, Aristotle (who coined the word "physics") observed that rocks sank in water and fire rose in the air, and called these the four elements. He believed rocks sank because their natural position ("essential nature") was below that of water, and that water had a natural position below air, and that fire's natural position was to be highest of them all, so it climbed up. We now know why rocks sink in water—they are denser than water. They don't have an innate position below water as Aristotle thought. However, he did have something crucially correct—he was observing the idiosyncrasies of nature and attempting to explain them without reference to supernatural beings. Physics is a desire to explain why things are the way they are. Crucially, physics can be used to predict how physical objects and systems will behave. For instance, we now know rocks sink in water, but will an unknown object? Physics has now told us that we only need to know the density of the unknown object to predict what will happen. Physics gives us a window into the future. As time went on, specialized areas of physics began to diverge from the main trunk. People who were interested in how chemicals behave and react formed the science of chemistry. People who were interested in why living organisms behave as they do formed the science of biology. However, all of these are in their most basic sense, physics. Today, physicists grapple with questions about the basic existence of matter and energy and their relationship to each other, while engineers exploit these new discoveries to make advanced technologies, and still, other scientists rely upon new discoveries in physics to help explain the unexplained questions of their fields. Ancient Greek Physicists (Around 300 BC) • • • • • Recognized four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. Believed Earth was round and at the center of the universe. Formed ideas based on experimentation. Sought to supplant religious explanations for the natural world with physical ones. Beliefs lasted thousands of years; up to the time of the Scientific Revolution (the 1500s). Outside of Greece • • • • In India, philosophers suggested the existence of the atom and of the Sun-centered solar system. Indian atom theory was based on philosophy, not experimentation. Chinese scientists were experimenting with magnets to make a compass and with light. Muslim scientists made key breakthroughs in math (algebra), astronomy, and optics. Medieval Europe • • • Physical explanations were accepted and taught as long as they didn’t contradict the Bible. Reinforced Aristotle’s ideas of essential nature. Reinforced Earth’s central position in the universe. • Developed the Theory of Impetus, which would lead to the concepts of inertia and momentum. Scientific Revolution • • • • Copernicus suggested a heretical Sun-centered solar system. Galileo performed experiments on falling objects, projectiles, and pendulums. He introduced the concept of setting up an experiment and measuring values that underlie all of science today. Descartes imagined objects as composed of particles moving within a coordinate system. Newton described everyday objects as acting according to the forces applied to them. 18th Century Physics • • • • Physicists applied Newton’s concept of forces to many different realms of nature: Accurate measurements improved experimental abilities. Movement of fluids as lots of tiny particles feeling forces. Investigation of heat as the energy of particles. 19th Century • • • • Physicists continued work in: Exploration of the concepts of electricity and magnetism in Newton’s framework of forces. Identification of current as a force moving electrons. Exploration of light including the discovery of many parts of the spectrum like radio waves Modern Physics • • • • • Marie Curie explored radioactivity of different metals. Radioactivity advanced to practical applications such as nuclear fission reactors. X-rays are discovered. Special relativity, developed by Einstein, shows that the speed of light is a constant and nothing can exceed it. This creates new laws for what happens at speeds approaching the speed of light. Einstein re-envisions General Relativity. Quantum mechanics defines new physical rules for subatomic particles. 2) Identify a current problem in physics by searching for news articles and current events. One reputable source of news in physics is Phys.org. Choose one article, and in two pages, describe how the scientific method is being used to solve the problem mentioned in the article. Identify the initial observations that identified the problem, the hypothesis, tests, and any revisions of the original hypothesis. Cite the article in APA format as well as other references you might use. Rubric: Correctly identifies the steps in the scientific method represented in the current research and explained how they relate to each other within the scientific method. Ancient Greek physicist Aristotle viewed the physical world as composed of the classical elements of earth, water, air, fire, and ether. To him, it made sense that the world must be Earth-centered. The heaviest element was believed to be "earth" — it moves to the center, and the other elements surround it according to their densities. The ether is the lightest element and composes the stars and planets, so it must be located outside of the other elements. This geocentric (Earth-centered) view dominated science for thousands of years, mainly because to contradict this view was to contradict the Church. At the time, the Church dominated society and to think differently from its prescribed views was very dangerous. The Greek astronomer Aristarchus