Educational Psychology Developing Learners Eighth Edition Jeanne Ormrod © 2014, 2011, 2008, 2006, 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 1 Teaching and Educational Psychology Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-1 Teaching as Evidence-Based Practice Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-2 Evidence-Based Practice Instructional methods based on research  Applying educational psychology  nature of learning  motivation  assessment  general developmental trends  individual diversity  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-3 Understanding Research Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-4 Types of Data  Quantitative  numerical data test scores  attendance records  rating scales   Qualitative  non-numerical data interview responses  observations  case studies  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-5 Quantitative Studies  Descriptive    Correlational     associations among variables “what things occur together” used for prediction Experimental    information about a population or situation “how things are” “why things are” — causal links manipulation of environment to test outcomes Quasi-experimental   not all influential factors can be controlled alternative explanations must be considered Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-6 Research Questions  Descriptive   Correlational   “How many students are involved in extracurricular activities?” “Do students involved in extracurricular activities have higher grades than those students not involved in extracurricular activities?” Experimental  “Will joining two extracurricular activities affect students’ grades?” Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-7 Qualitative Studies In-depth look at certain characteristics or behaviors  Essentially descriptive    ”how things are” “What kinds of study strategies are used by high-achieving students and by lower-achieving students?” Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-8 Mixed-Methods Studies Use both quantitative and qualitative methods.  Seeks to understand both how things are and why they may be that way.  Do students show a decline in academic achievement in ninth grade, their first year of high school? If so, why might this be so?  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-9 Interpreting Research Results Consider alternative explanations.  Draw causal inferences only from experimental data.  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-10 Theories  Integrated set of concepts and principles synthesize research findings  propose underlying mechanism to explain and predict phenomena  continually expanded and modified  underlie good classroom practices  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-11 Collecting Data and Drawing Conclusions Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-12 Assessment Practices Collecting data about student learning  Formal or informal measures  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-13 Action Research Systematic study in one’s own school  Goal = “taking action”   more effective strategies in working with students Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-14 Developing as a Teacher Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-15 Strategies Keep up to date on research findings and new innovations in education.  Learn as much as you can about your subject.  Learn as much as you can about specific strategies for teaching your particular subject matter.  Learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the community in which you are teaching.  Continually reflect and critically examine your assumptions, inferences, and practices.  Communicate and collaborate with colleagues.  Believe that you can make a difference in students’ lives (self-efficacy).  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-16 Strategies for Studying and Learning Effectively Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-17 Learning Strategies Relate what you read to your existing knowledge and prior experiences.  Actively consider how some new information might contradict your existing beliefs.  Tie abstract concepts and principles to concrete examples.  Elaborate on what you read, going beyond it and adding to it.  Periodically check yourself to make sure you remember and understand what you have read.  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-18 The Big Picture Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-19 The Big Picture Teacher decision making must be based, at least in part, on research findings.  Different kinds of research studies lead to different kinds of conclusions.  In one way or another, teachers are researchers themselves.  Teachers are also learners.  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1-20 Educational Psychology Developing Learners Eighth Edition Jeanne Ormrod © 2014, 2011, 2008, 2006, 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 7 Complex Cognitive Processes Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-1 Metacognition and Learning Strategies Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-2 Cognitive Processes  Lower-level processes   using basic facts, skills Higher-level processes  doing something complex with information Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-3 Metacognition  Knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes   develops over time Greater metacognitive awareness = more likely to use effective strategies, have high achievement Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-4 Effective Learning Strategies  Overt strategies    taking notes creating summaries Covert strategies   identifying important information regularly monitoring learning   self-explanation self-questioning Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-5 Factors Affecting Strategy Use     The nature of the task Recognition that current strategies are ineffective Epistemic beliefs Instruction and guidance on strategy use Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-6 Diversity, Disabilities, & Exceptional Abilities  Cultural differences in students’ epistemic beliefs     definition & purpose of learning role of effort learning strategies Students with disabilities may need explicit instruction, scaffolding Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-7 Transfer Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-8 Knowledge Transfer  Positive transfer   something we’ve learned before helps us learn something new Negative transfer  something we’ve learned before makes it harder for us to learn something new Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-9 Knowledge Transfer  Specific transfer   what we learned before overlaps with what we’re learning now General transfer  learning in one situation affects learning and performance in somewhat dissimilar situation Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-10 Factors Affecting Transfer    Meaningfulness of original learning Similarity to original learning Material   Relevance   principles, theories more easily transferred than discrete facts context-free material more easily transferred than context-bound Cultural environment, expectations Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-11 Problem Solving Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-12 Problem Solving  Well-defined problems     clearly stated goals information needed to solve problem is given only one correct answer Ill-defined problems    desired goal unclear information needed to solve problem is missing several possible solutions exist Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-13 Facilitating Effective Problem Encoding    Present problems in a concrete form. Encourage students to make problems concrete for themselves. Highlight aspects of problems that students can competently solve, and when those elements appear again in a different problem, point out that the same information can be applied or the same approach to problem solution can be used. Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-14 Facilitating Effective Problem Encoding    Give problems that look different on the surface yet require the same or similar problem-solving procedures. Mix the kinds of problems that students tackle in any single practice session. Have students work in cooperative groups to identify several ways of representing a single problem—perhaps as a formula, a table, and a graph. Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-15 Problem-Solving Strategies  Algorithm   specific sequence of steps that guarantees a correct solution Heuristic  general strategy that facilitates problem solving Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-16 Factors Affecting Problem Solving   Working memory capacity Encoding   Mental sets may be counterproductive to proper encoding Metacognitive processes Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-17 Creativity Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-18 Creativity  Two components  new, original behavior  productive result Involves divergent thinking  Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-19 Fostering Creativity        Show students that creativity is valued Focus on internal rewards Promote mastery of subject area Ask thought-provoking questions Teach and encourage cognitive and metacognitive strategies that support creative thinking Give students freedom, security to take risks Provide time Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-20 Critical Thinking Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-21 Critical Thinking  Evaluating accuracy, credibility, worth of information and lines of reasoning     verbal reasoning argument analysis probabilistic reasoning hypothesis testing Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-22 Fostering Critical Thinking         Teach fewer topics, greater depth Encourage intellectual skepticism Model critical thinking Provide opportunities to practice Ask questions Debate controversial issues Help students understand that critical thinking involves considerable mental effort, but it’s worth it Embed critical thinking skills in authentic activities Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-23 Diversity in Complex Thinking Processes Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-24 Diverse populations  Respect culture   multicultural background enhances critical thinking skills Assist students who have special needs Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-25 The Big Picture Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-26 The Big Picture       Meaningful learning, conceptual understanding encourage higher-level thinking. Higher-level thinking skills are best learned within specific academic topics. Sophisticated epistemic beliefs increase higher-level thinking skills. Group discussions, projects provide supportive context in which to acquire, practice higher-level thinking skills. Authentic activities can help promote transfer to reallife settings. Higher-level thinking skills must be a priority in assessment as well as in classroom instruction. Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 8e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-27 Tenth Edition Educational Psychology Developing Learners Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado (Emerita) Eric M. Anderman The Ohio State University Lynley H. Anderman The Ohio State University Director and Publisher: Kevin M. Davis Content Producer: Janelle Rogers Digital Studio Producer: Lauren Carlson Portfolio Management Assistant: Maria Feliberty Executive Field Marketing Manager: Krista Clark Procurement Specialist: Carol Melville Cover Designer: Pearson CSC Cover Photo: Anna-Liisa Nixon/Offset by Shutterstock Full-Service Project Management: Pearson CSC, Kathy Smith Composition: Pearson CSC Printer/Binder: LSC Communications Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Text Font: Palatino LT Pro Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please visit http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/ Acknowledgments of third party content appear on the page within the text, which constitute an extension of this copyright page. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson's products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis, author. Title: Educational psychology : developing learners / Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, University of Northern Colorado (emerita), Eric M. Anderman, The Ohio State University, Lynley Anderman, The Ohio State University. Description: Tenth Edition. | Hoboken, NJ : PEARSON, [2019] |      Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018050223| ISBN 9780135206478 | ISBN 0135206472 Subjects: LCSH: Educational psychology. | Teaching. | Learning. | Classroom      management. Classification: LCC LB1051 .O66 2019 | DDC 370.15–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018050223 1    19 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-520647-8 ISBN 10: 0-13-520647-2 Dedication To Jack —Jeanne To our parents Gloria and Arthur, Myra and Noel, and our children Jacob and Sarah —Eric and Lynley iii This page intentionally left blank A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM About the Authors Jeanne Ellis Ormrod received her A.B. in psychology from Brown University and her M.S. and Ph.D. in educational psychology from The Pennsylvania State University. She earned licensure in school psychology through postdoctoral work at Temple University and the University of Colorado at Boulder and has worked as a middle school geography teacher and school psychologist. She was Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Northern Colorado until 1998, when she moved east to return to her native New England. She has published and presented extensively on cognition and memory, cognitive development, instruction, and related topics but is probably best known for this book and four others: Human Learning (currently in its eighth edition); Essentials of Educational Psychology (currently in its fifth edition and now coauthored with Brett D. Jones); Child Development and Education (co-authored with Teresa McDevitt, soon to come out in its seventh edition); and Practical Research (co-authored with Paul Leedy, currently in its twelfth edition). She and her husband Richard live in New Hampshire, where (she is happy to report) she is within a 90-minute drive of her three young grandchildren. Her most recent challenge has been to stretch her mind in new directions through improvisational theater, which is more fun than she could ever have imagined. v vi About the Authors Eric M. Anderman holds a B.S. degree in Psychology and Spanish from Tufts University, an Ed.M. from Harvard University, and a Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from The University of Michigan. After completing his Masters degree, he worked as a high school and middle school teacher for several years, before returning to graduate school. He is currently Professor of Educational Psychology and Chair of the Department of Educational Studies at The Ohio State University. His research focuses on (a) academic motivation, (b) academic cheating, and (c) motivation and risky behavior during adolescence. He is currently the editor of the journal Theory into Practice, and formerly was associate editor of the Journal of Educational Psychology. He co-authors two other