Chapter 10: Social Support
Video: https://youtu.be/ptIecdCZ3dg
in paragraph one of your answer, compare it to the lecture slides in paragraph 2 and tell a
personal story in paragraph 3.
Chapter 11: Work and Reiirement
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R_hEaii2xTI&t=2s
in the first paragraph, summarize link, in the second refer to specific slides and in the third tell a
personal story.
Chapter 12: Psychopathologies
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=It+Can+Happen+to+Anyone%3A+Alcohol+and
+Medication+Among+Older+Adults
Please answer the questions in the three paragraph format -- summarize the outside material for
your group, compare to this week's slides and tell a personal story.
Chapter 13: Healthy Environments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0CVl3pfDBNo&t=849s
Please summarize the video in paragraph 1, in paragraph 2 compare outside material to the slides
and in paragraph 3, tell a story.
Chapter 10
Social Support
Chapter Overview
• Schwarzkopf tells us that we are helping ourselves when we help another—
• In this chapter we will examine the help, the social support, we give and receive from
those closest to us.
• We will examine the importance of social relationships with family members and friends
and the effects of this social support on our ability to carry on and reach the top.
• We will examine in this chapter but first let’s look generally at the importance of social
relationships and support.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Social Support
• Think about the relationships you have had with people in your life.
• You’ve had relationships with parents and/or guardians; perhaps with siblings; perhaps with grandparents and
other relatives; with teachers and other students; with supervisors and coworkers; with friends.
• What are some common factors across these relationships? How are they different? Did they all offer social
support when you were in need and did you offer such support to them as well?
• These are the types of questions that researchers have asked and we will examine their answers as we progress
through this chapter.
• As we do this, we will follow the lead of Mary Levitt (2000) and use social support as our unifying theme.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Social Support (2)
• Social support refers to assistance received from other persons who are
close to us; it is assistance received from or given to those in our social
network.
• Our social network is that group of friends and family who are close to
us. Social support and social networks are, thus, fundamentally connected.
• Human beings are social creatures and it appears that an important part of
being social is the support we give and receive from others.
4
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Instrumental and Emotional Support
• Support typically is divided into two general types: instrumental and emotional.
• Instrumental support usually is help with specific tasks, such as shopping, transportation, repairs, or
housework.
• Emotional support is help that is intended to lift our spirits, relieve our sadness, or comfort us in time
of need. Some researchers also discuss informational support, which is knowledge provided to us by
people in our network.
• When support is needed, friends are more likely to give emotional forms of assistance while family
members are more likely to give instrumental forms of assistance (Antonucci, 1990). Spouses tend to
provide both types of assistance.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Measuring Social Support
• To measure social support and the social network providing this support in adulthood, researchers have used a
number of different techniques including the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (Cohen et al., 1985), the
Lubben Social Network Scale (Lubben, 1988), and the hierarchical mapping technique using the concentric circle
diagram shown in Figure 10-1 (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980).
• As you can see, the center circle in this diagram is labeled you and it is surrounded by three other circles in which
the respondent places people they know.
• In the inner circle, closest to you, are those who you could not live without and with whom you share confidential
information.
• In the next circle are those who are also very close to you but not quite as close as the person or persons in the
inner circle. In the last circle are people you like and are friendly with but who are not as close to you as those in
6
the two inner circles.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Figure 10.1
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Assessing your Social Networks
1. Are there people who reassure you when you are feeling uncertain about something?
2. Are there people who make you feel respected?
3. Are there people who would make sure that you were cared for if you were ill?
4. Are there people you talk to when you are upset, nervous, or depressed?
5. Are there people who you talk to about your health?
6. Are there people who you talk to about your family?
7. Are there people you confide in about things that are important to you?
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Measuring Social Support (2)
• Using these measures, researchers have found that most people place
close to 20 people in their network with half or more of these being
in the outermost circle.
• Those placed in the inner circles tend to remain there when examined
longitudinally although over time, older adults do lose some of their
network members, especially those in the outer circle (Antonucci,
2001).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Measuring Social Support (3)
• This consistency in social networks over time has been taken as support for the convoy
model of social support that says that a network is dynamic and its members move together
through life, watching out for and supporting each other (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980).
• Think for a minute about who is in your network, who has been there for more than a few
years, and who is relatively new.
• You will probably find that those in the inner circle have been there for a while whereas
some in the outer circle are new.
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Gender Differences in Social Support
• When the networks of men and women are compared, women typically have larger
•
•
•
•
networks with more family members than men do (Antonucci & Akiyama, 1991).
This difference is largely due to the fact that women place more people in their inner
circle while men and women are close to the same in their outer circle.
Both men and women tend to place their spouse in their inner circle but women also
tend to place others there like a sister and/or a best friend.
Men more likely place siblings in the second rather than inner circle (Antonucci &
Akiyama, 1997).
Women are more likely to maintain close, confiding relationships with people other
than their spouses while men are more likely to confide only in their spouses.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Gay and Lesbian Social Support
• The support networks of gay and lesbian couples tend to be about the
same as the convoys of heterosexual couples with the exception that their
convoys contain more gay or lesbian people or people with an awareness
of the individual’s orientation.
• Awareness of the individual’s gay or lesbian orientation is regarded as the
single most important factor in the individual’s overall satisfaction with
the support received (Grossman et al., 2000).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Race Ethnicity and Social Support
• Race and ethnicity have been examined in relation to social support revealing
considerable commonality across groups.
• Differences stem more from customs that affect relationships than from group
membership, per se.
• Those holding to traditional customs tend to have similar social support networks
that differ slightly from others.
• Older Chinese Americans rely primarily on their children for support, especially their
daughters (Antonucci, 2001).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Race Ethnicity and Social Support (2)
• The role of family, friends, and church as support providers is very
important in the African American elderly community. More relatives are in
African American networks than networks of whites, but being married
predicts this more than race.
• Race emerges as a difference because fewer African American elders are
married. Hispanic American elders tend to have a lot of people in their
networks including nuclear and extended family members.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Social support is
family but also
church and
activity groups
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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SES Education and Social Networks
• Some work has examined social networks as a function of age, gender,
education, and SES level and found that those with higher levels of
education tend to have larger overall networks but not larger inner circles.
• Women with higher SES have a higher proportion of friends in their
networks than do those with lower SES while men with higher SES have
networks that are more likely to contain people at some geographic distance.
• Inner circles were, however, unaffected by age, education, or SES level
(Ajrouch et al., 2005).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Health and Social Networks
• While these factors do not produce major differences in the inner circles of social networks, there are large
individual differences.
• Some people have bigger networks with more close family and friends that they can rely on during times of
need while others have much smaller networks and much less social support.
• As discussed in Chapter 5, those who have strong ties to family and friends generally live longer than those
without such ties.
• Over 80 studies have examined the relationship between social support and health and found that
relationship to be strong and positive. Those with strong support have healthier cardiovascular, endocrine,
and immune systems.
• Strong social support seems to slow down some aspects of biological aging (Urchino et al., 1996). Those
who express high levels of satisfaction with their networks also have high levels of psychological well-being
(Antonucci et al., 1997; Newsom & Schulz, 1996).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Age and Social Support
• As we grow older, our need for social support is likely to increase.
• Older adults are more likely than younger adults to experience some disability due to
chronic conditions like arthritis or advanced stages of illnesses like cancer.
Researchers have examined social support for older adults with such clear needs.
• In one study, older adults who had experienced a loss of vision and who were
entering rehabilitation services were interviewed three times over an 18-month
interval about their networks of family and friends and the support they received.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Age and Social Support (2)
• Participation in rehabilitation was associated with a larger network of friends perhaps
because participants made new friends while at rehabilitation.
• Those with increased disability had strong support from family networks. Family members
help those in need.
• Results also showed a decrease in the size of both family and friendship networks over this
time period but it is not clear whether these decreases might be due to the individual striving
to maintain independence, an increased difficulty in maintaining ties to less-close network
members, or from network members not wanting to deal with an impaired friend or family
member (Reinhardt et al., 2003).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Social Support and Cognitive Function
• Perceived social support also is related to cognition and an examination of cognition,
emotional support, and the frequency of contact with network members found that, over a
12-year period, those who perceived the most emotional support and had the most frequent
contact with network members showed the least decline in cognitive function (Holtzman et
al., 2004).
• A related study found good maintenance of cognitive function over a 7-year period for those
with the strongest family ties and who perceived themselves as being valued members of their
families (Béland et al., 2005).
• Clearly, perceived social support plays a very important role in the functioning and health of
adults and several views of how this support operates have been advanced.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Social Support and Social Factors
• Social factors include the buffering of stress provided by family and friends.
• Stress is easier to handle when you have an ally who can share and mitigate your
stress.
• Someone who can tell us how they solved a similar problem or perhaps just
empathize with us can reduce the stress we feel.
• We saw earlier (Chapter 5) how damaging stress can be and so social factors
operating through stress reduction can produce great benefits.
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Social Support and Psychological Factors
• Psychological factors refer to the positive emotions and sense of control that
friends and family can engender.