first proposed the ideas that the Earth revolved around the Sun and that stars were actually other suns. The heliocentric (Sun-centered) model was not proposed until almost 1800 years later! Nicolaus Copernicus The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus published his book about the heliocentric model in 1543, very close to the time of his death. His ideas were not well received at first by the Church, but other astronomers quickly recognized its importance. His calculations did not quite work out because he persisted in the beliefs that the orbits of the planets were perfect circles, but his ideas were correct. The Copernican Revolution begins with the publication of this work and ends with Newton's books on motion and gravitation which derived the physics responsible for the observed planetary motion. Tycho Brahe & Johann Kepler In the late 1500’s, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe became interested in Copernicus’s book and built a giant naked-eye observatory. There, he collected precise planetary data over decades. He gave this data to mathematician Johann Kepler, who was able to determine the orbits of the planets around the Sun, which Johann published in 1609. Galileo Galilei In 1609, Galileo became the first astronomer to use a telescope to make observations of the sky. He made numerous discoveries that supported the heliocentric model introduced by Copernicus and refined by Kepler. For example, he watched the four largest moons of Jupiter orbit. They orbited that planet and not the Earth. Perhaps most importantly, Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus agrees with the predictions of the heliocentric model. We could not observe the changing shape of Venus unless both Earth and Venus orbit the Sun. Isaac Newton Before Sir Isaac Newton published his main body of research, it was assumed that the heavens were governed by separate laws, and that these laws did not determine what was observed on Earth. Newton discovered that the same laws that affect motion on Earth govern the motion of planets as well. There is only one set of physical laws. Earth is no longer a special place at the center of the Universe. The same physical principles we study on Earth also apply to the Moon and other planets. The same force that causes stars to orbit the center of a galaxy also causes an apple to fall to the ground on a small, blue planet located in that galaxy. Newton's book on motion, Principia, is considered to be the greatest physics book ever published. Containing his laws of motion, the theory of gravity, and derivations of planetary motions, it tells us how everything in the universe should move. Physicists call this study Newtonian mechanics. One of the main points to take away from this lecture is how important the shift from the Earth-centered model to the Sun-centered model is. For thousands of years, Earth was considered the center of everything. Over the course of a century, Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model, Kepler refined this model, and Galileo supported the model with observations. Finally, Newton derived the physics governing all motion in the Universe. While there have been many significant scientific discoveries since the Copernican revolution, this shift in our place in the Universe remains one of the most important. 3) Instructions: In a two-page paper, identify the classical physics principles contained within the following scenario. Explain how these principals connect to work done by Galileo or Newton. Finally, consider the different fields in which Galileo and Newton did research, and give an example of one of these fields in use in your life. For instance, Newton developed the field of optics. If you wear glasses or contact lenses, you are using Newton's physical optics theories every day. Aside from glasses or contacts, how do the theories of Newton or Galileo affect you in your daily life? Scenario: Mandy took a trip to Rome, Italy. She gazed out over the open ocean 20,000 feet below as her airplane began its descent to her final destination. She could watch the Sun setting in the west. Over the Eastern horizon peeked a full moon, just rising, displaying its cratered face. As the plane neared the ground, Mandy could not help but think that she was in a giant metal object hurtling through the sky. Without the specific shape of its wings, the plane would fall to the ground no differently than a large metal projectile. Rubric: Student listed physics principals including identification of a strong majority of elements and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. Galileo is one of the key figures of the Scientific Revolution. He researched both physics and astronomy. Most importantly, he was the first scientist to design experiments to see what would happen, and then to base physical laws on the results of those experiments. Whereas Aristotle was interested in why things move the way they do, Galileo was interested in the more fundamental question of "how does stuff move?" It turns out some that of assumptions you might make about movement in everyday life—including assumptions Aristotle made—are not true. Physics of Motion Using experiments with rolling balls on ramps, Galileo discovered: • • • Objects slow down as they move up the ramp. Objects accelerate as they roll down the ramp. Objects keep the same speed as they roll along a flat surface From these observations, he formulated his Principle of Inertia: “A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed.” Physics of Falling Objects Supposedly, Galileo experimented by dropping objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, though