textbooks also published by Pearson: Classroom Motivation (now in its second edition) with Lynley Anderman, and Adolescent Development for Educators, with Alison Ryan and Tim Urdan. He recently co-edited the third edition of the Handbook of Educational Psychology (published by Routledge) with Lyn Corno, and The International Guide to Student Achievement (published by Routledge) with John Hattie. About the Authors vii Lynley H. Anderman received her B.A. and M.A. (Hons.) in Education from the University of Auckland, New Zealand, and her Ph.D. from the Combined Program in Education and Psychology at The University of Michigan. A graduate of North Shore Teachers College (Auckland, New Zealand), she taught for several years in primary and intermediate schools in Auckland. Currently, she is Professor of Educational Psychology at The Ohio State University. She has published and presented extensively on academic motivation, particularly in relation to the roles of instructional and social-relational characteristics of classrooms that support students’ motivation and engagement, including students’ sense of belonging, teacher–student and peer relationships. She also has written and presented on the role of educational psychology in teacher education. Dr. Anderman is the former editor of the Journal of Experimental Education, and former associate editor of Theory into Practice. She has co-edited Psychology of Classroom Learning (published by Cengage) and Classroom Motivation (published by Pearson) with Eric Anderman. This page intentionally left blank A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM Preface New to This Edition Many features that have made previous editions of the book so popular with instructors and students remain in this edition, including a conversational writing style, Experiencing Firsthand features, organizational tables and diagrams, a focus within each chapter on both developmental issues and diversity, and an ongoing emphasis on classroom applications. Yet there are also significant changes. First, we went through the entire book and really tried to make sure that all of our explanations are clear and conversational in nature; thus we eliminated some highly specific details (e.g., research findings) that were not relevant for practicing teachers. As always, all 15 chapters have been updated to reflect recent advances in research, theory, and classroom practices. In this edition, we also made a concerted effort to discuss technology throughout the book; we focus both on how teachers can use new technologies to enhance instruction, and on how technology has changed the lives of the students in our classrooms. We have continued to enhance the eText and MyLab Education to provide even more interactivity than in the previous edition. Thus in each chapter, readers can regularly apply what they’re learning to actual and hypothetical classroom scenarios and problems. Interactive features include Self-Check Quizzes, Application Exercises, and case study analyses in the Licensure Exam activities; all of these features ask readers to respond to either open-ended or multiple-choice questions, and then give readers immediate feedback about their responses. Such features, along with many hotlinked Video Examples and Video Explanations—the latter of which target concepts and principles that students in educational psychology classes sometimes struggle to understand and apply—make the tenth edition of the book a truly multimedia learning experience. In this edition of Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, Jeanne Ormrod revised chapters 1, 6, 7, 8, and 9; Eric and Lynley Anderman revised chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. More specific additions and changes to this edition include the following: • Chapter 1: Reorganized major sections of the chapter; added a new beginning section “Reflecting on What You Already Know About Learning and Instruction”; added an additional recommendation regarding self-regulation in the “Studying and Learning Effectively” section. • Chapter 2: Added a new introductory scenario focusing on differences in conceptual understanding in young children; added new research on the effects of the quality of preschool experiences and exposure to diversity on cognitive development; incorporated new research suggesting that children develop some cognitive strategies earlier than researchers had previously thought; increased discussion of the role of technology in cognitive development; expanded discussion of bilingual education. • Chapter 3: Expanded discussion of the relevance of Erikson’s theory of identity development for educators; added new information regarding technology and its role in peer relationships; updated three of the visual examples (classroom artifacts); added information about the benefits of autonomy-supportive parenting. • Chapter 4: Incorporated new content, including a discussion of intersectionality at the beginning of the ­chapter, and integrated this concept throughout the chapter; added definition and examples of cultural competence; added discussion on cultural biases in textbooks; increased coverage of immigration; expanded discussion of implications of between and within group variability. • Chapter 5: Added information about Multi-Tiered Systems of Support; updated sections on PBIS and SPBIS; added a new section on “Medication and ADHD”; reduced discussion of Catell and Catell-Horn; added discussion and description of universal design; added perspectives on improving learning environments for students with hearing loss. • Chapter 6: Shortened descriptions of theoretical perspectives in Table 6.1; added a new section, “Using Technology to Promote Meaningful Learning”; added a new Application Exercise that illustrates the use of technology in a high school nutrition class; added a new Experiencing Firsthand exercise that evokes the Stroop effect as an example of automaticity; added a new recommendation regarding the importance of explicitly discouraging late-night studying sessions (“pulling all-nighters”). • Chapter 7: Added a new bulleted paragraph regarding the importance of self-regulation skills in strategic learning; added a new bulleted section on the use of computer-based simulations to promote transfer; integrated the previous edition’s sections on problem solving and creativity into a single section “Problem Solving and Creativity,” incorporated a section on simulations and games (previously in Chapter 12), with major updates to the content; expanded the section “Critical Thinking” to include (a) argument analysis as a key term, (b) reasons why people often don’t engage in ix x Preface critical thinking, (c) prevalence of “fake news” in popular media, and (d) assessment of critical thinking skills. • Chapter 8: Expanded discussion of communities of learners to include the concept of knowledge building; expanded the section “Cultures as Contexts” to include the idea that cultures change over time, especially as they come into contact with other cultures; divided the previous edition’s single section “Society and Technology as Contexts” into two sections; incorporated a new example illustrating collaboration with a local community agency; significantly revised and reorganized the discussion of technology, with a new section on online learning; added a new Application Exercise 8.3 regarding the use of technology to foster communication with and learning from students in diverse geographical locations. • Chapter 9: Reduced discussion of the nature of early behaviorist views; added information on the use of clickers; integrated strategies for encouraging productive behaviors and discouraging undesirable behaviors into a single