• Contact with those in a social network is most often in the context of good times
as family members visit on holidays or friends accompany us to concerts.
• They make us feel good and discourage negative emotions (Cohen & Herbert,
1996). We saw earlier how a positive outlook can play a major role in health and
longevity.
• When people support you, you also may get the message that you are a
worthwhile and competent person; you may perceive yourself as having more
control over your life and we know that a good sense of control can result in
more effort to maintain health and well-being (Antonucci, 2001; Krause, 2001).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Social Support and Behavioral Factors
• Behavioral factors refer to healthy and unhealthy behaviors and habits that are influenced by social
support. Smoking, driving recklessly, and drinking to excess (or doing all three at the same time) clearly
are unhealthy behaviors while exercising and watching your nutrition are healthy.
• Friends and family may nag us to quit the unhealthy behaviors and start or maintain the healthy ones. Of
course, it is possible for a particular social network to do quite the opposite. Perhaps because of that,
work has found good support for social and psychological factors but less for behavioral factors
(Urchino et al., 1996).
• In sum, humans need strong social relations with others. Social relations provide social support and are
related strongly to physical and psychological health and longevity. Spouses, children, parents,
grandparents, siblings, and friends are our most valuable asset. Think about how each of these types of
people has provided you or your loved ones with social support across the lifespan. We will now
examine these different supportive social relations in greater detail.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Family Relationships
• Family relationships have received more attention from researchers than any other type of
relationship.
• This makes sense because most of the relationship types that we experience in our lives are
those with various family members and such relationships usually are quite long lasting.
• We have a set of caregivers, most typically one or two parents; we may have one or more
siblings; we have extended families in our grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and in-laws;
we usually marry and have one or more children; and, most of us eventually become
grandparents.
• In this section we examine the major types of family relationships including marriage,
divorce, sexual relations, elder abuse, siblings, and grandparenting.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Marriage
• Marriage. Marriage is a legal union and has been defined by many courts as that of a man and woman
as husband and wife.
• Of all relationships, marriage has been studied the most. Most people (95%) get married at least once.
Although many marriages last, almost 50 percent end in divorce. Divorce is the legal dissolution of a
marriage.
• The divorce rate was at its highest in 1980 but has gone down since then. In 1980, close to 60 percent
of marriages ended in divorce while in present times about 45 percent are expected to end in divorce
(Whitbourne, 2001).
• Usually, divorce happens within the first 3 years of the marriage; men are usually in their early 30s and
women in their late 20s at the time of this first divorce (Clarke, 1995).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
25
Figure 10.2
People are happiest at the beginning and end of
married life
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Why do some Marriages last?
• One factor is marital satisfaction.
• Marital satisfaction is usually measured by asking individuals to rate their overall satisfaction with a number of
different aspects of their marriage. Figure 10-2 illustrates what has become known as the curvilinear pattern of
marital satisfaction for couples who have remained married. The early years of the marriage, during young
adulthood, generally are quite high in marital satisfaction; this seems reasonable. If satisfaction were not high the
marriage might never have taken place or could end in divorce soon after the marriage.
• Marital satisfaction often declines with the birth of the first child. This also seems reasonable. That very high level
of satisfaction during those early years could only change in one direction. Typically satisfaction is lower for
couples who have settled into a routine and who are raising a family. These couples, particularly those with
children, often face increased financial obligations and fewer interactions with each other.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
27
Why do some Marriages last? (2)
• Marital satisfaction is usually high again when the last child has left home and
husband and wife have more time together. This frequent pattern has been
found in a large number of studies (Miller et al., 1997).
• The next most frequent pattern is one of relatively high marital satisfaction
at all ages, with no decline in middle age (Anderson et al., 1983; Atchley,
2000).
• In a survey of over 3000 married adults over the age of 50, 85 percent
reported being satisfied and happy with their marriage (Brecher, 1984).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Factors affecting a successful Marriage
• Older couples, who have been married for a longer period of time than middle-aged couples,
show higher levels of affection and lower levels of disagreement even when discussing topics
on which they disagree.
• For older couples, children and grandchildren are a major source of pleasure while for middleaged couples, children are often a problem area.
• Older couples seemed to approach their problems with more humor and affection for one
another and negative emotions were rare in these discussions (Carstensen et al., 1995;
Levenson et al., 1993).
• Although these comparisons are cross-sectional, they suggest that older couples may have
learned more effective ways of dealing with life’s problems as discussed in Chapter 9. Couples
also seem to become more like one another in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors as their
years together increase (Davey & Szinovacz, 2004).
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Factors affecting a successful Marriage (2)
• Researchers also have interviewed middle-aged couples who have been married for at least 15
years and older couples who have been married for at least 45 years (Lauer & Lauer, 1985;
Lauer et al., 1990).
• When asked what factors contribute to their long-lasting relationship, husbands and wives
and middle-aged and older couples generally agreed. The most frequently named reason was
“my spouse is my best friend,” followed by “I like my spouse as a person,” “marriage is
sacred,” “we agree on aims and goals,” and “my spouse has grown more interesting.”
• Older couples also added humor as an important contributor to their long-lasting marriages.
Couples said they laughed together every day, kissed each other daily, and confided in one
another.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Marital Strain
• One study examined marital strain for 1000 husbands and wives over an 8-year period.
• Over this time period, strain increased but was nearly the same for men and women under 30 but greater for
women than men after age 40.
• Although middle-aged men showed increases in strain over time, no increase was observed for men over 60
(Umberson & Williams, 2005).
• At all older ages, women reported more strain than men. Some of this increased strain is due to the change in
roles that can occur when one person becomes disabled or ill and the other becomes their caregiver. Wives are
more likely than husbands to become caregivers
• We also know that marital quality is associated with physical and psychological health. In comparisons of
satisfied and dissatisfied couples, researchers have found that satisfied couples have much higher levels of
physical and psychological health.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Marital Strain (2)
• Marital dissatisfaction leads to lower levels of health rather than low levels of
health leading to dissatisfaction and this is particularly true for women
(Robles & Kiecolt-Glaser, 2003).
• A recent study examined self-reported health and marital strain for husbands
and wives and found that health decreased as strain increased, particularly for
older adults (Umberson et al., 2006). It is believed that marital strain
produces stress which, if continued over a long period of time, results in ill
health (see Chapter 5). If women show more strain, then they are likely to
have more stress-related health problems.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Marital Strain may result in Abuse
• Domestic elder abuse is the hardest to detect and prevent. Currently six types of abuse are generally
agreed upon.
•
•
•
•
•
Physical abuse includes inflicting pain or injury or depriving a basic need.
Sexual abuse includes nonconsensual sexual contact of any kind.
Emotional or psychological abuse is the infliction of emotional anguish or distress.
Financial or material exploitation involves funds, property, and assets.
Neglect is the loss of food, shelter, health care, or protection and is the most common type in
domestic settings. Self-neglect is any act by the elder him- or herself that threatens health or safety.
• Finally abandonment is the desertion of an elder by anyone who has assumed responsibility for care.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
May not be a spouse but a caregiver
Gay and Lesbian Unions
• Such couples report the highest levels of social support from those family and
friends who are aware of their sexual orientation (Grossman et al., 2000). Of
course not all gay and lesbian older couples have remained in hiding and those
who have been open have had to develop strong coping strategies.
• This strength seems to have been useful not just for dealing with discrimination
against homosexuals but also for meeting late-life challenges (Quam & Whitford,
1992).
• It is possible that older homosexual couples are, in many ways, stronger than
older heterosexual couples.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Marriage equality becomes the law of the land
• On June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court made marriage equality the law of
the land.
• Two questions stood before the high court: Does the 14th Amendment
require states to license a marriage between two people of the same sex, and
does that same amendment require a state to recognize legally valid same-sex
marriages performed elsewhere?
• The court ruled that the answer to both questions is “yes,” clearing the way
for gay and lesbian couples to marry in all 50 states.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Cohabitation
• Not in your book, for seniors on Social Security, it may not make financial sense to marry.
• One study compared younger and older adults who were cohabiting to see if cohabitation was different for
different age/cohort groups. Nearly 1000 adults were surveyed.
• Older cohabiting adults reported higher quality relationships. They spent more time with their partners,
argued less frequently, believed they were treated fairly, and were far less likely to report that the relationship
would end.
• Younger couples were more concerned about compatibility and tended to view their cohabitation as a step
toward marriage while older couples tended to view it as an alternative to marriage (King & Scott, 2005). It
is expected that as baby boomers grow older, the number and proportion of cohabiting older adults will
continue to increase but the age differences may remain.
• What do you think?
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Divorce
• Between 40 and 50 percent of marriages end in divorce and, although that is high, the
divorce rate has gone down since the early 1980s when it was close to 60 percent.
• Divorce is 30 percent more likely for low-income couples, 24 percent more likely for those
who marry young, 14 percent more likely for those who are less religious, 13 percent more
likely for those with a lower level of education, and 9 percent more likely for those who
cohabit before marrying (Centers for Disease Control, 2002).