that is not very likely. He most likely did experiments by dropping objects, though. Galileo proposed that objects in free fall have a speed that does not depend on their weight or shape. He understood that the distance objects fall at a given time is proportional to the square of the time. Sun-Centered Universe Prior to Galileo, most people believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe in the so-called geocentric model. Galileo found evidence that, in fact, the Sun was at the center (the heliocentric model). He used a telescope to look at the sky for the very first time in 1609 and found: • • • • • The phases of Venus. The heliocentric model predicted that Venus would show its phases to Earth as it orbited the Sun. Sunspots. Previously, the Sun was thought to be perfect and unchanging. Jupiter’s moons. He discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter, which are to this day called the Galilean moons. These clearly orbited Jupiter, but in the geocentric model, everything orbited the Earth. Craters on the Moon. The Moon was also previously thought to be perfect, but through a telescope, it looks like what it is—a place covered with sand and craters. Stars in the Milky Way. The Milky Way is the stars from our galaxy, strewn across the sky. The stars are so far away that all we see is a faint, white cloud. Galileo was shocked to realize that faint glow was coming from billions of stars, and even suggested they might also be suns. In summary, Galileo was the first modern scientist in the sense that he set up experiments in order to test his ideas, and formulated results based on his carefully controlled experiments. To this day, science classes and scientists all over the world approach science this same way. At some point in your life, you have probably been in a lab group or a science classroom unwittingly copying Galileo's methodology. For his heresy of publishing books that supported the Sun-centered solar system and mocked the Pope, Galileo was sanctioned by the Catholic Church in 1633 and confined to his house. He died in 1642. The Catholic Church forgave his heresy in 1992. In this section, the development of Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation will be explored, as well as the ways in which this development changed the way we view physical laws on Earth and throughout the Universe. Before Sir Isaac Newton published his main body of research in 1687, it was not well understood how the physical laws on Earth were connected to the physical laws operating in the rest of the Universe. It was assumed that separate laws governed the heavens and that these laws did not determine what was observed on Earth. Gravity The well-known story of an apple falling on Newton's head and thus providing him with the insight needed to develop his theory of gravity might not be exactly correct. As Newton told one of his first biographers, he was sitting outside in view of an apple tree and watched an apple fall to the ground. He began to think about why objects always fall straight to the Earth and realized that the Earth is pulling on these objects and that there must be some sort of attracting force that causes everything to fall toward the center of the Earth. In his most important publication, Newton drew an illustration of the Earth with a mountain and cannon on top of the mountain. In this thought experiment, a cannonball is fired at increasingly greater velocities until it falls around the Earth at the same velocity as the Earth's surface falls away. The cannon ball is in orbit around the Earth! Of course, this would only work if there were no mountains or other obstacles to get in the way, including atmospheric drag. Newton recognized that the Moon also "falls" around the Earth. The Moon has enough velocity not to be pulled into the Earth but is not moving fast enough to escape the Earth's gravity. The Earth is also "falling" around the Sun. If the Sun suddenly disappeared, the gravitation force would also disappear, and the Earth would move in a straight line. The gravitational force between two objects is proportional to the masses of the objects divided by the square of their separation. This type of relationship is called an inverse square law. As the quantity in the numerator increases (in this case, one or both of the masses), the gravitational force will also increase. If the distance between the objects increases, the force will decrease according to the square of the distance. The importance of Newton's "discovery" of the law of gravitation is that the same laws apply everywhere. Earth was no longer a special place at the center of the Universe. The same physical principles we study on Earth also apply to the Moon and other planets. The same force that causes stars to orbit the center of a galaxy also causes an apple to fall to the ground on a small, blue planet called ‘Earth’ located in that galaxy. Inertia Inertia was first introduced by Galileo, but Newton restated Galileo’s idea as his first law of motion: “Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion, in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.” Force and Mass Newton’s second law of motion explains how you change the motion of an object by applying a force. It also shows that you have to push bigger objects harder in order to get as much motion as you might from a smaller one. Newton explained this as follows: “The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.” Action and Reaction Newton’s third law of motion states that forces come in pairs. If you kick a soccer ball, then from the point of view of the soccer ball, it kicked you. If you have ever kicked