Childrearing: Cultural Contexts in the United States 6 goldenKB/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following: ሁሁ ሁሁ ሁሁ ሁሁ ሁሁ Define culture and explain the nature of multi-culturalism. Explain why cultures are not distinct, homogeneous, self-contained entities with clear boundaries. Describe how views on American culture have evolved over the course of U.S. history. Examine the development of children in the context of race and ethnicity, multiracial and multiethnic families, language, religion, and gender. Discuss how parents, caregivers, and professionals can support healthy identity development and cultural sensitivity in children. © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 6.1 Culture and Cultural Diversity Introduction No one develops or lives in a vacuum, rather, everyone grows, learns, and lives within cultural contexts. Children, families, and parents exist within a variety of cultures. They both reflect those cultures and help to shape them. A family’s culture is influenced by a variety of factors, which include where the individuals within the family grew up (country, region, town), what language and dialect they speak, their religious affiliation, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and gender, among other things. The very structure of the family and the age of the family members also contribute to the family’s culture (Wardle, 1996). In this chapter, we explore a variety of issues related to the cultural contexts of parenting in the United States. We begin with an overall discussion of what culture is and how it frames the contexts in which children develop and adults function. We then explore different views of culture within American society, which is followed by an outline of the various forms of American cultural diversity, focusing on race and ethnicity, languages, religious diversity, and gender. We conclude the chapter with strategies for parents, caregivers, and professionals working with families to support healthy identity development and cultural sensitivity. 6.1 Culture and Cultural Diversity What is culture and what is cultural diversity? How does our understanding of culture help us appreciate and understand the rich diversity in the United States and its impact on families and children? Many academic scholars have attempted to define culture as follows: • The organized and common practices of a particular community (Rogoff, 2003); • A framework that guides and bounds life practices (Hanson, 1992); • Shared understandings as well as customs and artifacts that are valued by the general community (Strauss & Quinn, 1992); • An integrated set of norms and standards by which human behaviors, beliefs, and thinking are organized, and which are transmitted from generation to generation (Pai, Adler, & Shadiow, 2006). • The prism through which we view the world (Bowman, 1994). Thus, culture sets the expectations for behaviors, provides the values and rules by which individuals live, and defines a person’s view of the world (Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003). Further, a child’s culture shapes her view of everything around her, including ideas and values about education and work. According to the American cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall (1914–2009), people are unaware of how they acquire, share, and communicate culture. From the time we are infants, we unconsciously learn what is and is not important, how to behave in certain situations, and how to relate to people. Hall held that cultural beliefs, as well as thought patterns and values, are hidden beneath the surface, similar to the way an iceberg is mostly concealed underwater. According to Hall (1976), culture is highly influential in the way each of us processes information, uses language, and develops personal relationships. In a given region, country, continent, or entire civilization, one will find an overall way of life comprised of traditions, language, customs, and morals: This is known as the macroculture. Within the macroculture (especially in a large multinational, multiethnic country like the © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Culture and Cultural Diversity Section 6.1 United States), people live within a variety of microcultures. These can be divided along regional, religious, ethnic, linguistic, tribal, or economic lines, as well as a multitude of other characteristics (Banks & Banks, 2013). Individuals simultaneously represent and contribute to the norms of multiple cultural groups. Finally, all cultural groups have outliers—people who do not fit comfortably within the existing cultural boundaries. The presence of outliers is one of many reasons to avoid stereotyping people based on perceived cultural norms. However, it is important to understand that cultures are not static; they continually change as a result of interactions with other cultures, which can happen through globalization, education of members Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Thinkstock within the culture, immigration, travel, or ሁሁ While Thanksgiving is part of American a variety other factors (Wardle, 2013b). macroculture, unique microcultures within America may celebrate the holiday differently. A child’s culture—the prism through which he or she sees the world (Bowman, 1994)—is at first the sole reality for that child. Young children are for the most part not able to look at the world from various perspectives; everything in their world is defined and framed by their microculture. As they develop and experience outside influences, their culture often evolves to incorporate other aspects and other microcultures. The Purpose of Culture Belonging to a cultural group serves a variety of purposes. Racial and ethnic minority groups have historically banded together to fend off hostility from more dominant and powerful groups, and to support each other to make progress in a new country or in times of hardship (Smedley, 2002; Tatum, 1997). Outside adversity can strengthen a culture’s resilience and cohesion. Many still believe ethnic and racial groups need to stand together for survival, to progress socially, and to maintain their unique identity (Smedley, 2002; Tatum, 1997). Many also believe that a central role of cultural groups is to offset the hegemony, or overriding influence of the macroculture, whether that be in values, language, expected behaviors, or media influence. Practical issues such as language, traditions, religion, and marrying a partner with a similar background also bind groups together. Religious affiliation can produce very tight-knit cultural groups, such as can be seen in the Amish, Hutterites, or Mennonites (communal religious groups of Northern European origin in the United States and Canada). This can also be seen in new immigrant groups from specific regions or tribes. Cultural groupings can also be formed by people with similar lifestyles, such as members of a counterculture (those who intentionally live in a way that opposes the macroculture), young urban professionals, or the LGBT community. Most groups are defined, maintained, and celebrated by individuals within the group who view their identity and sense of self as defined by the group. They celebrate cultural traditions and pass important cultural information and beliefs on to the next generation. Thus, cultural groups do not just give individuals within the