• This latter finding often surprises people but research suggests that those who cohabit are
different in important ways from those who do not. Cohabiters tend to have more liberal
attitudes toward the roles of men and women, have more negative attitudes about marriage,
and to be more accepting of divorce (Seltzer, 2000). It is not cohabiting that produces
divorce; it is that cohabiters tend to be people more accepting of divorce.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Factors contributing to Divorce
• Poor communication, basic unhappiness, and incompatibility are named most
frequently.
• Children rarely are mentioned as a problem.
• There are also some gender differences because men are more likely to blame their
own abuse of alcohol or drugs while women are more likely to blame emotional
and/or physical abuse or their husband’s infidelity (Cleek & Pearson, 1985; South &
Lloyd, 1995).
• Lack of communication may have led to a person’s divorce but later they found out
about their spouse’s infidelity. Now they name them both as causes.
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Remarriage.
• Many more men remarry than women and one reason for this is that, as you know, for middle-aged and older adults there are many more
women than men.
• For women, the probability of remarriage is highest for white Americans (58% remarry within 5 years), than for Hispanic (44%) or
African-American women (32%) (Centers for Disease Control, 2002).
• Young divorcees also are more likely to remarry than are older divorcees (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1997). As you know, older divorcees
frequently turn to cohabitation as an alternative to remarriage.
• A second reason for men being more likely to remarry is that men seem to experience greater loneliness and a greater need for
companionship following a divorce than do women (Chipperfield & Havens, 2001).
• In one major study, over 3000 married, divorced, remarried, cohabiting, widowed, and never-married men and women were compared on
measures of loneliness. Those who were married or cohabiting showed the lowest levels of loneliness.
• People in their first marriage were less lonely than those who were remarried. Men without a partner were more lonely than women
without a partner. Those who never married were less lonely than those who once had a partner but no longer did (Peters & Liefbroer,
1997). A more recent study looked at life strain for divorced, widowed, and never-married older adults and found greater strain for those
who had been married at one time (divorced and widowed) than for those who never married (Pudrovska et al., 2006).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Sexual Relations
• Sexual relations are not mentioned frequently as a factor in longlasting marriages or as a problem that led to divorce.
• Nevertheless, sex is an important part of life for most younger people
but not for very many older people. Did you believe that last
statement?
• Although it is a common belief that once you are old you are no
longer sexually active, it simply is not true.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Sexual Activity
• Sexual activities almost always are examined by use of a survey and ordinarily quite a
large number of people respond.
• At the same time, responders are more likely to answer some questions than others.
• Questions about frequency of activity, intercourse, and satisfaction are more likely to
be answered than are questions about masturbation or oral sex, particularly by older
cohorts.
• Sexual activity is usually an important part of marriage and cohabitation and many
would say an important part of life.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Factors affecting decline in Sexual Activity
• The loss of peripheral nerve cells reduces sensitivity in the genital areas and can make it more difficult
for older adults to become aroused (Berger et al., 1994).
• Reduced blood flow to the penis is another factor for older men. This makes it difficult to obtain and
maintain an erection (Rieske & Holstege, 1996); this problem is far more likely for smokers.
• Most of the pharmaceuticals that are designed to increase performance for older men work by
increasing blood flow.
• Older men with erectile dysfunction do not, however, report a lowering of their self-esteem or any
feelings of being sexually deprived (Schiavi, 1999).
• For women, the thinning of the vaginal wall that frequently occurs after menopause and a reduction in
lubrication with advanced age can lead to pain during intercourse and lower sexual activity.
• Drugs like Viagra have helped men stay sexually active
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Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Sexual Activity and Disease
• Sexual activity also is influenced by health and the medications used to treat
health problems.
• One study of over 1000 men between the ages of 40 and 70 found that men
with diabetes, heart disease, and/or hypertension had the greatest difficulties
and that the prescribed medication was often at fault (Goldstein &
Hatzichristou, 1994).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Sexual Activity and Disease (2)
• Women with multiple sclerosis have great difficulty in achieving orgasms in
part due to medication.
• Even some of the medications used to treat less life-threatening disorders
like arthritis, insomnia, and sinusitis can influence sexual responsiveness and
lead to lowered levels of activity.
• Psychiatric medications also have been implicated as a contributor to sexual
dysfunction in both men and women (Segraves & Segraves, 1995).
• Drugs like Viagra are contraindicated when a man has heart disease
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
44
Siblings
• Siblings are usually the longest social relationship that individuals have.
• Your older siblings have known you since you were born and your younger siblings have known you
since their birth (or shortly thereafter).
• Siblings, like parents, are not a social relationship that we choose. Having siblings is beyond our
control. Like them or not, they are still our siblings. Most people have at least one sibling and close to
80 percent of older adults have at least one living brother or sister.
• When asked how close they felt to the sibling(s) that they see most often, most older adults report
being close or very close while a small minority, only 5 percent, report not being close at all (Atchley,
2000; Bedford, 1996). Close relationships can be of several different kinds and researchers have
attempted to characterize these different kinds of close and not-so-close sibling relationships.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
45
Types of Siblings
• Intimate Strong feelings of love and trust; may regard each other as best friends; have frequent contact
(through visits, letters, e-mail, phone); provide support and whenever it is needed without being asked.
• Congenial Feelings of love and trust; may regard each other as good friends; contact is less frequent; feel
closer to their spouse or children; provide support if asked; get along well with one another.
• Loyal Relationship based on beliefs about family ties and responsibilities that siblings have to be a good
brother or sister; may not have much contact except at traditional family gatherings.
• Apathetic Rarely contact or even think about each other; no strong positive or negative emotions about
each other; it is as if they have no sibling(s)
• Hostile Feelings of resentment, anger, and occasionally envy toward each other; no intentional contact and
effort to avoid each other; usually a result of some specific event (battle over an inheritance, feeling less
loved by a parent, and so on).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
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Parents and Children
• Over the last 20 years, more adult children have continued to live with their parents or
returned to their parents’ home after residing elsewhere for some brief period of time.
• For example, an adult might return to a parents’ home following a divorce. One
national survey found that 30 percent of parents had an adult child between the ages
of 22 and 24 living with them, 19 percent had a child between the ages of 25 and 29,
and 10 percent had a child 30 years of age or older (Hamner & Turner, 1996).
• Two-parent homes are more likely to have an adult child living with them than are
homes with only one parent or homes in which a remarriage has taken place.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
47
Parents and Children (2)
• Usually occurs because of a crisis involving a parent’s health and the need for care. These relationships
typically are handled quite well but sometimes deteriorate because the child did not fully understand the
demands of caregiving, conflicts between caregiving and employment, or a need for professional caregiving
that arises as the health of the parent grows worse (Brack-bill & Kitch, 1991).
• The amount of contact between parents and adult children who do not live together varies as a function of
number of adult children, proximity, and affection. Parents with only one adult child do not have contact as
frequently as parents with more than one adult child but still 75 percent have contact at least once a week
with their one child (Uhlenberg & Cooney, 1990).
• Parents and children who feel strong affection for each other maintain contact even at great distance and
most parents and children report strong positive feelings. Parents remain concerned about their child’s
welfare regardless of that child’s age. Having a child with serious problems is a major cause of parent
depression (Pillemer & Suitor, 1991).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
48
Grandchildren
• Everyone has or has had a grandparent and most adults will become grandparents.
• Using data from the NSFH, it is estimated that 67 percent of adults who have children
of childbearing age are grandparents and by the time their children are 40, close to 95
percent will be grandparents.
• Most grandparents have more than one grandchild and the average number is between
five and six (Kivnick & Sinclair, 1996; Szinovacz, 1998).
• Eons ago, when life expectancy was very short, you might guess that grandparents were
rare because not many people lived long enough to become grandparents.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
49
Grandchildren (2)
• Some anthropological evidence shows that, about 30,000 years ago, there was a great increase
in the number of older adults probably due to a change in culture and, perhaps,
domestication.
• The value of grandparents was recognized and it is believed that these older adults took care
of, fed, and taught their grandchildren, allowing parents to have more children, colonize new
territories, and devote childrearing time to the development of new forms of hunting,
farming, and civilizing the world (Caspari & Lee, 2006; O’Connell et al., 1999).
• Grandparents may have been a major force in the development of human civilization and
still are highly valued family members today.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
50
The Role of Grandparents
• Typical roles include providing children and grandchildren with information about family history, keeping
track of family members,
• serving as mediators when conflicts arise between parents and children or siblings, and even filling in as
custodial parents for their grandchildren when parents are unable to fill that role themselves (Atchley, 2000).
This latter role can be quite difficult for grandparents and some recent work has found much higher levels
of family strain and lower health scores for custodial grandmothers.
• These grandmothers perceived far lower levels of family functioning than did noncustodial grandmothers
and usually for good reason (Musil et al., 2006). Box 10-2 takes a closer look at the issues and problems for
grandparents and grandchildren in these custodial situations.
• Grandparents generally are older adults and older adults, especially older women, are often portrayed
negatively in the media (see Chapter 1). Children typically have a very negative view of older adults (Haught
et al., 1999; Lichtenstein et al., 2003). When, however, young children are asked about their own
grandparents, they view them very positively, especially when contact is frequent (Creasey & Kaliher, 1994).