a soccer ball without shoes on, you are probably familiar with this sensation! Newton stated: “To every action there is always an opposed and equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to contrary parts.” This is also called the “Rocket Law” because this is how a rocket works. Rockets throw gas out of one end as hard as they can in order to be pushed forward. Light Sir Isaac Newton believed that light was composed of a stream of particles or corpuscles. Even though he was aware of some of the experiments that indicated light also has wave properties, he continued to advance his corpuscular theory of light. Following the publication of Newton's Opticks, the next 100 years were dominated by his particle theory of light. Calculus Isaac Newton was the chief inventor of a field of math known as calculus. This field uses the idea of dividing things up into tiny parts to calculate the whole. Newton developed it to show that each little piece of the planet Earth exerts a force on us, and that when you add up all those tiny parts, you get the total force that you are feeling all the time. Calculus remains one of the most powerful mathematical tools in the hands of scientists. Exploring the topics presented in this lecture, we can see the great impact that the publication of Newton's Principia had on the scientific community. The study of Newtonian mechanics changed the way the physical laws were researched and led to many discoveries by physicists in modern times. 4) Instructions: In a two-page paper, identify the physics principles contained within the following scenario. Explain how these principals connect to electricity, magnetism, or light in modern applications in physics. Finally, consider the different concepts in which James Clerk Maxwell did research, and give an example of one of these concepts in use in your life. For instance, Maxwell's research led to the development of radio waves. If you listen to a radio, then you are using Maxwell's research. Provide another example from your own experience, compare, and contrast your scenario to the provided scenario below. Scenario: Mandy took a trip to Rome, Italy. Once landed and inside the terminal, she turned her cell phone back on, but it was not charged. She found a charging station with a USB adaptor port. The USB was universal, providing 5 volts in any country you were in, and a small red LED next to her phone's screen told her the phone was successfully charging. This USB port seemed to have very high amperage, meaning it charged her phone quickly. She was aware, though, that almost all of Italy's electricity was generated by burning fossil fuels, and thus she was determined after this to use the portable solar charger she had bought rather than wall electricity. Rubric: Student listed physics principals including identification of a strong majority of elements, and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. The Discovery of Electromagnetism: This section's topic covers the discovery of electromagnetism. Considered one of the most important developments in physics since Newton's work on the laws of motion and gravitation, James Clerk Maxwell's mathematical description of electromagnetism resulted in the discovery that light is an electromagnetic wave. This new understanding of electromagnetism directly led to many technological advancements, including communication using radio waves, the ability to create electric motors and generate power, and the means to send electricity to homes and businesses. Thomas Young At the beginning of the 19th century, Thomas Young demonstrated that light has properties of a wave. We can see that light will interfere with itself and that the waves have a particular orientation in space, which results in polarization. However, there was still something missing — if light is a wave, what is the medium through which it travels? Sound waves move through the air while waves in the ocean obviously travel through the water. So, what exactly is “waving” when it comes to light? Since the time of the ancient Greeks, people thought that space is filled with something called the luminiferous ether that everything moves through, including the Earth. Albert Michelson and Edward Morley In order to determine if something like the ether could affect the speed of light as it traveled through space, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley conducted an experiment in 1887 to measure how the speed of light might be affected as it travels in perpendicular directions. One direction would be in the same direction as the ether “wind,” and the other direction would be perpendicular. Each path is exactly the same, but if something (like ether) were to cause the light to slow down, then light would take longer to travel its path. When the light formed through each path is later combined, a change in the interference pattern would show that the light was slowed down on one of the paths. Michelson-Morley Experiment Failed The Michelson-Morley experiment has sometimes been called the most famous failed experiment because they did not find any evidence that an ether wind was present. Despite the results of this experiment, James Clerk Maxwell still incorporated some properties of the ether in his work. Only with the work of Albert Einstein and his theory of special relativity in the early 1900s was the notion of ether finally dismissed. Before we explore Maxwell’s discovery of electromagnetism, let’s take a quick look at electric and magnetic fields. Magnetic and Electric Fields A magnetic field can be produced by an object that contains certain elements, such as iron or nickel, which produce an ever-present