group a sense of identity or a prism through which they view the world, but are themselves defined and perpetuated by the group’s individuals and leaders (West, 2001). © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Culture and Cultural Diversity Section 6.1 From Cultural Dichotomies to Cultural Complexities When examining cultures, multiculturalists tend to compare and contrast different cultural groups by placing them in dichotomous (contrasting) positions, such as mainstream White society versus minority Americans, men versus women, or English speakers versus non– English speakers (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010; Gonzalez-Mena, 2008; Raeff, 2010). For example, many standard sociology texts place cultures on a continuum between individualistic and competitive (Europeans and North Americans of European extraction), and collectivist and communal (Africans, Asians, South Americans, and minorities in the United States) (Hofstede, 2001). In more individualist and competitive cultures, parents attempt to raise children to be independent, self-confident problem solvers with high individual selfesteem who look to themselves to solve problems and achieve success. In more collectivist and communal cultures, parents believe that children are best served by developing their identity and self-worth as important members of an identity group, and by working collaboratively with other group members to solve problems and achieve success (Harwood, Miller, &Irizarry, 1995; Lynch & Hanson, 2004). However, the perspective regarding individual versus communal cultures has been challenged by several scholars and researchers (Raeff, 2010): • Research shows that some cultures value both independence and interdependence (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). • All cultures are dynamic, heterogeneous, complex, and change over time; viewing cultures as either independent or interdependent reflects a static view. • Independence and interdependence can be viewed as compatible and coexisting aspects of child rearing and parenting (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008). Further, independence and dependence cannot always be assigned to their respective cultural groups. For example, while the Amish and Hutterites are of White, Northern European, Christian heritage, they explicitly focus on communal activities (such as barn raising), shun individualism, and practice interdependence in a variety of ways (Wardle, 2013b). Thus, independence and interdependence need not be viewed as opposites; rather, a variety of cultural groups value both. Cultural identities and characteristics are more nuanced, multilayered, and complex than once believed (Oyserman et al., 2002; Raeff, 2010; Tamis-LeMonda, et al., 2008). Therefore, an either/or perspective to describe different cultural groups is not very helpful. Professionals working with immigrant and minority families should be considerate of the cultural negotiations these families experience on a daily basis through bicultural socialization, a process that occurs when individuals adapt and integrate their own cultural heritage with that of the surrounding culture while not rejecting their home culture (Ngo, 2006, 2008). “Diversity of Diversity” Another challenge to the view that cultures are distinct, homogeneous, self-contained entities with clear boundaries is that all cultural groups contain what is called “diversity of diversity”: the tremendous variation that occurs within any large group, be it a gender, race, type of disability, or subculture (Cushner, McClelland, & Safford, 2012). No one belongs to just one group, everyone simultaneously belongs to a number of groups (Cushner et al., 2012). For example, a person is not just a woman, she is a professional, married, African American © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Changing Views on American Culture Section 6.2 woman, and so she belongs to all of those groups. For all people, the different groups they belong to carry different levels of importance, depending on their age, politics, values, and other factors (West, 2001). Therefore, categorizing people under major headings of race, gender, ability, or exceptionalities is counterproductive and can lead to stereotypes, inaccurate information, and a perception of a lack of diversity within a group. Culture Evolves Over Time Much of a person’s culture can change over time. For example, changes in marital status, especially going from a two-parent to a one-parent household, can radically change a family’s economic status, often in a negative way (Bliss & Simmons, 2014). Some cultural contexts change when one travels or moves. When a Mayan woman from Guatemala immigrates to Houston, Texas, her official government label would change from “Mayan” to “Hispanic/Latino” (Wardle, 2013b). A variety of macrosystem events can also result in changes in the attributes, behaviors, and worldview of cultural groups (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). For example, today women in the United States have far more freedom to choose an educational path and career or family life than they had earlier in the 20th century. Immigrant women from countries with more restrictive and discriminatory laws (for example in some Middle Eastern Islamic states) may experience a sudden increase in personal freedom upon moving to the United States. In addition, technological inventions such as cell phones, tablets, and personal computers have radically altered family and social cultures. 6.2 Changing Views on American Culture Since its formation, the United States has been known as a nation of many cultures, religions, and languages. Yet for several centuries, the European culture was generally accepted and even lauded as the overriding, dominant culture. In recent decades, however, an ideological shift has begun to take shape, as people view contemporary American society as one that reflects and embraces cultural diversity rather than attempting to homogenize it. Let’s take a closer look at this evolution in perspective. Melting Pot: Assimilation People have immigrated to the United States from all over the world and brought with them their talents, languages, traditions, and cultures. According to scholars, the original European settlers wanted immigrants to cast off their loyalties to their countries of origin and embrace their new American identity, which was very much a reflection of Protestant, Northern European culture (Fish, 2002; Pai et al., 2006; Spickard, 1989). Once the United States became its own nation, free from the British crown, its new leaders viewed the country as a radical global experiment in democracy and religious freedom, and did not want new immigrants to bring to America their old ideas of racism, religious intolerance, and governance by the aristocracy (Fish, 2002; Pai et al., 2006; Spickard, 1989). This absorption of new citizens is known as assimilation, the process by which a subordinate group or individual takes on the characteristics of the dominant group (Schaefer, 2014). This view intensified during the 1800s, as the number and diversity of immigrants to the new country increased (Schaefer, 2014). As an early American farmer put it: © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Changing Views on American Culture Section 6.2 What then is the American, this new man? He is an American, who leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds . . . . Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labours and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world. (Crèvecoeur, 1904, p. 55) Throughout the world, the United States became known as a melting pot, a metaphor that described the way in which people coming to its shores from all over the world would leave behind their home cultures and assume a new one. Many believed that America would lead the way as an example of how to best include people from a vast diversity of national, social, and religious backgrounds while retaining a unifying national identity and sense of civic responsibility. As Purestock/Thinkstock they arrived, these new immigrants ሁሁ Although schools are more ethnically and were expected to become true Amerilinguistically diverse than ever before, the teacher cans, which meant learning English, population is still overwhelmingly white. adopting American values, and in some cases, even changing their names. Political leaders, educators, and businesspeople believed that radical assimilation into the American culture was necessary for the very survival of the new country, because otherwise, the country might disintegrate along cultural, national, language, religious, and other lines of affiliation (Ladle, 1999; Lippy, 2013). Many of society’s institutions, such as schools, hospitals, colleges, professional associations, political groups, unions, and other community agencies, were developed within the context of the prevailing cultural values. In many cases, these values are still represented in these institutions. For example, although an increasing number of the country’s K–12 students are racially, ethnically, socioeconomically, and linguistically diverse, teachers are still predominantly White, middle class, and female (Cushner et al., 2012; Nieto & Bode, 2012; Pai et al., 2007; Trawick-Smith, 2014). In fact, as of 2011, 84% of teachers were both White and female (NCEI, 2011). Many also believe that the social work field reflects White, middle-class family values (Sadker & Zittleman, 2009) instead of the diversity of values and needs of the families it serves. According to the National Child Welfare Workforce Institute (2011), 81% of child welfare caseworkers are female, while only 14% are African American and 5% are Latino/ Hispanic. The Salad Bowl: Cultural Pluralism As illustrated in Figure 6.1, people from all over the world have immigrated to the United States during the past century, bringing with them a wide range of cultures, values, and perspectives. The large proportion of Europeans immigrating to the United States decreased toward the end of the 20th century, while the number of immigrants from countries in Latin America and Asia has increased. © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 6.2 Changing Views on American Culture Figure 6.1: Immigration to the united States by region of origin, 1900–2008 Immigrants (thousands) 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 1900–1909 Europe 1920–1929 Asia 1940–1949 Canada 1960–1969 Latin America 1980–1989 Other 2000–2008 Not specified* Source: U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2008). 2007 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/Publications/Lesson -Plans/HumanPopulation/Migration.aspx. f06.01 Partially in response to the shift in understanding and embracing of other cultures, the view of America as a melting pot is giving way to a metaphor that better supports ongoing cultural diversity among its residents. According to Nieto (2004), America as a salad bowl is “a model based on the premise that people of all backgrounds have a right to maintain their languages and cultures while combining with others to form a new society reflective of our differences” (Nieto, 2004, p. 437). A more formal name for the salad-bowl metaphor is cultural pluralism. Cultural pluralism holds that contemporary American society is made up of distinct cultural groups that should be empowered to maintain their unique values, traditions, languages, and worldviews, and not be expected to change to match the values and expectations of the dominant macroculture. Individuals within diverse groups are encouraged to preserve and even celebrate their identities within their unique group, while also identifying with the overall American society. These individuals are considered bicultural or multicultural—identifying and functioning effectively within several cultural groups simultaneously (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). Some scholars believe that extolling cultural diversity and cultural identity will lead to cultural relativism and separation. Their view holds that the net result will be individuals identifying only in terms of membership to a racial, ethnic, or other cultural group while their sense of loyalty to the larger American society will be minimal (Bloom, 1987: Sadker & Zittleman, 2009). Unity and cohesion within the larger society will, they believe, be lost (Pai et al., 2007). Allan Bloom (1987) argued that the insistence of individuals on preserving their cultural values and practicing their lives according to cultural behaviors and traditions would eventually destroy cherished American values, such as individual rights. Bloom believed that loyalty and obedience to the state (America) were essential both to the success and prosperity of American society as a whole, and to individuals within that society (Bloom, 1987). © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Intersection of Family and Culture Section 6.3 E.D. Hirsch made a similar argument about education, believing that focusing on diversity in schools distracts from teaching a core body of knowledge that every U.S. child needs to know to be successful in American society (Hirsch, 1996). He believed that the foundation for success in American society is what he called intellectual capital—the knowledge and skills needed for a successful life. Further, he believed that this intellectual capital was the glue uniting all people in the United States regardless of their racial, ethnic, national, religious, or other backgrounds (Hirsch, 1996). However, from a multicultural view, the trend is for minority groups and new immigrants to maintain their home language (by raising their children to be bilingual), culture, religion, and traditions, to celebrate their own unique identities, and to raise children with their culture’s characteristics and attributes (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010; Gonzalez-Mena, 2008; Nieto & Bode, 2012; U.S. DHHS, 2010). For example, according to Pew Research’s Spanish Trends Project, the number of Hispanics speaking Spanish at home rose from 10.2 million in 1980 to 24.7 million in 2000 (Pew Research, 2004). However, from growing up in the United States, these children also become socialized to many of the values and dispositions of the greater American culture (Podeschi & Xiong, 1994). Further, as we have suggested, cultures continually change (acculturate) as they co-exist with other cultures and societies. Acculturation is the process of learning cultural change or absorbing another culture (for example, a minority child learning the ways of the dominant culture) (Pai et al., 2006). 