51
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
African-American Grandparents
• African American grandparents are more likely than white American grandparents to
be involved with their grandchildren and to spend more time with them (Strom et al.,
1996).
• Even very old (85 and older) African American grandparents spend considerable time
with their grandchildren and great-grandchildren and report significant emotional
benefits and pride in their role as grandparents (Barer, 2001).
My mother raised my niece because my sis-in-law and brother worked. I think this is more of an economic than racial issue.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
52
Custodial Grandparents Box 10-2
• Custodial grandparents refer to those grandparents who are raising their grandchildren for short (a couple of
weeks) to long (until the children are grown) periods of time because the children’s parents are unable or unwilling
to do so.
• Parents may have died, been involved in substance abuse, been imprisoned, been disabled, been ill, have severe
psychological or financial difficulties, or neglected the child (Sands & Goldberg-Glen, 2000). It is estimated that
there are about 1.5 million custodial grandparents at any one time (Simmons & Dye, 2003).
• About 12 percent of African American grandparents and about 4 percent of white American grandparents have
had this experience (Thomas et al., 2000). Grandmothers who are younger and who never completed high school
are the most frequent custodial grandparents (Minkler & Fuller-Thomson, 2000). A number of studies have looked
at the effects this situation has on grandparents and grandchildren.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
53
Custodial Grandparents Box 10-2 (2)
• One study found lower health and more strain for custodial grandmothers (Musil et al., 2006).
• Other studies also have found more health problems, higher levels of depression, and greater stress
(perhaps a cause for those health problems) for custodial grandparents (Goodman, 2003; Minkler et al.,
1997; Musil & Ahmad, 2002). These difficulties are even greater for the many older adults experiencing
a chronic disorder or serious health problem of their ow
• In one study, custodial grandparents suffering from arthritis perceived themselves as having greater
difficulty raising grandchildren and, as a result, felt high levels of anger, frustration, guilt, and
depression (Barlow et al., 1999). Grandparents also often have difficulty in managing the behavior of
grandchildren, particularly adolescents, and the problems seem to be worldwide. A recent study
conducted in Kenya found the same types of problems for custodial grandparents there as in the
United States (Ice et al., 2006). These difficulties are not always the same for grandmothers compared
to grandfathers.
54
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Custodial Grandparents Box 10-2 (3)
• One interesting study found that grandmothers showed more depression when the
grandchildren first moved into the home while grandfathers showed more when
they moved out.
• It is thought that grandfathers may be less involved with the actual custodial care
(feeding, clothing, disciplining) but benefit from the companionship they receive
and being viewed as a wise elder.
• When the grandchildren leave, they lose these benefits (Szinovacz et al., 1999).
Grandchildren in these situations are more likely to have some behavioral,
emotional, school-related, or neurological problems than those living with their
parents (Hayslip et al., 1998).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
55
Friends
• Friendships are voluntary.
• Unlike sibling, parent, or grandparent relationships into which you are born or adopted, one
selects friends. Friendships are reciprocal. Each person gives as well as receives.
• When a friend needs help, a friend is ready to help. Self-disclosure is a characteristic of
friendships.
• Friends share secrets that they would not share with other people; they know each other’s likes
and dislikes, they confide in one another. It is the mutual nature of this self-disclosure that is
most important.
• We are not close friends if you know everything about me and I know nothing about you.
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56
Male and Female Friends
• Women are more likely than men to have more than one
close friend in whom they confide; men are more likely to
confide only in their best friend, their spouse. Equality is
another characteristic.
• Men friends are more likely than women friends to do
things together (Cavanaugh, 1998).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
57
Friends tend to be like each other
• Thinking about some of the people you regard as friends, you might try
the scale in Table 10-2 that measures these characteristics.
• Did you notice that the scale includes a few other common characteristics,
such as physical appearance and intelligence?
• Close friends tend to be close to each other in these characteristics too.
• See table 10-2 in book
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
58
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
• Holds that older people develop an increased attention to emotional factors in
their relationships due to an awareness that their time may be limited.
• Carstensen suggests that older people reduce the total number of people in their
lives who do not provide emotional closeness and focus more on those who do.
• Their increased attention to emotional factors may be part of the reason that older
married couples show less negative and more positive emotions when discussing a
disagreeable topic or why older adults more often turn to emotion management
coping strategies when dealing with an emotional situation (see Chapter 9).
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
59
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (2)
• In one study, young, middle-aged, and older adults were asked who they would rather be with
if they had a half hour open and could spend it with the person they chose or if they were
moving across the country with no accompanying family or friends.
• They were allowed to choose from a member of their immediate family or a person they
recently met and who appeared to have a lot in common with them or an author of a book
they had read.
• All aged adults selected a family member in the situation where they were moving across
country but, as expected by socioemotional theory, only older adults selected a family
member when they had a half hour to spare (Fredrickson & Carstensen, 1990).
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60
Older Adults more likely to lose Friends
• Because older adults lose friends more often than younger adults, some work has examined the coping and
making of new friends for these individuals.
• In one longitudinal study, older adults were interviewed in 1979 and again in 1995 when the youngest person
still in the study was 81. Over that 16-year interval, many lost close friends. Most (70 percent), however, still
had good friends and were quite satisfied. Ten percent had good friends and wanted still more.
• One interesting finding was that the new friends selected by these older adults were as likely to be different
gender as same gender. Young adult friendships are usually among men or among women but older adult
friendships are frequently mixed gender. Another 15 percent had no good friends and did not wish for any.
Only 5 percent had no good friends but wished they did.
• Older adults like this or those who have good friends but wish they had more can benefit from programs that
teach specific skills, practice those skills in role-playing sessions, and emphasize pragmatic factors. Such
programs have been shown to be quite effective in reducing loneliness and increasing the friendships of older
women (Stevens et al., 2006).
61
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Religion
• In this section we will look at religion, which for our purposes refers to a community of individuals
who share common beliefs and participate together in faith-based common activities or rituals.
• All religions provide social links, and frequently social support, to their members that would otherwise
not be available.
• Religion is the public and social side of theological belief systems and is different from spirituality.
• Spirituality is the private, emotional, and/or intellectual connection that one makes to an accepted
higher power.
• People who are members of a religion may or may not be spiritual and people with spirituality may or
may not be members of a religion. Most of the research conducted in this area is relatively new and
has focused more on religion than on spirituality.
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62
Religion and Aging
• A common belief is that older adults are more religious and more spiritual than younger adults.
• In support of this, a number of cross-sectional surveys have found higher attendance at religious
gatherings for older adults (Krause, 1997).
• When people have been asked whether they believe in a higher power, about two-thirds of those
between 15 and 34 answered yes while 87 percent of those 55 and older answered yes (Jacobs &
Worcester, 1990).
• These differences could, however, be associated with cohort rather than age. Older adults grew up in
times when religion was a more central part of life.
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63
Religion and Aging (2)
• One longitudinal study followed a large group of adults for 20 years and found that
attendance at services was higher for older adults between the ages of 60 and 75 but
declined past the age of 75.
• One might guess that this decline could be due, in part, to increased illness or disability for
those older adults but, in fact, many who became ill or disabled increased their attendance
while others with no apparent disability attended less often than they had in the past
(Atchley, 1999).
• It is not clear whether this decrease in attendance was accompanied by a decrease or
perhaps an increase in spirituality. Religion and spirituality, as with intelligence and
personality traits, may be other cases where we find both age and cohort differences.
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64
The Benefits of Religion and Spirituality
• .In a review of over 200 prior studies and three national surveys, Jeffrey Levin found that religion was
strongly and positively related to health and that a large number of health problems were less frequent
among adults who reported more religious involvement (1994; 1998).
• In one longitudinal study, those who attended religious services during the early years of the study
had far fewer and less serious disabilities 12 years later (Idler & Kasl, 1997a; 1997b). Psychological
well-being and life satisfaction also have been associated with religion (Johnson, 1995). In this case,
however, the association is U shaped.
• Those with higher involvement in religion and those with no involvement in religion tend to have
higher levels of psychological well-being than those with moderate levels (Krause, 1995). Finally,
religion also is related to mortality. In one study, 2023 California residents, ages 55 and older, were
asked about their attendance at religious services.
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65
The Benefits of Religion and Spirituality (2)
• As in other studies, attendance was higher for women than men and lowest for the youngest (middle age)
and oldest (old-old) adults in the sample. Over the next 5 years, mortality data were collected by continual
reading of obituary notices in newspapers and attempts to contact participants for later interviews.
• The death rates were highest for those who had earlier reported no attendance at religious services and
lowest for those who had reported weekly attendance (Oman & Reed, 1998). In a direct comparison of the
benefits associated with religion and with spirituality, one longitudinal study interviewed adults when they
were in their 30s, 40s, 50s, and late 60s.
• Higher levels of religion were strongly associated with more positive relationships with other people, wellbeing derived from such positive relationships, and generativity. As you recall, generativity refers to the
feelings associated with providing something of value to the next generation(s).