section; included a new section “Thinking Carefully About the Consequences You Either Intentionally or Unintentionally Impose”; expanded discussion of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports (building on what was presented earlier in Chapter 5). • Chapter 10: Added a new scenario comparing students at two different developmental levels; added discussion of using technology to model skills that involve motor reproduction; added strategies teachers can use to enhance self-efficacy in their students; added two new Experiencing Firsthand exercises; included a new section on “Self-Regulation in Online Learning Environments.” • Chapter 11: Updated section on work-avoidance goals; added a new section on “Short-Term Motivation ­Interventions”; added a new table (11.2) describing implementation and results of short-term motivation interventions; provided additional discussion of the importance of expectancies and values as determinants of student motivation and of future academic and career choices. • Chapter 12: Updated information on using websites; added a new section on helping students learn how to learn; removed specific suggestions for aligning instructional practices with the Common Core State Standards; updated examples to include use of current technology (e.g., use of Google Earth in geography lessons; cautious use of YouTube videos). • Chapter 13: Added a new section on bullying and cyberbullying; added a new section on “recognizing microaggressions”; added discussion on the importance of creating a sense of belonging, as well as some cautions to consider; expanded discussion of parental involvement, including some of the fiscal and job-related constraints that preclude some parents from being as involved as they might want. • Chapter 14: Added a table on how to provide effective feedback; included a new Experiencing Firsthand exercise illustrating the concept of reliability of measurement; updated the section on the use of digital technologies for assessment to reflect current information, technology, and terminology. • Chapter 15: Added a discussion of implications of the Every Student Succeeds Act; added a discussion regarding cautions to think about when considering the role of effort in students’ grades; related information on normreferenced testing to the discussion of student motivation from Chapter 11. General Rationale for the Book As teachers, we play critical roles in the lives of children and adolescents. Some of us help them learn to read and write. Some of us help them understand their physical and social worlds through explorations of science, mathematics, geography, history, foreign languages, or literature. Some of us help them express themselves through physical movement, the visual arts, or music. And some of us teach them specific skills they will need as adult professionals in, say, auto mechanics, cooking, or new technologies. But regardless of the subject matter we teach, we help those in the generations that follow us to become knowledgeable, self-confident, and productive citizens. In our minds, teaching is the most rewarding profession we could possibly choose. Yet it’s often a challenging profession as well. Students don’t always come to us ready or eager to learn. How can we help them develop the knowledge and skills they need to become productive adults? What strategies can we use to motivate them? What tasks and instructional materials are appropriate for students at different developmental levels? Are the instructional practices that we use sensitive to the diversity of our students? Over the years, researchers and practitioners have worked together to answer such questions. Collectively, we’re in the fortunate position of being able to benefit from the many insights that such experts offer. All three of us have been teaching educational psychology for many years, and we’ve loved every minute of it. How children and adolescents learn and think, how they change as they grow and develop, why they do the things they do, how they’re often very different from one another—our understandings of all of these things have innumerable implications for classroom practice and, ultimately, for the lives of young people. Because we want the Preface xi field of educational psychology to captivate you the way it has captivated us, we’ve tried to make the book interesting, meaningful, and thought provoking as well as informative and timely. Helping Our Readers Learn and Apply Educational Psychology You can gain much more from your study of educational psychology when you: • Focus on core concepts and principles of the discipline • See these principles in action in your own learning and behavior • Use the principles to understand the learning and behavior of children and adolescents • Consistently apply the principles to classroom practice You’ll find numerous features throughout the book to help you do all of these things. We authors hope you’ll learn a great deal from what educational psychology has to offer, not only about the students you may be teaching but also about yourself. Focusing on Core Concepts and Principles Rather than superficially explore every aspect of educational psychology, this book zeroes in on fundamental concepts and principles that have broad applicability to classroom practice. Throughout the book, core concepts appear in boldfaced blue font. Core principles are clearly identified within each section with boldfaced blue headings. See the following sections for some examples: General Principles of Human Development in Chapter 2 and Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology in Chapter 6. Seeing Concepts and Principles in Action in Your Own Learning A central goal of this book has always been to help our readers discover more about themselves as thinkers and learners. Thus we include Experiencing Firsthand exercises throughout the book—exercises that illustrate such diverse concepts as constructive processes, working memory, sense of self, social cognition, ethnic stereotyping, and confidentiality in assessment. All of these exercises are designed to do exactly what their name implies: help our readers observe principles of educational psychology in themselves. See the sections on The Nature of Working (Short-Term) Memory and Moving Information to Long-Term Memory in Chapter 6 for some examples. Understanding Children’s and Adolescents’ Learning and Behavior Throughout the book we continually urge our readers to look closely at and try to make sense of what children and adolescents do and say. Each chapter begins with a Case Study that situates chapter content in a real-life scenario. We also make frequent use of real artifacts from children’s journals and school assignments to illustrate concepts and principles in action. For example, see sections Roles of Peers in Children’s Development in Chapter 3 and How Knowledge Can Be Organized in Chapter 6. Examining Developmental Trends Unique to this book is a focus on children’s and adolescents’ development in every chapter. For example, most chapters have one or more Developmental Trends tables that summarize age-typical characteristics at four grade levels (K–2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12), present concrete examples, and offer suggested classroom strategies for each level. You can find examples of these tables in the sections Gender Differences in Chapter 4 and How Procedural Knowledge is Learned in Chapter 6. Applying Core Ideas of Educational Psychology to Classroom Practice Throughout this text, psychological concepts and principles are consistently applied to classroom practice. We also provide Into the Classroom and Creating a Productive Classroom Environment boxes that