6.3 The Intersection of Family and Culture Given the pervasiveness of culture in all facets of our lives, it is important for parents, caretakers, and any adult who works or spends time with children to understand and appreciate the different aspects of culture that could potentially impact a child’s development and perspective on the world. Thus, in this section, we will take a look at how major cultural factors such as race and ethnicity, growing up in a multiracial or multiethnic family, language, religion, and gender socialization affect individuals and their families. We will also discuss strategies for working with children in a multicultural context. Navigating Racial and Ethnic Categories In order to discuss race and ethnicity, it is important for professionals who work with families to develop an understanding of the complicated history and current use of racial and ethnic categories by the U.S. Census Bureau. In the first section of this chapter, we discussed the risks of classifying people under broad headings, a practice that often results in misunderstandings and stereotyping. Yet when it comes to race and ethnicity, it is common practice to assign labels, despite the fact that they do not even begin to capture the complexity and nuance of an individual’s identity, culture, or heritage. There is no easy explanation for why this occurs, as the very definitions of racial and ethnic constructs are under considerable debate today. According to Smedley (2002), the original racial categories and hierarchies used in America came from an inclination to categorize people of the world into a hierarchical system. Given that Northern Europeans created the system, they placed themselves at the top and Africans on the bottom, thus imposing their view of racial superiority on the world’s population (Fish, © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Intersection of Family and Culture Section 6.3 2002; Schaefer, 2014; Smedley, 2002). This racial hierarchy was based on physical characteristics—skin color, hair, and facial features—and supposed intellectual ability. Several Europeans scientists used this hierarchy to create a racial taxonomy, dividing the world’s population into four groups: Indigenous Americans, Europeans, Africans, and Asians (Linnaeus, 1758/1759, quoted in Slotkin, 1965). As a result of the Civil Rights movement and its subsequent legislation (especially the Civil Rights Act of 1964), the federal government began using racial categories to make sure that federal laws were implemented fairly and tax dollars distributed equitably among groups. The categories included White, African American, Asian, and Native American (U.S. Census, 1990), with no Hispanic category and no mixed-race option (Root, 1996). In 2000, the Hispanic/Latino ethnic category was adopted by the U.S. Census Bureau, the Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (NHOPI) racial category was added, and the “two or more races” option was included. The current racial and ethnic categories used by the federal Office of Management and Budget (OMB) are as follows: Racial categories • • • • • • • White Black or African American American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander Two or more races Some other race Ethnic Category • Hispanic/Latino/Chicano/Spanish American (this can be of any race) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010c) In the United States, the terms race and ethnic group are commonly used by the media, in academia, and to allocate government resources (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013b). An ethnic group is made up of people whose ancestors were born in the same region of the world, and often share a language, culture, or religion. The Latino ethnic group is the only such category used by the U.S. Census Bureau. Race refers to a family, tribe, people, or nation with a shared lineage or identity. In addition, the U.S. Census Bureau recognizes that racial identity might include national origin or sociocultural groups (2013b). As a professional working with families, you will likely become well versed in U.S. Census Bureau terminology and government allocations of resources. As you can see, the government has updated its categories in an attempt to better capture the diverse nature of the American population. However, history has shown us that believing race can be used to categorize people’s attributes can lead to racism, resulting in prejudice and negative discrimination. Therefore, it is vitally important to treat each family and each individual as a unique, multicultural entity. Visit the following link to read more about the history of race categorization: http://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-background-02-12.htm. © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Intersection of Family and Culture Section 6.3 C ase S t u d y : T he C lark and C lark D oll S tudies The husband-and-wife team of Mamie and Kenneth Clark conducted a groundbreaking study of children’s racial (self-) perceptions in 1954. See a brief overview of their work at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_RqsGTS5TPQ. Then listen to a later interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark at https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=64rSgf0iOhQ. Presented with two dolls—one Black and one White—children were asked to give their opinion of which doll they preferred to play with, and to say which one was pretty, nice, bad, and had other attributes. They found that most of the Black children favored the White doll, as did many of the White children, a finding that suggested the Black children had developed a negative self-image. These results have certain limitations, however. For example, at that time, there were no Black dolls for children to play with, possibly introducing bias against the Black dolls. Also, when the self-image of middle-class or affluent African Americans has been measured, their feelings of self-esteem can be more positive than comparable Whites (Schaefer, 2014, p. 48). Multiracial and Multiethnic Families One dramatic shift in the racial and ethnic makeup of contemporary U.S. society is the increase in multiracial and multiethnic families. These are families in which the parents—either biological or adoptive—belong to different racial and ethnic categories (Wardle & Cruz-Janzen, 2004). The 2000 U.S. Census was the first to give people the option to select more than one race, and according to its statistics, multiracial individuals increased from 6.8 million in 2000 to 9.0 million in 2010—2.9% of the U.S. population (Jones & Bullock, 2012). In 2010, the proportion of interracial and interethnic married households increased to 10% of the overall married population in the United States (from 7% in 2000); and 18% of opposite-sex unmarried partners were interracial or interethnic (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012c). Several factors account for the changing demographics of multiracial and multiethnic families in the United States. The first is a continual increase of these families since the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, and the U.S. Supreme Court decision of 1967 (Loving v. Virginia) outlawing state anti-miscegenation laws, which criminalized interracial marriage and even sexual acts between people of different races. Second, in 2000 the racial categories on the U.S. Census and official federal forms were changed to include a “two or more races” option. Third, many new immigrants from other countries challenge the traditional way the United States categorizes race and ethnicity. Fourth, polls show that the vast majority of Americans now accept and support interracial relationships and families (see Figure 6.2). According to a recent Gallup Poll, 87% of Americans now approve of interracial marriage, up from 4% in 1958, with Blacks approving 96% and Whites (including Hispanics) approving 84% (Newport, 2013). People under age 65 are more likely to approve than those over 65 years old (Newport, 2013). © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 6.3 The Intersection of Family and Culture Figure 6.2: Attitudes towards interracial marriage in the united States, 1959–2013 Do you approve or disapprove of marriage between Blacks and Whites? 