• Higher levels of spirituality were strongly associated with personal growth, being involved in creative or
learning tasks, and wisdom. Perhaps very spiritual people develop more insight into human life and become
experts. You will remember that wisdom can be thought of as expertise at life (Wink & Dillon, 2003).
66
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Factors underlying the relationships between religion and
spirituality & health, well-being, wisdom, & mortality
• One factor is the set of rules or demands made by some organized religions on
their members.
• One religion may prohibit behaviors such as drinking alcohol, using drugs, smoking,
extramarital sex, and other behaviors that may be dangerous. The demands of
Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, Mormon, Seventh Day Adventists, and several other
religions are such that many unhealthy behaviors are unacceptable.
• A reason for better health for religious people may be that they are less likely to
engage in unhealthy behaviors.
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67
Factors underlying the relationships between
religion … (2)
• A second factor may be relaxation from a form of meditation, particularly in the face of
stress.
• Meditation is known to reduce blood pressure and decrease heart rate (Holmes, 1987). The
meditation practiced by highly spiritual people may involve reading religious writing, listening
to religious programs, and reciting prayers as one might recite a mantra.
• In one study of 1300 older adults, more than half reported reading the Bible, one-third
listened to or watched religious programs, and 60 percent reported praying every day (Koenig,
1995).
• Highly spiritual people may have a very effective technique for ameliorating stress.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
68
Factors underlying the relationships
between religion … (3)
• A third factor is the social support coming from a religious community beyond that provided
by family and friends.
• Members of religious communities may offer instrumental and/or emotional support to one
another at times of need whereas such support might come only from family and friends for
those who are not part of a religious community.
• In one survey of African Americans, researchers found that 60 percent reported receiving
support from members of their religion; 80 percent also received support from a good friend
and 50 percent from family (Taylor & Chatters, 1986).
• It has been suggested that the support actually received from a religious community is very
much like the support received from family and friends but may be more likely perceived as
social support because most religions advocate concern and care for others (Krause, 2001).
Recall the earlier discussion of how it is the perception of social support that is important.
69
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
Religion and Network Expansion
• Another form of social support occurs as religions offer opportunities
to form new friendships and to, thus, expand social networks.
• Gatherings for religious services, for festivals, and for other sponsored
events also offer opportunities for network expansion.
• My mother looks forward to the Greek Orthodox summer festivals for
the food and the dancing – she is 87 (and Catholic)
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70
Religion and a Positive Outlook
• Finally, some have suggested that religion or spirituality may be beneficial because they provide hope and a
more positive outlook for those in the religious community and/or those who believe in a higher power.
• These individuals may be able to place their problems in a broader context of human suffering and salvation
and be more happy with their lives.
• Some work has found a strong positive relationship between religiosity and happiness while other work has
not (Lewis & Cruise, 2006).
• Religion and spirituality are associated with a number of benefits and appear to operate through several
different factors but even in studies where many of these factors have been controlled for (size of social
support network, healthy behaviors, drinking, smoking), researchers have still obtained lower mortality rates
for religious people especially women (Koenig et al., 1999; Strawbridge et al., 1997). Perhaps
meditation/relaxation and positive outlooks account for the association or perhaps there are other factors
that have not yet been systematically investigated. What do you think these other factors might be?
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Gerontology 101
71
Isolation and Loneliness
• Although a common misperception of older adults is that they are isolated and lonely you now know
better.
• The social networks of older adults are quite strong and more focused on those who are emotionally
closest and in their inner circles.
• Older adults, like all other adults, derive social support from their relationships and often from
religious communities as well.
• In an early examination of loneliness, researchers looked at 15 different studies that had investigated
levels of loneliness for older adults. These studies showed that about 10 percent reported being very or
often lonely, 20 percent lonely sometimes, and 70 percent rarely or never lonely.
• For each hour spent alone, younger adults reported more loneliness than older adults (Malatesta &
Kalnok, 1984; Wenger et al., 1996).
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72
Chapter 11
Work and Retirement
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
1
This week
• We will discuss the new
face of retirement
• Beginning with preretirement, we look at
work and current options
post COVID-19
• We finish looking at
retirement options
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
2
Workers are now Older
• The average age of the American
worker has increased over the last
several years and will undoubtedly
continue to increase as older, still
working baby boomers, age.
• In 1996, the average worker was 38
years old and in 2006 that average
was close to 41.
3
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Vera Rubin, Astronomer July 23, 1928-Dec. 25, 2016
Women are now Working
in Fields that were
associated with Men
• Older cohorts of women were
not employed in many jobs
that were regarded as the
domain of men.
• Rubin discovered the existence
of dark matter, the strange
glue that holds our universe
together. Her contribution is
regarded as one of the most
significant discoveries of the
20th century — work many
feel should have been
awarded a Nobel Prize.
4
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Older Workers and
Age Discrimination
The frequent and persistent
negative view of aging and older
adults and negative stereotypes
about older adults discussed
earlier have influenced the
evaluation of older workers by
management, supervisors,
coworkers, and even older
workers themselves.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
5
Beliefs about Older Workers
It is thought that older workers are more
likely to be hurt on the job, get sick and be
absent, perform at a lower level, be more
forgetful and unable to learn new
procedures, and cost far more than they are
worth to the employer (Wegman, 1999).
Many believe older minds and bodies
simply do not work as well anymore.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
6
Job Performance and Older Workers
Many people expect a negative
relationship between age and job
performance; that is, they expect
older adults to perform at a lower
level in the workplace because they
are more likely to have reduced
strength, reduced sensory abilities,
respond slower, and have reduced
working memory capacity.
7
• Some expect older adults to perform at a higher
level because they have more experience and
knowledge.
• A major meta-analysis performed on the results
Age and Job
Performance
from 96 different studies with over 38,000
workers, ranging in age from 17 to over 60, and
employed in a large variety of jobs, found no
overall relationship between age and job
performance except for very young workers.
• Is age and job performance unrelated? The answer
is that it depends on the skills involved in
performing the job and the benefits of job
experience.
8
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Job Performance
The relationship between worker age and
performance is not simple. The answers to
questions regarding the decline of skills and the
benefits of experience are not often simply yes or
no.
There are variations in how much the relevant
skills decline and in how much benefit is derived
from experience.
These variations depend on specific jobs and the
people who fill them.
9
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Job Performance and Skill Set
• Hearing is a skill that plays an
important role in many jobs but is
far more important for a teacher
than for an accountant.
• Long-term experience is probably
of more benefit to a judge than to a
dentist.
10
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Research on
Specific Job Skills
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
•
Because of variations such as these,
researchers have spent some time
looking at very specific jobs.
•
One such study examined the
performance of fishers in Okinawa
and hunters in Papua, New Guinea.
•
Fishing and hunting are jobs that
depend on good sensory skills, speed,
muscle strength, and stamina and all
of these skills tend to decline with
age.
11
Hunters and Fishers
01
02
03
04
At the same time, the
experienced fisher and
hunter is likely to know far
more about the prey, its
habits and habitat, and other
important factors involved
in fishing and hunting.
Results showed that, on
average, young fishers
tended to make more money
from their catch than old
fishers but the most
productive fisher was also
the oldest at age 52.
For hunters, those who were
young and unmarried were
the least successful even
though they spent the most
time at it.
The most successful hunters
were older and married
(Ohtsuka, 1997).
12
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Are older workers
able to learn and
remember new
procedures as well
as younger
workers?
• We all know that changes in software occur
continually and that even grocery stores
rearrange where items are to be found.
• Perhaps older adults have more difficulty than
younger adults in adjusting to changes in
procedures at work.
• They may be harder to train.
• Management generally believes this, but the
research suggests that training differences
depend more on factors other than age.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
13
Learning New Procedures
At the very outset, older
workers often are reluctant to
participate in training for fear
that they will be unable to
learn the new procedures or
will not perform as well as
younger trainees.
Some desire separate training
groups because of these fears
while others do not want to be
treated as some special group
that needs extra care.
14
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Training
1
2
3
Once in training, older adults
are sometimes slower, need
more assistance, and make
more mistakes when learning
new computer skills than do
younger adults (Charness &
Bosman, 1992).
Other work, however, has not
found age differences in
training (Garfein et al., 1988)
and older workers perform
better when certain training
procedures are used.
In teaching computer skills,
the most effective techniques
for younger and especially
older learners are those that
reduce the demands on
working memory by modeling
the new procedures and
providing menus (Kelly et al.,
1994).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
4
Older workers also learn to
perform computer tasks
quicker and perform better
when specific goals are set
during training.
5
Goal setting is beneficial for a
wide range of workers and
students too (Hollis-Sawyer &
Sterns, 1999). Once trained,
older workers perform as well
as younger workers when they
return to their jobs.
15
Job Satisfaction -- Are older workers less satisfied?
• Most older workers do look forward to
retirement (Atchley, 1999) but are, at the same
time, generally more satisfied with their jobs than
are younger workers (Bernal et al., 1998; White &
Spector, 1987).
• It may be that young workers have much higher
expectations about their jobs than do older
workers and when those expectations are not
met, they feel dissatisfied.