suggest and illustrate strategies related to particular areas of concern for teachers. You can find examples in the sections Contemporary Extensions and Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory in Chapter 2 and How Knowledge Can Be Organized in Chapter 6. This book is consistently praised for its emphasis on application. Throughout the book we identify suggested strategies—within the text, in tables, and in the margins—with apple icons; for instance, see the Applying Brain Research feature in Chapter 2. Helping You Prepare for Licensure All chapters end with Practice for Your Licensure Exam exercises. These exercises provide readers with opportunities to use the content they’ve learned in a particular chapter to answer multiple-choice and constructed-response questions similar to those that appear on many teacher licensure tests. See the end of any chapter. New Digital Features in the Pearson eText with MyLab Education In the tenth edition, we have continued to expand the digital learning and assessment resources embedded in the eText and MyLab Education. Designed to bring you more directly into the world of K–12 classrooms and to help you see the very real impact that educational psychology concepts and principles have on learning and development, these digital learning and assessment resources also xii Preface • Provide you with practice using educational psychology concepts in teaching situations; • Help you and your instructor see how well you understand the concepts presented in the book and the media resources; and • Help you think about, and process more deeply, educational psychology and how to use it both as a teacher and as a learner. The online resources in the Pearson eText with MyLab Education include: Video Examples Several times per chapter, an embedded video provides an illustration of an educational psychology principle or concept in action. These video examples most often show students and teachers working in classrooms. Sometime they show students or teachers describing their thinking or experiences. Video Explanations Throughout the text, we have provided video explanations of essential concepts. Excerpted from Jeanne’s series of longer educational psychology modules, these brief lectures include animated slides and worked examples. Self-Checks Throughout the chapters you will find MyLab Education: Self-check quizzes. There are three to six of these quizzes in each chapter at the ends of major text sections. They are meant to help you assess how well you have mastered the learning outcome addressed in the section you just read. These self-checks are made up of self-grading multiple-choice items that not only provide feedback on whether questions are answered correctly or incorrectly, but also provide rationales for both correct and incorrect answers. Application Exercises Also at the ends of major sections and tied to specific chapter learning outcomes, these scaffolded analysis exercises challenge you to use chapter content to reflect on teaching and learning in real classrooms. The questions you answer in these exercises are usually open-ended, constructed-response questions. Once you provide your own answers to the questions, you receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts. Practice for Your Licensure Exam Every chapter ends with an exercise that gives learners an opportunity to answer multiple-choice and constructed-response questions similar to those that appear on many teacher licensure tests. As with the other exercises in MyLab Education, Practice for Your Licensure Exam exercises provide feedback. Simulations in Classroom Management These interactive cases focus on the classroom management issues teachers most frequently encounter on a daily basis. Each simulation presents a challenge scenario at the beginning and then offers a series of choices to solve each challenge. Along the way students receive mentor feedback on their choices and have the opportunity to make better choices if necessary. Study Modules In the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab Education, you will find a set of Study Modules. These interactive, application-oriented modules provide opportunities to learn foundational educational psychology concepts in ways other than reading about them. The modules present content through screen capture videos that include animations, worked examples, and classroom videos. Each module consists of three parts: a Learn section that presents several key concepts and strategies, an Apply section that provides practice applying the concepts and strategies to actual teaching and learning scenarios, and an Assess section that contains a multiple-choice test to measure mastery. Video Analysis Tool Exercises The Video Analysis Tool is designed to help build skills in analyzing teaching. Exercises provide classroom videos and rubrics to scaffold analysis. Timestamp and commenting tools allow learners to easily annotate the video and connect their observations to the concepts they have learned in the work. Ancillary Materials The following resources are available for instructors to download on www.pearsonhighered.com/educators. Instructors can enter the author or title of this book, select this particular edition of the book, and then click on the “Resources” tab to log in and download textbook supplements. Instructor’s Resource Manual (ISBN 0-13-520815-7) An Instructor’s Resource Manual includes suggestions for learning activities, additional Experiencing Firsthand exercises, supplementary lectures, case study analyses, discussion topics, group activities, and additional media resources. PowerPoint® Slides (ISBN 0-13-520822-X) The PowerPoint slides include key concept summarizations, diagrams, and other graphic aids to enhance learning. They are designed to help students understand, organize, and remember core concepts and theories. Preface xiii Test Bank (ISBN 0-13-520819-X) Acknowledgments Jeanne personally wrote many of the test questions in the Test Bank that accompanies the book. Test Bank coauthors have added new ones to reflect the updates to the tenth edition. Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask ­students to identify or explain concepts and principles they have learned. But many others (higher-level questions) ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to specific classroom situations—that is, to actual student behaviors and teaching strategies. Ultimately it is these higher-level questions that assess students’ ability to use principles of educational psychology in their own teaching practice. We’ve been fortunate to have had a great deal of help in writing this book. First and foremost, the book wouldn’t be what it is today without long-term partnerships with Kevin Davis. Kevin first came on board as developmental editor for the book with Jeanne in 1989 and, except for a two-year hiatus while he served in other roles at Pearson, has continued to guide the book through its multiple iterations, first only in paper and now in the ever-changing digital world. Although Kevin hasn’t penned the words, his influence permeates every page of text and every hotlinked activity. His ideas, suggestions, and occasional gentle demands have consistently pushed and stretched us to new heights in our efforts to create the best possible pedagogical experience for readers. We are also deeply indebted to developmental editor Pam Bennett, who has kept all three of us on course, reminding us of both our short-term and long-term targets. Pam gently encouraged us to stay on track, and to strive for excellence and quality throughout the entire book. Project manager Kathy Smith expertly organized and oversaw the countless steps involved