73 64 % Approve 29 20 36 48 43 65 76 86 87 77 79 48 4 ’59 ’62 ’65 ’68 ’71 ’74 ’77 ’80 ’83 ’86 ’89 ’92 ’95 ’98 ’01 ’04 ’07 ’10 ’13 1958 wording: “ . . . marriages between white and colored people” 1968–1978 wording: “ . . . marriages between whites and nonwhites” Source: Newport, F. (2013, July). In U.S., 87% approve of black–white marriage, vs. 4% in 1958. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/163697/approvemarriage-blacks-whites.aspx f06.02 Visit the following links to gain additional insights into multiracial and multiethnic perspectives and trends: http://www.pewresearch.org/multiracial-voices/ http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/06/11/multiracial-in-america/ Parents, caregivers, and other adults can help children develop healthy multiracial and multiethnic identities by doing the following: • Supporting mixed-race and ethnicity children when they receive misguided, unkind, and even hostile comments from children and adults. • Encouraging all programs that work with children and families to show visual images of families of mixed race or ethnicity (this can include posters, books, videos, magazines, and artwork). • Teaching all children—regardless of their race or ethnicity—self-esteem, self-worth, and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1965). • Letting parents and their children disclose their racial and ethnic identity rather than imposing a preconceived view of their racial identity on them. • Helping interracial children and their parents educate professionals about the unique realities and struggles of mixed-race children and families. • Recognizing any tendency in oneself to judge interracial children and their families. • Not focusing on a single race at the expense of a child’s full heritage. A single-race view can be harmful to the healthy identity development of mixed-race children (Baxley, 2008; Wallace, 2004, 2011; Wardle & Cruz-Janzen, 2004). © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Intersection of Family and Culture Section 6.3 Language From the creation of the American common school in the early 19th century through the early 20th century, before World War I, new immigrants to the United States would initially settle in communities that spoke their native language, and their children attended schools where their language predominated. German, Italian, Polish, and Czech public schools existed in the United States at one time (Nieto & Bode, 2012). However, as more non–English-speaking people came to America, and as speaking English became a part of the expectations of cultural assimilation, schools began to teach only English, and many new immigrant families tried to learn English as rapidly as possible (Nieto & Bode, 2012). Creatas/Thinkstock ሁሁ Bilingual education is becoming more common in American schools, as a multicultural approach tries to teach an appreciation for different cultures and languages. As a result of the 1960s civil rights movement and several federal court decisions and pieces of legislation (in particular, the Bilingual Education Act of 1968), the use of non–English-languages in schools has become more common, and a variety of bilingual education programs have been initiated in schools throughout the country (Nieto & Bode, 2012). Whereas earlier generations of immigrants were taught to immerse themselves in the English language and the culture of their new country, the multicultural approach tries to preserve and encourage the practice of more than one culture and language among new Americans and values bilingual skills in schoolchildren. Additionally, a growing body of research shows the positive value of learning a second (or third) language at a young age (during elementary school). Learning a second language enhances a variety of brain functions, including memory and attention, and contributes to better mastery of a child’s home language, by providing vocabulary and grammar rules that may transfer to that home language (Nieto & Bode, 2012). Opponents of bilingual education say that it delays children’s proficiency in English language skills and their overall success in school, and that previous generations of immigrants learned well through immersion in the new language. This group includes some new immigrant parents who want their children to learn to function in English as soon as possible (Nieto & Bode, 2012; Sadker & Zittleman, 2009). The increase in recent years of immigrants from a variety of countries has increased the number of languages spoken in the country, which according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2010b) totals almost 400. This vast array of languages poses severe challenges for our schools and community agencies serving families, as U.S. public schools simply do not have enough teachers and other school staff versed in these languages. Family members who have not yet learned their new country’s language should be encouraged to use community resources to find people who can translate for them and who can teach them English. Professionals should be aware of these community programs, and help link parents and other family members with these resources. They can also help community © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 6.3 The Intersection of Family and Culture agencies such as schools, Head Start programs, child care centers, and health clinics provide several things: (1) materials in the language used by the program’s parents, (2) translators to help with communication with parents, and (3) English language classes. However, these should be functional English (the English used by teachers, social workers, and administrators in the children’s school) classes, and not the typical language classes found in high schools and colleges (Ngo, 2006, 2008). Finally, these professionals might learn some of the basics of the languages used by the majority of their clients, to facilitate better communication. These steps could help reduce language barriers that impact a family’s ability to be active participants in the educational process. Religion A family’s religion (as well as the choice not to practice a religion) provides many of the cultural practices and expectations that adults will pass on to their children, not to mention a variety of rules and constraints. Religious values and beliefs also have a strong impact on a variety of other forms of diversity, particularly gender roles, sexual orientation, and different educational expectations for boys and girls (see The Evolving Family: Rebecca’s Story). Table 6.1 outlines the many religious affiliations represented in the United States, as