magnetic field. The magnets on your refrigerator are made of these types of materials. However, magnetic fields are also associated with electric charges and electric fields. A moving charge or changing electric field also creates a magnetic field. For many years, scientists believed that electric fields and magnetic fields were separate things. But, as scientists continued to conduct experiments with electric current and magnetic fields, they made some very important discoveries. First, Hans Christian Oersted demonstrated that a changing current moving through a wire changed the direction of a compass needle. This meant that a changing current must produce a magnetic field! Michael Faraday Another physicist, Michael Faraday, also discovered that a changing magnetic field produces a current. This is called electromagnetic induction and is the basis for how electric motors operate. So, now scientists know there is a connection between electricity and magnetism, but what exactly does this mean? The Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell took all of the concepts known about electric fields, magnetic fields, and their interaction, and then he determined the mathematical equations to describe them. This combined phenomena is called electromagnetism, and it basically describes how electromagnetic fields are created and how they interact with matter and other fields. Since all matter is composed of atoms, the electromagnetic theory describes, well, almost everything! Nevertheless, there is still one very important concept to discuss. Maxwell also determined the speed at which electromagnetic waves travel: It was equal to the speed of light! This meant that light is an electromagnetic wave. Maxwell's equations also showed that electromagnetic waves can travel in a vacuum—they do not need a medium to move through. Almost 25 years later, Maxwell's predictions were finally tested when Heinrich Hertz generated and transmitted radio waves in his laboratory. The unit of frequency is called the hertz and represents cycles per second. The lower the frequency, the smaller the number. The radiation emitted over all frequencies as described by Maxwell's equations is called the electromagnetic spectrum. We now understand that radio waves, microwaves, visible light, and X-rays are all the same phenomena but have different wavelengths. The only part of the radiation that is visible to the human eye is called visible light. Other radiation can be damaging to our cells, such as highenergy X-rays. Radio waves that have longer wavelengths with lower energy can travel long distances in the Earth's atmosphere and are very useful for communication. James Clerk Maxwell's contributions to scientific thought are nicely summarized by the physicists Richard Feynman and Albert Einstein. Before Maxwell discovered that light is only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, physics was, in a way, disconnected. Light was seen as something separate from electricity and magnetism, which in turn were not connected to each other. Without Maxwell's contributions, our comprehension of the nature of light would still be very limited, and as stated earlier, we would not be enjoying the level of technology currently available. The Security of Light: While we can't directly observe that light is a wave (as we are able to with water or sound waves), there are many technologies that take advantage of the ability of light waves to ability of light waves to produce interference. Holograms are one such technology that makes use of interference to produce three-dimensional images. There are many different types of holograms and a number of different ways in which to create a holographic image. The basic process of producing a hologram involves recording an interference pattern produced by light reflected from an object as well as the light from a reference beam. The information recorded on film allows a viewer to see an object in 3D and see the perspective of the image change as the viewpoint changes (if the image is moved or tilted). Some types of holograms are used for security purposes. Since it is difficult to recreate the exact holographic image, holograms are often used on currency, especially notes that have large values and credit cards. 5) Instructions: In a two-page paper, identify the physics principles contained within the following scenario. Explain how these principals connect to Einstein's theory of relativity or in modern applications in physics. If you use a GPS option on your car or a mobile device, you are using Einstein's theory of relativity. Finally, provide another example from your own experience, then compare and contrast your scenario to the provided example below. Scenario: Mandy took a trip to Rome, Italy. She gazed out over the open ocean 20,000 feet below as her airplane began its descent to her final destination of Rome. It had been a long flight from New York to Rome, but as she stretched, and her bones creaked as though she was old, she knew that in fact, she was a tiny bit younger than her compatriots back home, thanks to traveling at hundreds of miles per hour. In fact, time for her was running slowly compared to her friends in New York for two reasons: the speed at which she had traveled and the height of the airplane above the Earth. Neither, though, were noticeable. Rubric: Student listed physics principals including identification of a strong majority of elements and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. Cool Devices From Physics: Transistors • The transistor is considered to be the greatest invention of the twentieth century. It is the active component of all