in transforming our word-­ processed manuscripts and rough sketches into the finished product you see before you. In this high-tech day and age, publishing a book is a very complicated process and we are grateful for her expertise. Many thanks, too, to Alyssa Emery, who has updated the Self-Check Quizzes and some of the new Application Exercises in MyLab Education. In fact, she took charge of the overall media plan for Chapters 2–5 and Chapters 10–15, and created all of the new Application Exercises for those chapters. In addition, numerous colleagues across the nation have strengthened the book itself by reviewing one or more of its previous versions. Reviewers for the first eight editions were Jane Abraham, Virginia Tech University; Joyce Alexander, Indiana University; Eric M. Anderman, then at University of Kentucky; Linda M. Anderson, Michigan State University; Margaret D. Anderson, SUNY–Cortland; Cindy Ballantyne, Northern Arizona University; J. C. Barton, Tennessee Technical University; Timothy A. Bender, Southwest Missouri State University; Stephen L. Benton, Kansas State University; Karen L. Block, University of Pittsburgh; Kathryn J. Biacindo, California State University–Fresno; Barbara Bishop, Eastern New Mexico University; Angela Bloomquist, California University of Pennsylvania; Phyllis Blumenfeld, University of Michigan; Gregory Braswell, Illinois State University; Robert Braswell, Winthrop College; Kathy Brown, University of Central Oklahoma; Randy L. Brown, University of Central Oklahoma; Kay S. Bull, Oklahoma State University; E. Namisi Chilungu, Georgia State University; Margaret W. Cohen, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Theodore Coladarci, University of Maine; Sharon Cordell, Roane State Community College; Roberta Corrigan, TestGen (ISBN 0-13-520814-9) TestGen is a powerful test generator that you install on your computer and use in conjunction with the TestGen test bank file for your text. Assessments, including equations, graphs, and scientific notation, may be created for both print and online testing. TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. You install TestGen on your personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material. The tests can be downloaded in the following formats: TestGen Test bank file—MAC TestGen Test bank file—PC Angel TestGen Conversion Test Bank for Blackboard Learning System Desire to Learn TestGen Conversion Moodle TestGen Conversion Sakai TestGen Conversion Test Bank for Blackboard CE/Vista Case Studies: Applying Educational Psychology (2nd ed.) Many instructors use Ormrod and McGuire’s Case Studies book (0-13-198046-7) as a supplement to this book. It includes 48 real cases involving students and classrooms ranging from preschool to high school. It illustrates concepts and principles in many areas of educational psychology, including child and adolescent development, learning and cognition, motivation, classroom management, instructional practices, and assessment. xiv Preface University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Richard D. Craig, Towson State University; José Cruz, Jr., The Ohio State University; David Yun Dai, SUNY–University at Albany; Darlene DeMarie, University of South Florida; Peggy Dettmer, Kansas State University; Joan Dixon, Gonzaga University; Leland K. Doebler, University of Montevallo; Kellah Edens, University of South Carolina; Catherine Emilhovich, SUNY–Buffalo; Joanne B. Engel, Oregon State University; Kathy Farber, Bowling Green State University; William R. Fisk, Clemson University; Victoria Fleming, Miami University of Ohio; M. Arthur Garmon, Western Michigan University; Roberta J. Garza, Pan American University– Brownsville; Mary Gauvain, University of California–Riverside; Sister Nancy Gilchriest, St. Joseph’s College; Nathan Gonyea, SUNY–Oneonta; Cheryl Greenberg, University of North Carolina–Greensboro; Richard Hamilton, University of Houston; Jennifer Mistretta Hampston, Youngstown State University; Ken Hay, Indiana University; Arthur Hernandez, University of Texas–San Antonio; Lynley Hicks, University of Missouri-Kansas City; Heather Higgins, University of North Carolina—Greensboro; Frederick C. Howe, Buffalo State College; Peggy Hsieh, University of Texas–San Antonio; Dinah Jackson, University of Northern Colorado; Janina M. Jolley, Clarion University of Pennsylvania; Caroline Kaczala, Cleveland State University; CarolAnne M. Kardash, University of Missouri–Columbia; Pamela Kidder-Ashley, Appalachian State University; Kenneth Kiewra, University of Nebraska–Lincoln; Nancy F. Knapp, University of Georgia; Mary Lou Koran, University of Florida; Randy Lennon, University of Northern Colorado; Howard Lloyd, University of Kentucky; Susan C. Losh, Florida State University; Pamela Manners, Troy State University; Hermine H. Marshall, San Francisco State University; Teresa McDevitt, University of Northern Colorado; Beverly K. McIntyre, University of North Carolina–­Charlotte; Sharon McNeely, Northeastern Illinois University; Michael Meloth, University of Colorado–Boulder; Kelly S. Mix, Michigan State University; Bruce P. Mortenson, Louisiana State University; Janet Moursund, University of Oregon; P. Karen Murphy, The Pennsylvania State University; Gary A. Negin, California State University; Joe Olmi, The University of Southern Mississippi; Helena Osana, Concordia University; James Persinger, Emporia State University; Judy Pierce, Western Kentucky University; Joseph Pizzillo, Rowan University; James R. Pullen, Central Missouri State University; Gary F. Render, University of Wyoming; Robert S. Ristow, Western Illinois University; Jeff Sandoz, University of ­Louisiana—Lafayette; Rolando Santos, California State University—Los Angeles; Thomas R. Scheira, SUNY–Buffalo; Gregg Schraw, University of Nebraska–Lincoln; Dale H. Schunk, University of North Carolina—Greensboro; Mark Seng, University of Texas; Johnna Shapiro, University of California–Davis; Glenn E. Snelbecker, Temple University; Kenneth Springer, Southern Methodist University; Harry L. Steger, Boise State University; Bruce Torff, Hofstra University; Ann Turnbull, University of Kansas; Julianne C. Turner, University of Notre Dame; Tina Van Prooyen, Heartland Community College; Enedina Vazquez, New Mexico State University; Courtney Vorell, Minnesota School of Business; Alice A. Walker, SUNY–Cortland; Mary Wellman, Rhode Island College; Jane A. Wolfle, Bowling Green State University; Ya-Shu Yang, University of Nebraska–Lincoln; Julia Yoo, Lamar University; and Karen Zabrucky, Georgia State University. Coming on board for the tenth edition were these reviewers, who offered helpful suggestions now reflected in the book: Karen Cross, University of North Carolina– Charlotte, and Erin McClure, The Ohio State University. Some of our own students and teacher interns— especially Jenny Bressler, Kathryn Broadhead, Ryan Francoeur, Gerry Holly, Michel Minichiello, Shelly Lamb, Kim Sandman, Melissa Tillman, Nick Valente, and Brian Zottoli—have at one time or another agreed to let us use their interviews, essays, and experiences as examples. Teachers and administrators at schools both home and abroad (including two of Jeanne’s children, now teachers themselves) have allowed us to share their strategies with our readers; we thank Liz Birnam, Berneen Bratt, Tom Carroll, Barbara Dee, Jackie Filion, Tina Ormrod Fox, Sarah Gagnon, Dinah Jackson, Sheila Johnson, Don Lafferty, Gary MacDonald, Sharon McManus, Linda Mengers, Mark Nichols, Jeff Ormrod, Ann Reilly, and Gwen Ross. The Andermans are particularly grateful to three of their current and former graduate students, Megan Sanders, Alyssa Emery, and Elizabeth Kraatz, who assisted them with administrative