of 2014. Demographic shifts in religious affiliation pose new challenges for programs working with children and families. Specific challenges that professionals may encounter include: Table 6.1: Religious affiliations in the United States, 2014 Religious Affiliation Percentage of Adults Christian 70.6 Protestant 46.5 Mainline 14.7 Evangelical Historically Black churches 25.4 6.95 Catholic 20.8 Jehovah’s Witnesses 0.8 Mormon 1.6 Other Non-Christian Faiths 5.9 Jewish 1.9 Muslim 0.9 Buddhist Hindu Other faiths Unaffiliated 0.4 0.7 0.7 1.5 22.8 Atheist 3.1 Nothing in particular 15.8 Agnostic 4.0 Don’t know or 0.6 • Daily prayer times for Muslim chilrefused to answer dren and parents that conflict with school and youth activity schedules; Source: America’s Changing Religious Landscape. (2015, May • Fasting practices that affect schools 11). Pew Research Center. Retrieved September 30, 2015, from and community activities; http://www.pewforum org/2015/05/12/americas-changing -religious-landscape/ • Conflicts with other children, teachers, or policies caused by wearing traditional religious garb; • Dietary restrictions that might pose issues for child and family programs that serve meals; and © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Intersection of Family and Culture Section 6.3 T h e E vo l vin g F ami l y : R ebecca ’ s S tory Rebecca is a 9-year-old girl who lives in rural Pennsylvania in an Amish community, a tight-knit group with clear gender roles, rules about dress and work, and strong traditions that date back to 17th century Switzerland. She lives with her mother, father, and five sisters. Her father works in the fields and cares for the milking cows; her mother looks after the house and the little ones, while also making cheese and attending to the family store. Rebecca’s grandparents, aunts, and uncles live in the community, and she sees them often. She is an important part of the wider community, knows everyone by name, and trusts everyone. She attends an Amish school taught by Amish teachers. After school and on weekends Rebecca helps her mother with house cleaning, cooking, canning, and making maple syrup. She also helps in the family store, where she sells clothes, utensils, and other everyday items to other Amish people. Saturday evening is reserved for the ritual of washing and braiding Rebecca and her sisters’ long hair, and is a time when the girls learn about Amish history from their mother. On Sundays, Rebecca travels with her family in a horse-drawn buggy to another home for Amish worship services. She sits with the women on one side of the room while the men and boys sit on the other side. These services are rotated from home to home. When the service is at Rebecca’s home, she helps her mother prepare lunch, and they serve everyone who comes to the service. Sometimes Rebecca goes into the local town with her parents to buy supplies the family needs. They also occasionally visit their “English” neighbors who do not speak the German dialect of the Amish. Nevertheless, Rebecca is continually told by her parents, teachers, and ministers that she is Amish, and the Amish way is the correct way. At 9 years of age, she is comfortable being an Amish girl in a very warm, strict, close-knit family and community. Rebecca knows that she will complete her education at age 14 and then take on more responsibilities at home and in the community. She will learn how to make quilts with her mother and other women, and she will become more involved on the farm, helping her father milk the cows and make the cheese. Rebecca is expected to marry an Amish man, either from this community or from another community, and raise her children as part of the close-knit Amish culture (Wardle, 2013b, p.134). Discussion Questions 1. Describe Rebecca’s religious and gender socialization process. How is it similar to or different from your own? 2. What types of socialization messages does Rebecca receive from her family and her community? What types of messages did you receive as a child? If you have children of your own, try to identify what types of messages you communicate to your children about race, ethnicity, religion, gender, and culture. • Complicated issues for individual family members—particularly women and girls—who decide to challenge the strict gender roles of their religion (Podeschi & Xiong, 1994). Gender Socialization Many gender differences are associated with the way societies and cultures socialize girls and boys to become women and men. In some cultures, equality between the sexes is stressed, with active attempts to provide equal opportunity for all boys and girls, and men and women, © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Intersection of Family and Culture Section 6.3 through a variety of social institutions, such as schools, governments, and the courts (Sadker & Zittleman, 2013). In other groups, gender roles are very clearly defined, with men expected to be leaders of the household, religious worship, and the community, and women expected to care for the home and raise the children (Lippy, 2013). In a multicultural society, the lines become blurred and children often receive mixed messages about gender. Recall from Chapter 5 that gender socialization is the process by which children develop a sense of their identity according to gender-specific behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of their culture and the larger society. Children learn gender identification cues from a variety of sources, including peers, family, community, religious institutions, and school. They also look to models in the media for clues about gender roles: TV programs, advertising, movies, videos, music, professional athletes, and so on (Cushner et al., 2012). Schools are particularly powerful socializing agents, especially during middle and high school. This is the stage of identity versus role confusion in Erikson’s life stage theory (Erikson 1963, 1968), and one of the areas of potential crisis is gender itself. Gender stereotypes in our society continue to change and be challenged, with broader options becoming available for both men and women. Even so, young people are still faced with many of the old stereotypes as they struggle to come to terms with their own gender identity (Cushner et al., 2012). P a u se and R ef l ect : G ender S ocialization Think about your own childhood and how you were socialized to be a boy or a girl at home, in your neighborhood, at school, and at other community events. Reflection Questions 1. Were you ever told “You can’t do that because only boys [girls] do that?” 2. Were you ever encouraged to wear clothes of a certain color or discouraged from wearing (or encouraged to wear) gender-specific clothes? 3. Did a teacher or counselor steer you to certain classes and away from other classes, based on your gender? 