16
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Job Satisfaction may be affected by Cohort
01
02
03
Older workers know from
experience not to expect so
much and so are more
satisfied with much less— or it
could be a cohort, rather than
age difference.
Younger cohort workers have
had more experience with
computers, cell phones,
remote control, and other
aspects of modern technology
that may not always be present
in the workplace.
Older cohort workers may be
satisfied with much less
because they have had much
less over the course of their
lives. .
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
17
Finding
your
Niche
It could be that older workers have
had decades to find the right niche for
themselves and tend to have jobs that
are comfortable and interesting for
them and that they do well.
Younger workers, particularly those at
an entry level, have not yet found
their place. As a result, they are less
satisfied.
I found my niche the first time I stood in front of a class of young adults
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
18
Protection from Age Dscrimination
• In 1967, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) was passed to protect
workers 40 years of age and older from discrimination in hiring, training, dismissal,
pay, promotions, retirement (amendment passed in 1986), and benefits (passed in
1990).
• The law applied to any place of employment with 20 or more employees. Such
companies cannot refuse to hire or get rid of workers simply because they’re old.
• In the early 1980s, there was a three-fold increase in the number of cases filed under
ADEA and more than 5000 older workers were awarded close to $25 million
(Atchley, 1996).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
19
• In the early 1990s, the number of cases continued
to increase but the number of prosecutions
declined, and many cases were settled out of court
(Atchley, 2000).
• More recently, the number of cases declined, and
Proving
Discrimination
some recent court decisions have made it more
difficult for older workers to demonstrate
discrimination (Hannson et al., 1997; Ormsbee,
2001).
• Older workers are less willing to file a case when
the odds of winning seem so low (Nicholson,
2000).
• Companies can afford to spend a lot of time and
money to win while older workers have far less of
each.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
20
Age Discrimination Still Happens
• Age discrimination occurs in spite of the law, but it is difficult to determine its frequency.
• Older workers are more likely to be dismissed than younger workers, to have more difficulty finding a
job once they have lost one, and to begin again at a significantly lower salary than comparable younger
workers (Atchley, 2000; Barlett & Steele, 1992; Rix, 2004).
• Job loss for older workers is particularly high for women and minorities (Flippen & Tienda, 2000).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
21
Job Loss and Depression
• When older workers are dismissed from their jobs,
many begin consuming alcohol but typically not in
excess (Gallo et al., 2001).
• One recent study found that older workers who lost
their jobs, especially those with limited assets,
developed depression and were still depressed 6 years
after losing their jobs (Gallo et al., 2006).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
22
Barriers to Employment
01
02
03
Companies not wishing to hire
older workers can argue, however,
that is was not the age of the
applicant that made a difference
but the outdated job search,
resumé, and interview skills that
cost the candidate the job.
Older workers may take longer to
find a job because they are
generally less willing than younger
workers to relocate and, thus, do
not apply for jobs that would
require a move.
A lower starting salary often is
attributed to outdated work
skills—which may often be the
case especially for older workers
not given training opportunities in
their prior job.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
23
Transitions to Retirement
A common belief is that
most adults work at a job
until age 65 and then retire.
In fact, most workers do
not fit this pattern.
Quite a large number,
anywhere between 42 and
78 percent, work at a
different job or the same
type of job for a different
employer before retirement
and after leaving their
longest held job.
These other jobs, bridge
jobs, serve as a transition to
full retirement. They
particularly are sought by
farm and nonfarm laborers
who may need to find a less
physically demanding job
with the declines in muscle
strength and sense organs
that can occur in old age.
These transition jobs also
are sought by those who
have been fired but who
have not yet given up the
search for a new job. The
most likely workers to
continue in a career job
until retirement are
professionals, although
nearly half of them also find
other employment before
retiring (Cahill et al., 2006).
24
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Bridge Job
• Bridge jobs, often part-time work, frequently are lower pay and lower status jobs
than the individual’s longest held job.
• On average, individuals work at a bridge job for about 5 years before retiring.
• In one survey, 21 percent of older men and 54 percent of older women employed
full-time, expressed a desire to work part-time if such work were available.
• Over 50 percent of workers who have left their longest held job are employed part
time; this trend is especially true for older women workers (Quinn & Kozy, 1996).
• 57 percent of professionals who have been employed in a bridge job before full
retirement say that they enjoyed that job more than their career job even though the
pay was lower (Ruhm, 1991).
Starbucks provides health insurance for
part-time workers
25
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Part-time Bridge Work can be a Transition to
Retirement
Part-time bridge job can ease
older adults into retirement.
Companies rarely offer such
a transition to their older
full-time employees instead
they attempt to get rid of
them altogether through
early retirement incentives.
From the company’s point
of view, it is expensive to
allow older full-time workers
to become part-time workers
and still continue with full
benefits.
26
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Retirement
Retirement refers to a
self-determined or
voluntary withdrawal
from work.
If one is unable to find a
new job after being
downsized, becomes
discouraged, and quits
searching, that counts as
retirement because
quitting is selfdetermined.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Being fired or downsized
is not retirement because
it is not voluntary.
Such a retirement would,
of course, be an unhappy
one while most
retirements are more
pleasant.
27
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck of Germany first
established 65 as the retirement age late in the
nineteenth century by supplying a pension for
people over that age.
The
History of
Retirement
Not many adults lived to be age 65 in the late
nineteenth century so the cost of providing pensions
was low.
Before the twentieth century in the United States,
retirement was rare and short because there were no
government financial supports for retired people and
people did not live as long.
In 1900, the average number of years spent in
retirement was 1.2 and retired people were typically
supported by their families. People usually retired
because they could no longer work.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
28
The U.S, Social Security Act
was passed in 1935,
it designated 65 as the age of
retirement.
Social Security intended
retirement to lower the
number of people looking
for work during the years
around the Great Depression
in the 1930s (Atchley, 2000).
Social Security created jobs
for younger workers by
vacating positions previously
held by older workers.
Unemployment has become
less of a problem and
retirement has come to be an
expected event in the lives of
most workers and, generally,
people look forward to it.
It is a chance to share in the
nation’s wealth that you
helped to create.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
29
Who Retires and Why?
• About 84 percent of men retire by age 65 (Novak, 2006).
• People who like their work and who are dedicated to their careers are likely
to put off retirement. Such people most often are professionals.
• Social pressure from family and/or friends is another factor.
• If your spouse retires, he or she may put pressure on you to also retire so
that you can spend more time together.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
30
Retirement, finances and depression
• Some people cannot afford to retire (Parnes & Sommers,
1994).
• This is the case for many low-income workers who are
frequently women and/or minorities.
• These older workers also are more likely to be dismissed
from their jobs and to have a difficult time finding another
job.
• In one longitudinal examination of retirement, researchers
found that those who still had financial responsibility for
their children were far less likely to retire.
31
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Forced Retirement and Depression
Forced retirement leads to
depression.
For women, the depression
worsens as their husbands
become more disabled.
Older men and women who
saw their children infrequently
went in opposite directions
with respect to retirement.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Some who selected retirement
had fewer depressive
symptoms when they provided
care for a spouse (Szinovacz &
Davey, 2004).
Women in this situation
tended to remain working
while men tended to retire in
order to spend more time with
their children (Szinovacz &
De Viney, 2000).
32
Retirement, Disability and Health
• If you become disabled, you may be forced to
retire.
• This is far more likely for minorities because
they are more likely to work as laborers and
laborers have the highest rates of disability
(Iams, 1986; Taylor & Doverspike, 2003).
( and remember, in places like MS., diabetic minorities are likely to become amputees)
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
33
Skilled Labor and Disability Risk
Studies of coal miners, plumbers, and construction
workers have found very high levels of disability
for those who work in wet conditions, use
vibrating equipment, carry heavy loads, and are
exposed to certain chemicals (aspartate
transaminase) (Arndt et al., 1998; Calmels et al.,
1998).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
34
Common
Disabilities
The most common
disabilities among other
older workers are
circulatory disorders, bone
diseases like osteoporosis,
and mental dysfunction
(McCoy & Weems, 1989).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
35
Health Conditions Leading to Retirement
• For men, cancer, diabetes, and heart attacks are the most frequent and
serious health problems leading to early retirement while for women,
hypertension is the leading health-related cause for early retirement (Colsher
et al., 1988).
• Health problems account for 60 percent of retirements that occur before the
individual is truly ready to retire (Ozawa & Law, 1992).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
36
The ill health that leads to retirement is frequently not the ill
health of the worker but of a parent or spouse.
Retirement
and the
Health of a
Relative
Becoming a caregiver for a spouse, and retiring as a result, is far
more likely for women than men because older men are more
likely to need such care (remember, wives are usually younger
than husbands) and women of that older cohort are typically
less likely to have careers (Savishinsky, 2000).
Older men who need to care for a sick wife are also likely to
retire (Szinovacz & De Viney, 2000)
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
37
Middle-aged adults are far more likely to be caring for a
parent than a spouse and to continue working.
A large proportion of women and nearly a quarter of men
find themselves in this situation at one time or another and,
some work suggests that the stress is greater for women.