modern electronics. • They are found in everything from a battery-operated watch, to a coffee maker, to a cell phone, to a supercomputer. • In 1947, John Bardeen invented transistor using many of the previous physics theories. Wireless Technology • Maxwell and Hertz’s work with electromagnetic waves led to the creation of wireless technology. • In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi built a wireless transmission station in Cornwall, England, and successfully transmitted a radio signal to Newfoundland (which is now a part of Canada) across the Atlantic Ocean. • In the 1950s, Bell Labs scientist, Claude Elwood Shannon, published the landmark paper, “A mathematical theory of communication,” which explained how to measure information and how much information can be sent in a communication channel. Remote Control Devices The following remote control devices rely on wireless technology: • Television remotes • Toys, such as a remote control car • Garage door openers Fiber Optics • In the 1840s, physicists Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet showed that light could be directed along jets of water for fountain displays. • In the 1920s, John Logie Baird patented the idea of using arrays of transparent rods to transmit images for television, and Clarence W. Hansell did the same for facsimiles. • Some of the uses for fiber optics include computer networks, the internet, long-distance communications, many medical applications and security systems. The examples present here are representative of a vast array of technologies and innovations that have been developed as the result of physics study and research. GPS application While we cannot actually observe the effects of length contraction and time dilation under normal circumstances (Albert Einstein's theory of relativity), these effects still need to be accounted for. For example, GPS satellites are moving quite fast relative to the Earth, so an observer on Earth would see the satellite's clock running slower than a clock on the Earth. If a correction is not made to the clock, then your GPS would not be able to provide your correct location! The effects of relativity are also important for particle accelerators. These accelerators propel particles to speeds close to that of light, and the path the particles take appears to be considerably shorter to the particle. The two-mile path appears to be only about one meter long in the reference frame of the electrons and particles! It is important to remember that space and time are connected. This concept is called "spacetime" and is fundamental to understanding many concepts in physics. The discovery of relativity changed our perceptions of how space and time operate; its importance has become clear as technology has advanced. 6) In a two-page paper, research three examples of technologies that use quantum mechanics. Explain, in your own words, how these applications impact society. If you or someone you know has ever had an MRI scan for a medical diagnosis, you have experienced the result of quantum physics for measuring bodily structures. Finally, provide another specific example from your own life that could be influenced by these applications. Rubric: Student listed 3 examples of technologies that used quantum mechanics including identification of a strong majority of elements and includes excellent descriptive details. Student provided personal experience; descriptions of scenarios are clear; analysis of provided in detail. The study of physics has resulted in a number of technological developments in medicine. Some of the most significant improvements in our understanding of the human body come from sophisticated medical imaging. Before we could image the inside of the body, people had to rely on direct observations provided by dissection. It has certainly been a great improvement for society when doctors can use physics to safely and accurately, not to mention painlessly, look inside of the human body. The field of medical imaging includes any method that is used to create an image of the inside of the body. Some of the common imaging techniques that will be discussed in this lecture are radiography, ultrasound, and MRI scanning. Many diseases are diagnosed and treated using different types of imaging, but we can also learn more than just what is not working correctly in the body. Perhaps most importantly, medical imaging can be used to study how the brain works—how we think, learn and feel. In this lecture, we will focus on what imaging can tell us about the brain and how we can apply that knowledge to understanding ourselves as humans. Imaging Techniques Radiography, one of the oldest techniques used to see the inside of the human body, was developed at the end of the 19th century. Since that time, radiography has advanced significantly. X-rays are highenergy electromagnetic radiation that easily passes through the soft tissues of the body, creating an image of harder structures such as bone. X-rays are also used in computed tomography where computer technology is used to turn the X-ray data into image "slices" of the object. X-rays are ionizing radiation and can be very dangerous to living tissue. Exposure to ionizing radiation is known to cause tissue damage and cancer. The radiation dosage of modern X-ray equipment is carefully controlled, but radiation exposure remains an important consideration when deciding what type of imaging to use. Another type of imaging uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of the interior organs of the body. Ultrasound imaging or sonography does not use ionizing radiation and is generally safe to use, and the equipment is