4. Did a teacher or counselor advise you to choose a certain career based on your gender? Gender socialization begins shortly after birth. Toddlers pick up many cues about gender differences from parents and caregivers’ behaviors, toys, clothes, and the media. By preschool age, children show preferences for certain gender-stereotypical toys and for same-gender peers (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2005). Children are socialized to conform to the gender role expectations of the overall American society and to those of their own religious, cultural, and ethnic groups. Historically, child development theorists have disagreed about the degree to which socialization plays in determining gender identity. Some attach more importance to nature (biological sex), others to nurture (socialization and role expectations). Even today, the various theories of gender role development can be divided into two groups: those that focus on genetics (the survival theory) and those that focus on the social and physical environment (the social–cognitive theory) (Rathus, 2014). In American society, gender restrictions and limitations for girls have become much more relaxed and flexible. Girls are often encouraged to be ambitious, competitive, athletic, and to excel in historically male-dominated fields, such as engineering, medicine, and the sciences (Rathus, 2014). However, this flexibility is not as common for boys, who are often still © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 6.3 The Intersection of Family and Culture expected to be aggressive, show few emotions, and are not encouraged to deviate from stereotypical behavioral expectations and career choices (Martin & Dinella, 2011). In general, adults and peers do not approve of boys being gentle and creative, and showing an interest in cooking, fashion, and dance (Cushner et al., 2012). Boys also face a variety of challenges in the gender socialization process. One of the more powerful ways children learn society’s expectations is through role models (Cushner et al., 2012). In gender and other areas of socialization, girls and boys learn from adults, especially parents and teachers. Unfortunately, many boys, especially those who grow up in fatherless homes, have a shortage of male role models, as there are very few men in early childhood programs and elementary schools (Wardle, 2013c). During adolescence, gender intensification occurs. This is a process in which the psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls are intensified owing to the physical changes that are part of puberty and adolescence. This intensification can be amplified by the reaction of one’s social group to those physical changes. These rapid changes can heighten the adolescent’s identity versus role confusion (see the discussion of Erikson’s developmental stages in Chapters 2 and 4) (Hill & Lynch, 1983). This means adolescents often struggle to figure out society’s gender role expectations for them (Erikson, 1963). The process is greatly influenced by cognitive and moral development (see the discussion of Piaget and Kohlberg in Chapter 2), along with family contexts and cultural expectations (Crouter, Manke, & McHale, 1995). Additionally, as was pointed out earlier, microcultural gender roles may directly conflict with those of the macroculture. Supporting Healthy Identity Development Professionals who work with families can support healthy racial, ethnic, and gender identity development in a number of ways. How to accomplish this depends on one’s role in working with families. The ideas that follow are intended to help professionals who work directly with children and their families: • Take a whole-child approach. Remember that a child’s identity is formed from a variety of characteristics and factors, including but not limited to temperament, gender, race and ethnicity, abilities and challenges, and various cultural contexts. Avoid the temptation to focus on just one of these factors (Wardle, 1996; West, 2001). William Cross argued that a child’s self-concept is made up of personal identity (what they can accomplish and how they feel about themselves) and reference group orientation (the cultural groups they belong to and their feelings about these groups) (Cross, 1991). Fuse/Thinkstock ሁሁ One way to encourage healthy identity development in multiethnic children is to participate in traditional celebrations and festivals so that they learn to celebrate their culture. © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. The Intersection of Family and Culture Section 6.3 • Consider the ages of the children. Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson’s developmental stage theories (see Chapter 2) help us understand that children’s view of diversity and their own identity become more accurate, complex, and sophisticated as they mature. • Provide a variety of ways for children to explore all the parts of their unique identities, including those from their racial, ethnic and gender background, new immigrant status, or multiracial and multiethnic identity. Explore with them art, music, dance, community projects, festivals, library projects, museums, concerts, school learning modules, and other resources. • Try to avoid celebrating a single racial, ethnic, or cultural heritage. Emphasize the strength of many groups working together. For instance, one lesson could teach about how in the past people from different groups worked together for social justice (for example, African Americans and women worked together to end slavery and to gain women’s suffrage). If an activity that focuses on a single-race or ethnicity is part of a lesson, make sure everyone is positively welcomed and can actively participate. • Challenge all forms of prejudice, limitations, “hidden curricula” etc., regardless of who expresses them. One type of hidden curriculum can be found in early childhood programs or schools that indirectly help young people learn society’s norms and values (Pai et al., 2006). Examples include celebrating Valentine’s Day as a way to support relationships between boys and girls, providing school wide assemblies for sports accomplishments to teach the value of competition, and emphasizing punctuality and respect for authority (Wardle, 2013b). Girls should not be told they cannot do certain things that boys can do and vice versa. Help parents encourage their children to dream and to challenge conventional boundaries that could limit their potential. • Help children to explore, embrace, and celebrate the diversity that exists within their social setting—to befriend and share with boys, girls, children of other cultures, races, and ethnicities, children with disabilities, and so on (Ngo, 2006, 2008). Adults can also expose children to diverse types of people through introducing role models, people from other countries visiting schools and youth programs, international students, movies, books, cultural events, and other media (Wardle, 2013b). • Help children explore their rich identities without resorting to an either/or view of race, ethnicity, or gender. Adults should not accept expressions such as, “That’s what White people do,” “That’s what Asians do,” or other such stereotypical thinking. Further, they should stress that putting down another race, ethnicity, or gender is not a positive or acceptable way to enhance one’s own identity. This is a common, but destructive tactic used by teens in particular. • Avoid assumptions and groupings that reinforce stereotypes in the community and schools. Instead, planned activities should focus on expanding the knowledge of young people about diverse expressions of individuality, possibilities, inclusiveness, “diversity of diversity,” and challenging stereotypes and assumptions about groups of people. • Understand the powerful relationship between language and identity. A child’s home language gives expression to their culture (Nieto & Bode, 2012). Therefore, a child’s home