This situation is far more difficult for low-income workers
who are unable to afford a visiting nurse or an adult day
care center and who may lose their jobs by spending time
caring for an ailing parent (Halpern, 2005).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Retirement
and
Caregiving
38
When Do Most People Retire?
• Although 65 was the established retirement age, people today retire much earlier.
• This trend toward earlier retirement has been occurring since 1970 in Germany,
Japan, and Sweden, as well as the United States (Gendell, 1998).
• Only 24 percent of women and 44 percent of men still work full time after age 62,
which is the lowest age at which one can receive Social Security benefits (Woodbury,
1999).
• After age 65, these percentages drop to 9 percent of women and 16 percent of men
(Parnes & Sommers, 1994).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
39
Retirement Age in the U.S.
Most people over age 62 get Social Security benefits and 75 percent of new recipients every
year retire before 65 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992; U.S. Senate Special Committee on
Aging, 1992).
Because average life expectancy is now over 75, people who retire around age 60 can expect to
spend about 15 years in retirement, or 20 percent of their life.
A person who lives to be 100 may spend 40 years in retirement, or 40 percent of their life.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
40
• The first phase of retirement is referred to as
preretirement and has two components, remote
and near.
Phases of
Retirement -Preretirement
• People in the remote phase are still a long way
from retiring but have begun to lay plans.
• People may, for example,
1. look for a place of employment that has a better
pension plan,
2. invest money for the future,
3. or spend a vacation checking out possible retirement
locations
41
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Phases of Retirement – the Honeymoon
• The second phase is the honeymoon.
• Immediately after retirement, many retirees
experience an elevated mood.
• You don’t have go to work and may feel truly
free for the first time in a long time.
• You can set your alarm clock to get up for work
and when it goes off, press the button, chuckle,
and return to sleep.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
42
The Honeymoon Ends
This type of honeymoon phase
ordinarily ends when one becomes
restless and needs more to do while
the more active type of honeymoon
ends as people realize they don’t have
enough money to travel the world
and/or they seek a more structured
environment (Atchley, 1982).
A study of retired women
professionals found that, after some
time, they needed to reestablish some
order in their lives and were most
satisfied when they remained active
and were able to use the skills they
had previously used at work (Price,
2003).
43
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
The 3rd Phase is the
Retirement Routine.
• The honeymoon is over and
the initial flurry of activity
calms down or the rest and
relaxation becomes more
active.
• It takes some time to find the
right routine and initially
retirees or couples will make
several modifications but
eventually settle into a regular
schedule.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
44
Disenchantment
• A fourth phase, experienced only by some, is disenchantment, which may come
before or after a routine has been reached.
• One’s plans may be dashed if one becomes disabled or loses a spouse or if available
funds are insufficient to finance all the activities dreamed of in the years preceding
retirement.
• In one longitudinal study, over 300 people were followed from 1975 to 1995 and not
one experienced a disenchantment phase following retirement (Atchley, 1999).
45
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Termination
This occurs when the individual
returns to work which is, as you
know, difficult because jobs for
older workers are hard to find.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
When a retiree returns to work, this
is often referred to as revolving
retirement because most will retire
again later.
The return to work may have been
prompted by disenchantment or by
the need for additional funds.
It is estimated that about 13 percent
of retirees terminate their
retirements at least once (Francese,
2004).
46
Popular Places to Retire in the U.S.
The following are among those thought to be the best places to retire in the U.S.
Bloomington, IN. This is a small friendly community with Indiana University offering cultural events nearly every
night. The town is surrounded by gentle hills and many homes are reasonably priced.
Columbia, MO. Four universities are located here and offer ample culture and sports. The city is big enough to
offer many of the opportunities of larger cities without a high crime rate.
Holland, MI. This small town is located on an inland lake with beaches. In the winter both sidewalks and streets are
heated to melt snow.
Hot Springs, AK. This small town is in the foothills of the Ozark Mountains and numerous recreational
opportunities, including a real hot spring, are available.
Prescott, AZ. A small town near the Prescott National Forest with innumerable hiking trails and six golf courses.
Punta Gorda, FL. Sandy beaches and year-long warm climate make this town attractive. More than one-third of the
population is 65 and older.
47
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Popular Places to Retire in the U.S. (2)
St. Simon Island, GA. This town is filled with local artists and sandy beaches. There is, of course, some
risk of hurricanes.
University Triangle, NC. Three major universities are located here and offer many cultural and sporting
events and part-time job opportunities.
Walla Walla, WA. This small town attracts a number of retired wine connoisseurs and urban refugees.
Three nearby colleges provide educational opportunities in this peaceful community.
Williamsburg, VA. This eighteenth-century colonial town allows one to savor history before heading to
one of 15 twenty-first-century golf courses.
Many other places also welcome retirees. Some of the best are Gardnerville Ranchos, NV; Crossville,
TN; Del Rio, TX; Georgetown, SC; Ocean Pines, MD; Brookings, OR; Silver City, NM; and Seaford, DE.
Sources: John Howells (1998). Consumers Digest; www.bizjournals.com/specials/pages/63.html;
and http://money.cnn.com/2000/06/09/senior_living/q_retire_places/. Accessed September 10, 2007.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
48
Retirement in Botswana and Zimbawe
• In Botswana, the typical physical changes of aging seem to occur earlier and
are more obvious.
• Most work is hard labor which takes a toll on workers sooner than the lessdemanding jobs frequently found in other parts of the world.
• Adults retire when they can no longer work but generally remain active in
their families.
•
In Zimbabwe, many older adults are very poor and must live in special
housing provided by church groups. This housing can be very restrictive or
function more like a coop.
49
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Ireland
• In Clifden, Ireland, adults are generally selfemployed or work at farming or fishing.
• Here people never really retire; they simply
work less as they grow older and begin to
receive a pension to assist them in meeting
their needs.
50
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
Hong Kong
•
In Hong Kong, a retired person is an older person who is
unable to find or continue steady work and many older adults
are unable to find any work at all.
•
Pensions are small and most retired adults must rely on their
children for housing and support.
•
Community homes for older adults in Hong Kong often are
crowded and older residents sometimes cease writing to
relatives believing it would be better to be thought of as dead
than as a resident of one of these old age homes (Holmes &
Holmes, 1995).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
51
Other countries
• Another study examined retirement in Chile, the Dominican Republic, Sri Lanka, and Thailand (Kaiser,
1993).
• Older adults in all of these countries still were actively involved in domestic activities.
• The most frequently named domestic activity in Chile and Sri Lanka was household cleaning while in the
Dominican Republic it was food preparation and in Thailand it was childcare.
• The most frequently reported source of retirement income was a pension in Chile; retired adults in the other
three countries named their children as their primary source of income.
• In all four countries, retired adults listed finances as their major problem and health was a close second. Their
concerns are similar to retired adults in the United States.
52
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
• Those who have good income after retirement have better
financial adjustment to retirement than those with poor
income.
• Income during retirement is traditionally described as a
three-legged stool.
Financial
Adjustment
• One leg stands for income from Social Security, one for
retirement pensions, and one for personal savings and assets
(Gale, 1997).
• Economists and financial planners say that an individual’s
preretirement standard of living can be maintained after
retirement as long as the three-legged stool replaces at least
60 percent of preretirement income (Atchley, 1997).
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
53
•After retirement, less income is needed to maintain the same
standard that the person had while working.
•With more leisure time, the retiree can perform tasks that
Less
Income
others may have been paid to do in the past; there are fewer
people living at home and needing support; expenses are lower
(there is no longer a need to maintain a wardrobe for work);
often the mortgage is paid off; there are no payroll taxes; and
income tax is lower (Gale, 1997).
•In cases where medical expenses, housing, or transportation
costs may be higher than normal, one may need 70 to 80 percent
(or more) of preretirement income to maintain the same
standard of living.
Griselda Chapa, ScD Introduction to Gerontology
54
Chapter 13
Healthy/Helpful Environments: Places and People
How Spaces Become Places or How We Fit in
• The right environment is the one in which we feel comfortable—but what exactly does that mean? We are comfortable
when we fit with our surroundings.
• Powell Lawton and his colleagues at the Philadelphia Geriatric Center proposed an explanation of this fit (Lawton,
1980; Nahemow, 1997).
• Their theory of person–environment congruence, called the ecological theory of aging, explains fit in terms of a how a
person operates in any given environment.
• The theory holds that the ability to complete a task is a result of the congruence between what the environment
demands of us (which they call environmental press or demand) and the capabilities of the person attempting the task
(which they call competence or person capability).
• For example, if you have to sit in a hard metal chair for a 3-hour lecture thus requiring you to sit in a certain posture
and pay attention, and your back, legs, and brain allow you to do that then you fit this environment, or have person–
environment congruence. The important part of Lawton’s theory is the “fit” between the person and the environment;
neither one alone predicts how comfortable people are or how well they complete daily tasks. If an environment is not
all challenging, we give up or get bored.
2
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Types of Person–Environment Congruence
• We operate in environments on a number of levels, so we can fit or not fit on as
many levels (Weisman et al., 1997; Rubenstein & Parmelee, 1992).