relatively inexpensive and portable. There are many different ways to use ultrasound technology, such as imaging internal organs and in obstetrics. In the rest of this lecture, we will focus on magnetic resonance imaging or MRI. This technique relies on using extremely strong magnetic fields and requires expensive and specialized equipment. The magnetic field strength inside an MRI machine can be more than 10,000 times stronger than the Earth's magnetic field. To achieve this field strength, the magnet needs to be cooled to almost absolute zero, creating a superconducting magnet. MRI scans can be conducted on almost any part of the body and do not use ionizing radiation, so are relatively safe. MRI imaging The strong magnetic field passing through the body causes the protons in water molecules to align with the field. A radio frequency wave is then turned on, causing some of the protons to align differently. When the radio wave is turned off, the protons return to their preferred state and give off energy. This energy is used to create images of different structures in the body. Sophisticated computers are used to analyze the data and produce the images. The computer technology is almost as important as the physics; without sophisticated programs, the data collected would be difficult to interpret. Neuroimaging is a rapidly advancing part of the neuroscience field. The use of MRI scans has provided researchers with a significant amount of interesting and valuable data about the brain and how it operates. The field of neuroscience is extremely large and diverse in its research, so we will only look at a few of the questions that scientists are trying to answer, including how we learn, the effects of sleep deprivation on the brain, what dreams can tell us about how the mind works, and if it is possible to use neuroimaging to read someone's thoughts. Why image the brain? Imaging the brain can provide a lot of information about how we think and learn. Because language is fundamental to how we communicate, the understanding and processing of language are some of the most important areas of research. Through MRI scanning, research has discovered that learning a foreign language can protect our minds as we age. From studying how the brain processes language, we can even determine the optimal method for a specific individual to learn a new language. We can even use the normal functioning of the brain to help rehabilitate patients when the brain is damaged or stops functioning correctly. Neuroimaging also helps us to understand what happens to the brain when we are sleep deprived. By examining which parts of the brain are activated for a well-rested person and then for the same individual experiencing sleep deprivation, scientists have been able to identify how sleep impacts our brain. When we lack sleep, it can be seen that the decision-making centers of our brain are less active. However, studies have also found a corresponding increase of activity in the brain centers that respond to rewards. There seems to be a connection between these reward centers and craving high-calorie foods when lacking sleep. But not all of the news is bad! It seems that our brains can learn to compensate for the lack of sleep by activating certain areas. This could provide insight into how to designs the best schedules for shift works, and what types of jobs or tasks may be suitable for those individuals who may experience regular sleep deprivation. Understanding our dreams—are we there yet? We have always been interested in our dreams and what they tell us about ourselves. Using MRI scanning, scientists have been able to determine the visual content of actual dreams! Research subjects were scanned while dreaming, and then they provided detailed written accounts of the images in their dreams. Matching these written accounts to the MRI images of the dreaming brain allowed scientists to identify the images the subjects were dreaming about when they were scanned during new dreams. There are many applications for this type of research, and it may be especially helpful for those individuals who cannot communicate verbally. Reading thoughts? Finally, the important question: Can we use MRI or other imaging technology to actually read someone's thoughts? So far, scientists have not yet determined how to do this. They have made advances in understanding how the brain makes decisions, and even predicting certain decisions based on brain scan images. They have also identified when a person being scanned is thinking about a particular category of objects. But, the results from numerous research studies indicate that we are a long way from being able to use technology, at least discretely, to read someone's mind. Part of the difficulty lies in the fact that human thought includes an emotional aspect, making it difficult to predict how a certain image might correlate to a particular thought. In the end, people are individuals, with individual minds, and while there are certainly similar patterns in how we think and process information, it seems that there is a lot more to the mind than we currently understand. The Impact of Physics: The iPod, first released in October of 2001, has become a cultural icon. With hundreds of millions sold over the following years, there are probably few people who have never heard of an iPod. While the impact of this gadget has been significant, it is important to look inside of the iPod and explore the physics behind the technology that makes it possible to hold 1,000 songs in your pocket! Let's begin by looking at a few different technologies that, on the surface, do not seem to be connected in an obvious