language needs to be acknowledged, respected, and included. Although non– English speaking children need to learn English to be successful in American society, knowing more than one language is a cognitive advantage for all students (Nieto & Bode, 2012; Varghese & Stritikus, 2013). © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources Summary and Resources Chapter Summary In this chapter, we explored a variety of issues related to the cultural contexts of child rearing and working with children in the United States. We began with an overview of culture and the dynamic and complex ways in which culture affects people, families, and societies. We then considered the concept of “diversity of diversity” as a way of looking at the variation that exists within all racial, ethnic, and other groups in the United States and as a key to understanding how all individuals belong to many different groups. The cultural viewpoint that has dominated American society, the American melting pot, and cultural pluralism were then explored. Next, we discussed the various ways cultural contexts influence families and provide a framework in which children grow, develop, and learn. The chapter concluded with a presentation of the strategies parents, caregivers, and professionals can employ to encourage healthy identity development and cultural sensitivity in children. Critical Thinking Questions 1. Examine the various cultural influences on your own childhood. How did they make you the person you are today? 2. Compare and contrast the salad bowl and melting pot concepts of cultural diversity in U.S. society. Which model do you support? 3. Does embracing cultural diversity throughout American society (in terms of language, culture, religion, etc.) threaten unity and loyalty to the United States? Why or why not? 4. If you had a child, would you consider teaching him or her a second language, beginning from a young age (6–8 years)? Why or why not? Key Terms acculturation The process of learning cultural change or absorbing another culture (for example, a minority child learning the ways of the dominant culture). assimilation The process by which a subordinate group or individual takes on the characteristics of the dominant group. bicultural The concept of dual identity, for example in children being raised with a sense of belonging both to their minority culture (microculture) and to the overall culture (macroculture), or to two cultures of origin. bicultural socialization Process of adapting and integrating one’s cultural heritage with that of the surrounding culture; learning to operate within the greater culture while not rejecting one’s own culture. bilingual education Beginning in the 1970s, a practice in U.S. schools of teaching children in their native language in certain subjects so they do not fall behind while they are learning the language of their new country (English). Contrasts with the immersion approach to language learning. Bilingual Education Act A Federal Court decision that designated federal funds to school districts in order to create programs for students with limited English speaking capability. Civil Rights Act Also known as Title VII, the major federal law in the United States that prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, or religion. collectivist and communal Cultural traits that emphasize and support the group over © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources the individual; a view that values the individual as he or she relates to the good of the group and loyalty to the group, clan, or family. cultural pluralism The idea that contemporary American society is made up of distinct cultural groups that should be empowered to maintain their unique values, traditions, languages and worldviews and not expected to change to match the values and expectations of the dominant macroculture. Also known as the cultural salad bowl. culture An integrated set of norms and standards by which human behaviors, beliefs, and thinking are organized, and which are transmitted from generation to generation (Pai et al., 2006). dichotomous Placed in counterpoint to another related, but diametrically opposed category (e.g., individualistic versus collective, English-speakers versus non-English speakers). diversity of diversity The tremendous amount and variety of differences that exist within any large group, be it racial, gender, economic, language, immigrant, or disabled. ethnic group People whose ancestors were born in the same region of the world and often share a language, culture, and religion. gender intensification A process that occurs during adolescence in which societal and cultural gender stereotypes are often increased and exaggerated. hegemony The influence exerted by a dominant group in terms of social, cultural, ideological, or economic strength. individualistic and competitive Cultural traits that emphasize and support the individual over the group; a view that values independence, high individual self-esteem, and a reliance on oneself to solve problems and achieve success. intellectual capital The knowledge and information a person has that determines success in life, according to E. D. Hirsch; the information, skills, and knowledge that should be taught to every schoolchild. macroculture The overall environment of a country or civilization, in contrast to the microcosms of family or ethnic spheres; the values, traditions, language, and customs of the larger society (similar to Bronfenbrenner’s concept of the macrosystem). melting pot The view of America as a place that transcends national origin, i.e., accepting immigrants from around the globe who would then take on an American identity that would bind together the country more strongly than the loyalties given to their original ethnic or religious groups. microcultures The cultures of a vast variety of specific groups that are contained within the overall macroculture of a society. multicultural Identifying with and functioning within several cultural groups equally, effectively, and simultaneously. multiracial and multiethnic families Families whose parents come from two or more racial or ethnic groups. Definitions vary among countries. race A family, tribe, people, or nation with a shared lineage or identity. Racial identity might include national origin or sociocultural groups. racial hierarchy A scheme set forth by various 19th-century thinkers that the world’s racial groups exist in a hierarchy of supposed intelligence, morality, and civilization, from Whites at the top to Africans at the bottom. racial taxonomy An attempt to divide the population of the world into distinct racial groups based on observable physical characteristics, intelligence, appearance, genetic makeup, and moral behavior. © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Summary and Resources racism A belief system that attributes differences in human beings to their race or ethnicity and that results in prejudice and negative forms of discrimination by individuals, institutions, or whole societies. salad bowl A model of American diversity based on the premise that people of all backgrounds are better off maintaining their language and culture while combining with others to form a new society that reflects these differences. Also called cultural pluralism. © 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. 
Purchase answer to see full attachment