• These include fitting in with other people (social congruence), being able to
move around or work in a given space (physical congruence), and feelings about
a place and your identity in that space (psychological congruence).
• We go through life choosing environments that fit on all these levels or change
environments to adapt to our competencies. As you read the next section, think
about how well you fit into the various environments in which you have lived
3
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Social Congruence
• Social relationships and the importance of social support were discussed in Chapter 10.
• Social congruence refers to many of the issues discussed there. We are comfortable in
environments that allow us the right level of access to people with whom we share good
interactions.
• Many people in old age choose their living arrangements based on where their friends or family
are and how easily they will be able to facilitate their social interactions.
• Some people fit in many social environments; they like all kinds of people. Those who are more
social and outgoing might be considered higher in social competence and have a wider range of
environmental adaptation.
• Others who prefer to be alone, who don’t make friends easily, are shy, or have hearing or other
disabilities may have more trouble adapting to new social environments.
4
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Psychological Congruence
• Researchers have examined the many ways in which we turn spaces that we occupy into places to which we are attached.
• Think about the places in your life that hold special meaning for you. Some may be specific buildings, such as the house
in which you grew up or your high school.
• Others may be geographic locations or terrain such as the beach, the mountains, or the vacant lot where you played ball
with your friends. When a space that we have lived in becomes a place, part of our identity is defined there. Events
occurred there that help define who you are now (Rubenstein & Parmelee, 1992).
• You have memories of places that make up your personal history and for many of us, the objects in these places have
further given us a sense of well-being. Think about your stuffed animal or trophy on a shelf or other reminders of
important events in your life.
• Those items make up your attachment to a place. The longer you live in a place, the more experiences you have there and
the more attached you get to that place. For many older people, living in the same house for 30, 40, 50, or more years is
not uncommon.
• Our feelings toward, or psychological congruence to our home, can be very strong as we age. Our attachment to old
places remains with us as we add the new spaces we occupy. Attachment to place may be more important in old age than
5
any other time in our life.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Physical Congruence
• The most research and writing on person–environment congruence is in the area of the physical, or what is often called
the built, environment.
• For example, the contribution of light available and your vision ability, predicts completion of reading tasks.
• Work in aging, and specifically in human factors and aging, has focused on the declining physical strength and stamina in
advanced age and how that results in a mismatch with an environment made for younger, stronger people.
• It is important to know that the physical environment can play a very important role in well-being and remaining
independent in old age. If you have difficulty getting around due to arthritis in your knees and hips, everyday tasks are
affected.
• Cooking, cleaning, and shopping can be difficult because they require a good deal of standing and walking.
Furthermore, you may have difficulty getting out and interacting with friends and family, which can isolate you and
significantly affect your well-being.
• Depression may result and further jeopardize your ability to remain in your own home. The physical environment
impacts us in significant ways. Fitting into an environment that matches our capabilities and allows us to complete our
everyday tasks is important at every age.
6
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Fitting into our environments
• These different ways that we fit into environments are not separate but rather often overlap.
• For example, how well we maneuver around the house can affect the way we feel about it and the way
we feel about our house can affect whether we invite friends over.
• Looking to the larger environment, how we feel about our neighborhood, how well we can get around,
and how many friends live nearby can all interact to allow us to fit or not fit in that environment.
• In an interesting study of 8222 persons 70 years and older living in urban neighborhoods across the
United States, stability and not social economic status was the most important factor in how well
people continued to function in their homes.
• However, contrary to what you might think, it was not more stable but less-stable neighborhoods that
were associated with better health and cognitive and physical function. The authors (Aneshenel et al.,
2007) were surprised by the findings and not sure how to interpret the data. Do you have any idea what
can explain these surprising results?
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
7
Where We Live in Old Age
• Older people choose from a variety of housing options, although at any age, finances most often
limit those options.
• The majority of older persons in the community (77%) live in single-family homes.
• As people need more help, they are most often cared for in their own homes or move in with a
relative or friend.
• Many other options are available such as senior apartments, assisted living facilities, retirement
communities, and continuing care retirement communities (CCRC). CCRCs have emerged as
extremely popular options for those who can afford them. CCRCs provide a range of housing
options from independent living to assisted living to nursing care.
• An individual can move to another level of care if needed. CCRCs also offer an array of
entertainment, recreational, and educational opportunities. They also require long-term contracts
and have high monthly rents and substantial entrance fees.
8
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Nursing Homes
• According to the 2000 U.S. census, of the almost 35 million people age 65 and over,
approximately 33.5 million (95.7%) live in the community and 1.5 million (about 4.3%)
live in nursing homes (Census Bureau, 2001).
• As noted in Chapter 1, the number of older persons (particularly those over 85) in the
population is growing, those most likely to need some type of long-term care.
• A concern had been that the population is growing much faster than the supply of
nursing home beds.
• In fact, the number of nursing home beds has dropped over the last 10 to 15 years;
however, the need for beds also has dropped.
9
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Nursing home occupancy rates have fallen
• suggesting that more older persons are opting to stay home and receive services there or in other types
of housing like assisted-living facilities.
• You may already be asking yourself: Where do people who live in assisted living or retirement
communities fit in? It is an interesting question with a vague answer.
• In most surveys, nursing home residents include just that, people living in skilled nursing facilities. All
other specialized senior housing usually is grouped into the community dwelling category.
• However, some housing residences for older persons include a skilled nursing home within a continuum
of services. It is unclear whether people in these nursing homes are included only in one category (and
which one) or are sometimes doubly counted.
• Furthermore, people living in assisted living seem to be counted in the noninstitutionalized category, but
that is not the case in every study or report. Because of this confusion, the numbers of residents in
various housing options is simply an estimate. What is important is that most elderly people are not in
institutions but rather are living independently or semi-independently in the community.
10
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Noninstitutionalized elders
• Data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2005) indicate the majority (66%) of older noninstitutionalized elders live in a family setting.
• About 81% of older men and 60% of older women live with their families. This includes individuals living with a spouse (71% of older
men and 41% of older women) and those living with children, siblings, or other relatives (7% of older men, 17% of older women).
•
About 28% or 10.5 million people over 65 (three quarters of whom are women; 64% are non-Hispanic white) live alone. Regarding
race, non-Hispanic whites and blacks had the highest proportion of people living alone, around 40%.
• The number or people living alone varies significantly by geographic region as well, with Hawaii having the lowest proportion of elders
living alone (18%) and Washington, D.C., having the highest rate (36%).
• The gender differences in those living alone are great, representing 47% of older women and 30% of older men.
• An interesting point is the shift over the last 10 to 15 years with more men and fewer women living alone.
• The census bureau reported that about one half of women over 75 years of age in the United States are widows and the majority live
alone (2005). The trend is for more people to continue living alone into advanced age. In fact, the fastest growing group of elders living
alone are those 85 years and over. What do you think are the implications of this trend for families in particular and for society as a
whole? Where do older people live in other countries and other cultures? Box 13-1 presents a cross-cultural glimpse at where people live
around the world
11
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Cross-Cultural comparisons
• There are a number of countries in which coresidence or extended family living is still the norm. This
is most frequently seen in less-modernized or developing countries, such as those in South and Central
America, Africa, and in many rural areas of Europe and Asia (Brink, 1998).
• A combination of traditional cultural family values and economic necessity seem to drive the
continuation of this time-old practice.
• In Korea, 82% of older adults live with their adult children, citing the responsibility of younger
members to take care of elders as the reason why (Kim, 1998).
• In India, the extended family is the predominant housing arrangement for elders. Indian sons consider
it a duty to take care of their parents and an extreme embarrassment to allow their parents to be sent
to nursing homes (Arai, 1998). Aykan and Wolf (2000) suggest that in Turkey, economic well-being is
the primary driving force allowing elders to live separately from their adult children.
12
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Homeownership
• Another way to look at where older people live is to examine who owns their home
and who rents.
• This is important when you talk about renovations, modifications, or are
considering a move.
• If you own your home, you can build up equity; the money that you paid into your
home over the years can provide you with capital to move or to make major
modifications.
• These are important issues to consider as you plan for old age.
13
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
Homeownership (2)
• In 2003, there were 22.7 million households headed by older persons (U.S.
Census, 2005). Of these, 75% were owners.
• The median income of homeowners was double the median income of renters.
• 50% of homes owned by older persons in 1997 were built before 1960 and 6%
of these homes had significant physical problems.
• Older homes continue to have repair and maintenance needs compared to
younger homes. On a positive note, about 77% of older homeowners in 1997
owned their homes free and clear.
Griselda Chapa, ScD, Intro to Gerontology
14
Choosing Where to Live
• In many surveys, older respondents report the desire to remain in their homes as long as they possibly can,
preferably until death.
• In Chapter 11, we saw that only 5% of people choose to move from their homes after retirement. This has
been referred to as aging in place and reflects attachment to a place and the comfort or fit they have in
these homes.
• Fogel (1992) pointed out that many elderly stay in their homes despite deteriorating neighborhoods,
economic hardships, and health-related declines. He suggested that the elderly remain in their homes
because of the benefits associated with staying at home, particularly psychological benefits.
• They like ...
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