way. These are just a few of the devices that use a certain type of sensor technology: iPod, computer hard drive, a compass, and anti-lock brake sensors. The physical phenomenon that all of these devices take advantage of is called "giant magnetoresistance," or GMR for short. GMR is used to read data from hard drives that are used in computers and some types of iPods. This effect can detect magnetic fields and is used in digital compasses that can measure the Earth's magnetic field. GMR technology is also used in numerous automotive sensors, including anti-lock brake systems. "Giant magnetoresistance" allows technology to read very small pieces of data. "Magneto" refers to a magnetic field, usually created by a permanent magnetic material. "Resistance" refers to electrical resistance or a measure of how easily a current flows through a conductor. A material with a high resistance does not allow electrons to move easily. Certain types of conducting material change their resistance when a magnetic field is applied—this is called "magnetoresistance." The "giant" part of the term comes from the magnitude of the effect because it is much greater than any other effect observed thus far. The phenomenon of giant magnetoresistance was discovered in 1988 by two scientists working independently. About ten years after their initial discovery, the first devices using this effect were available commercially. Because of the importance of their research, Albert Fert, and Peter Grunberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007. The physics behind GMR depends on a quantum property of electrons called spin. Electrons can have two different spins: up and down. When the spin of the electrons is aligned with the magnetic field of a conducting material, they easily pass through with little resistance. When the spins are not aligned, the electrons are scattered, and the resistance is greatly increased. Before we look more specifically at how we use GMR, we will explore why the general effect of magnetoresistance is important and how it is used. You have most likely used this technology recently— the magnetic strip on the back of a credit card is encoded with all of your account information. Magnetic tapes were used extensively in the 1970s, '80s, and '90s. Data was stored on various types of magnetic tapes. Music cassette tapes were popular and used by just about everyone at the time. Let's take a quick look at how data is written and read from a magnetic tape. The tapes and magnetic strips all use a thin film of plastic that is coated with a magnetic material. The data is "written" to the tape using a magnetic field and read from the tape in a similar manner. When a coil of wire is wrapped around a magnet, the strength of the magnetic field can then be changed as the current in the wire is changed. The magnetic field can align the particles in the film along a certain direction, encoding the information. When a tape is "read" by the sensor, the magnetic field of the tape causes the current in the wire to change, and the signal is decoded into data such as music. The hard disk drive used in your computer also operates on the same principles as magnetic tape, except in this case it is a plastic disk coated with magnetic material. The data is written and read from the disk using a small sensor called the "head." The read head in almost all modern hard disk drives uses GMR to read the data. Because of the sensitivity of the GMR sensor in the read head, very small regions of the disk can be read. This allows for hard drive platters to be very small and still store a lot of data. The original iPod, or the iPod classic, contained a small, spinning hard drive with a GMR read head sensor. In a way, an iPod is like having a Nobel Physics Prize in your pocket! Hard drives have greatly decreased in size and cost since they were first introduced in 1956. The first hard disk drive was the size of two refrigerators and could only store about 5 megabytes worth of data. As technology improved, more data could be stored on smaller and smaller disks. By the 1990s, hard drives were relatively small and could store gigabytes of data. The first terabyte drive was introduced in 2007, and a 10 TB drive was introduced in late 2014. For perspective, 10 TB could hold the printed collection of the Library of Congress. Think about having all of that information on one hard drive! It is interesting to compare how we've stored music and movies as hard drive technology has advanced. In the 1980s, VHS and cassette tapes were standard. Our modern gadgets are about the same size as the tapes but can store a lot more data. When the iPod was first introduced in 2001, the response was not as great as expected. But, as more and more people began to discover the advantages of having a portable music collection, the iPod industry began to take off. Only a year later, 600,000 iPods had been sold, and by 2007, over 100 million had been sold. Along with several iPod models, an extensive selection of accessories became available to be used with the iPod. In addition to the consumer marketplace, the music industry needed to adapt to this new way of buying and listening to music. Musicians who were not well known found it easier to distribute their music, which greatly increased the diversity of songs available to purchase. Popular artists needed to change how they made money, as they could no longer rely solely on album sales as consumers were able to purchase individual songs rather than entire albums. Even the Beatles needed to adapt; their music was finally released for sale on iTunes in 2010. 
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