tasks in the preparation of their chapters, and their graduate teaching assistants, especially Naima Khandaker, Elizabeth Kraatz, and Kristin Henkaline, who have provided valuable feedback on the book, as they use it with their own students. Many young people, too, deserve thanks for letting us use their work. In particular, we want to acknowledge the contributions of the following present and former elementary and secondary school students: Andrew and Katie Belcher; Noah and Shea Davis; Zachary Derr; Amaryth, Andrew, and Anthony Gass; Ben and Darcy Geraud; Dana Gogolin; Colin Hedges; Erin Islo; Charlotte Jeppsen; Laura Linton; Michael McShane; Frederik Meissner; Alex, Jeff, and Tina Ormrod; Patrick Paddock; Isabelle Peters; Cooper Remignanti; Ian Rhoads; David and Laura Riordan; Corey and Trisha Ross; Ashton and Haley Russo; Alex and Connor Sheehan; Matt and Melinda Shump; Andrew Teplitz; Emma Thompson; Grace Tober; Grant Valentine; Caroline and Hannah Wilson; and Geoff Wuehrmann. Last but certainly we must thank our families, who have forgiven our countless hours spent either buried in our books and journals or else glued to our computers. Without their continuing understanding and support, this tenth edition would never have seen the light of day. Brief Contents 1 Teaching and Educational Psychology1 Part 1 Development and Diversity Classroom Strategies 12 Instructional Strategies 461 13 Creating a Productive Learning 2 Cognitive and Linguistic Development20 3 Personal and Social Development 61 4 Group Differences 106 5 Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs 144 Part 2 Part 3 Learning and Motivation Environment506 14 Classroom Assessment Strategies That Promote Learning 15 Summarizing Students’ Achievements and Abilities Learning, Cognition, and Memory 193 7 Complex Cognitive Processes 240 8 Learning and Cognition in Context 280 9 Behaviorist Views of Learning 603 Appendix A Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients643 Appendix B 6 554 Determining Reliability and Predictive Validity 645 Appendix C Matching Text and MyLab Education Content to the Praxis® Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests648 325 Glossary665 10 Social Cognitive Views of Learning 362 References676 11 Motivation and Affect 403 Name Index 792 Subject Index 814 xv This page intentionally left blank A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM Contents About the Authors v Prefaceix 1 Teaching and Educational Psychology1 Language Development 51 Theoretical Issues Regarding Language Development51 Diversity in Language Development 53 Second-Language Learning and English Language Learners54 Case Study: The “No D” Policy 2 Reflecting on What You Already Know About Learning and Instruction 3 Studying and Learning Effectively 5 Case Study: Hidden Treasure Developing as a Teacher 6 Understanding and Interpreting Research Findings Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Mixed-Methods Research Interpreting Research Results: A Cautionary Note From Research to Practice: The Importance of Principles and Theories 9 9 12 13 14 Personality Development 63 Temperament63 Environmental Influences on Personality Development64 The “Big Five” Personality Traits 66 Temperament, Personality, and Goodness of Fit 68 Collecting Data and Drawing Conclusions About Your Own Students Assessing Students’ Achievements and Interpreting Their Classroom Behaviors Conducting Action Research Part 1 2 14 16 16 17 Development and Diversity Cognitive and Linguistic Development20 Case Study: Carrots 21 General Principles of Human Development 21 The Multiple Layers of Environmental Influence: Bioecological Systems and the Importance of Culture 23 Role of the Brain in Learning and Development 25 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget’s Basic Assumptions Piaget’s Proposed Stages of Cognitive Development Critiquing Piaget’s Theory Considering Diversity from the Perspective of Piaget’s Theory Contemporary Extensions and Applications of Piaget’s Theory 28 30 32 36 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions Critiquing Vygotsky’s Theory Considering Diversity from the Perspective of Vygotsky’s Theory Contemporary Extensions and Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory Contrasting Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories 41 42 45 38 39 46 46 50 3 Personal and Social Development Development of a Sense of Self Factors Influencing Sense of Self Developmental Changes in Sense of Self Diversity in Sense of Self 61 62 68 69 70 75 Development of Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understandings76 Roles of Peers in Children’s Development 77 Common Social Groups in Childhood and Adolescence78 Popularity and Social Isolation 81 Social Cognition 83 Aggression86 Technology and Peer Relationships 88 Diversity in Peer Relationships and Social Cognition89 Promoting Healthy Peer Relationships 89 Moral and Prosocial Development 93 Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior93 Factors Influencing Moral and Prosocial Development97 Diversity in Moral and Prosocial Development 98 Encouraging Moral and Prosocial Development at School 100 4 Group Differences 106 Case Study: Why Jack Wasn’t in School 107 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 109 Navigating Different Cultures at Home and at School 110 Cultural Competence 111 Creating a Culturally Inclusive Classroom Environment117 Gender Differences 124 xvii xviii Contents Research Findings Regarding Gender Differences 124 Origins of Gender Differences 129 Making Appropriate Accommodations for Gender Differences131 Socioeconomic Differences Challenges Associated with Poverty Fostering Resilience Working with Homeless Students 132 133 136 137 Students at Risk Characteristics of Students at Risk Why Students Drop Out Supporting Students at Risk 138 138 139 140 5 Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs Case Study: Tim 144 145 Intelligence145 Theoretical Perspectives of Intelligence 146 Measuring Intelligence 150 Nature and Nurture in the Development of Intelligence152 Cultural and Ethnic Diversity in Intelligence 153 Being Smart About Intelligence and IQ Scores 154 Cognitive Styles and Dispositions 156 There’s No Such Thing as Learning Styles 156 Does It Make Sense to Teach to Students’ “Right Brains” or “Left Brains”? 157 Analytic and Holistic Thinking 157 Dispositions157 Educating Students with Special Needs in General Education Classrooms Public Law 94-142: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Potential Benefits and Drawbacks of Inclusion Identifying Students’ Special Needs 159 159 161 162 Students with Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties164 Learning Disabilities 164 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 167 Speech and Communication Disorders 170 General Recommendations 171 Students with Social or Behavioral Problems Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Autism Spectrum Disorders General Recommendations 172 172 174 176 Students with General Delays in Cognitive and Social Functioning178 Intellectual Disabilities 178 Students with Physical or Sensory Challenges Physical and Health Impairments Visual Impairments Hearing Loss General Recommendations 179 180 181 182 184 Students with Advanced Cognitive Development 184 Giftedness185 Considering Diversity When Identifying and Addressing Special Needs 187 General Recommendations for Working with Students Who Have Special Needs 188 Part 2 6 Learning and Motivation Learning, Cognition, and Memory 193 Case Study: Bones 194 Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology 195 A Model of Human Memory 198 The Nature of the Sensory Register 199 Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention 200 The Nature of Working (Short-Term) Memory 201 Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Information with Prior Knowledge203 The Nature of Long-Term Memory 204 Learning, Memory, and the Brain 205 Critiquing the Three-Component Model 206 Long-Term Memory Storage 207 How Knowledge Can Be Organized 208 How Declarative Knowledge Is Learned 210 How Procedural Knowledge Is Learned 215 Roles of Prior Knowledge and Working Memory in Long-Term Memory Storage 217 Encouraging a Meaningful Learning Set and Conceptual Understanding 218 Using Technology to Facilitate Meaningful Learning219 Using Mnemonics in the Absence of Relevant Prior Knowledge220 When Knowledge Construction Goes Awry: Addressing Learners’ Misconceptions Obstacles to Conceptual Change Promoting Conceptual Change 222 224 225 Long-Term Memory Retrieval Factors Affecting Retrieval Why Learners Sometimes Forget 227 228 231 Diversity in Cognitive Processes Facilitating Cognitive Processing in Students with Special Needs 233 7 Complex Cognitive Processes Case Study: Taking Over 234 240 241 Thinking About Thinking and Learning How to Learn: The Importance of Metacognition 242 Effective Learning Strategies 244 Factors Affecting Strategy Use 247 Metacognitive Strategies in the Digital Age 251 Diversity, Disabilities, and Exceptional Abilities in Metacognition253 Contents xix Transfer255 Factors Affecting Transfer 256 Problem Solving and Creativity Factors Affecting Problem-Solving Success and Creative Thinking Teaching Problem-Solving Strategies Fostering Creative Thinking Using Computer Technology to Foster and Support Creative Problem-Solving 260 Critical Thinking Encouraging Critical Thinking in the Classroom, the Outside World, and Cyberspace 270 Diversity in Transfer, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Critical Thinking Accommodating Students with Special Needs 8 261 265 266 268 273 275 276 Learning and Cognition in Context 280 Case Study: It’s All in How You Look at Things 281 Basic Assumptions of Contextual Theories 282 Social Interactions as Contexts Interactions with More Advanced Individuals Interactions with Peers Creating a Community of Learners 285 285 286 287 Cultures as Contexts Schemas, Scripts, and Worldviews as Aspects of Culture Communities of Practice as Aspects of Culture 289 The Various Forms That Reinforcement Can Take The Various Forms That Punishment Can Take Strategies for Encouraging Productive Behaviors and Discouraging Undesirable Ones Using Reinforcement Effectively Shaping New Behaviors Encouraging Desired Behaviors Through Antecedent Stimuli and Responses Creating Conditions for Extinction Cueing Inappropriate Behaviors Reinforcing Incompatible Behaviors Using Punishment When Necessary Reflecting on the Consequences You Either Intentionally or Unintentionally Impose 334 339 341 342 347 348 350 350 350 351 353 Addressing Especially Difficult Classroom Behaviors 353 Applied Behavior Analysis 354 Functional Analysis 354 Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports 355 Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports356 Diversity in Student Behaviors and Reactions to Consequences357 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 358 10 Social Cognitive Views of Learning 362 290 292 Case Study: Two Students, Same Problem 363 Basic Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory 363 Societies as Contexts Authentic Activities 293 294 The Social Cognitive View of Reinforcement and Punishment365 Digital Technologies as Contexts Technology in Learning and Instruction Promoting Technological Literacy Online Learning 296 296 298 300 Academic Content Domains as Contexts 301 Language Arts: Reading and Writing 302 Mathematics309 Science311 Social Studies 314 Taking Student Diversity into Account 319 9 Behaviorist Views of Learning 325 Case Study: The Attention Getter 326 Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism 326 Building on Existing Stimulus–Response Associations: Classical Conditioning 328 Classical Conditioning of Involuntary Emotional Responses330 Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning 331 Addressing Counterproductive Emotional Responses 332 Learning from Consequences: Instrumental Conditioning332 Contrasting Classical Conditioning and Instrumental Conditioning 333 Modeling368 Behaviors and Skills That Can Be Learned Through Modeling369 Characteristics of Effective Models 371 Essential Conditions for Successful Modeling 371 Self-Efficacy374 How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition 375 Some Overconfidence—But Not Too Much—Can Be Beneficial 376 Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy 376 Teacher Self-Efficacy 380 Self-Regulation382 Self-Regulated Behavior 384 Self-Regulated Learning 389 Self-Regulated Problem Solving 391 Diversity in Self-Regulation 394 Promoting Self-Regulation in Students at Risk 394 Revisiting Reciprocal Causation 398 Comparing Theoretical Perspectives of Learning 400 11 Motivation and Affect 403 Case Study: Passing Algebra 404 The Nature of Motivation Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation 405 406 xx Contents Basic Human Needs 409 Arousal409 Cognitive and Sociocultural Factors in Motivation 410 Expectancies and Values 411 Interests413 Self-Determination415 Diversity in Addressing Needs 421 Attributions423 Goal Theories 427 Mindsets432 Short-Term Motivation Interventions 434 Diversity in Cognitive and Sociocultural Factors Affecting Motivation 435 Conducting Cooperative Learning Activities Structuring Peer Tutoring Sessions Conducting Technology-Based Collaborative Learning Activities 492 496 498 Taking Instructional Goals and Student Diversity into Account499 Considering Group Differences 501 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 502 13 Creating a Productive Learning Environment506 Case Study: A Contagious Situation 507 Affect and Its Effects How Affect and Motivation Are Interrelated Anxiety in the Classroom Diversity in Affect 446 446 449 454 Motivating Students in Any Environment 457 Creating a Setting Conducive to Learning 507 Arranging the Classroom 509 Establishing and Maintaining Productive Teacher–Student Relationships 510 Creating an Effective Psychological Climate 513 Setting Limits 516 Planning Activities That Keep Students on Task 519 Monitoring What Students Are Doing 522 Modifying Instructional Strategies 522 Taking Developmental Differences into Account 523 Taking Individual and Group Differences into Account524 12 Instructional Strategies 461 Expanding the Sense of Community Beyond the Classroom527 Working with Other Faculty Members 527 Working with the Community at Large 528 Working with Parents 528 Case Study: Westward Expansion 462 General Principles That Can Guide Instruction 463 Planning for Instruction Identifying the Goals of Instruction Conducting a Task Analysis Developing a Lesson Plan Creating a Class Website to Share Goals and Facilitate Communication Throughout the School Year 466 466 470 472 Teacher-Directed Instructional Strategies Presenting New Material Through Traditional Expository Methods: Lectures and Textbooks Asking Questions and Giving Feedback Providing Practice Through In-Class Assignments Giving Homework Conducting Direct Instruction Promoting Mastery Using Instructional Websites Effectively Promoting Deliberate Practice Helping Students Learn How to Learn 473 Learner-Directed Instructional Strategies Stimulating and Guiding Class Discussions Conducting Reciprocal Teaching Sessions Conducting Discovery and Inquiry Activities 486 486 488 489 Effects of Teacher Attributions and Expectations on Students’ Motivation How Teacher Attributions and Expectations Affect Students’ Achievement 439 441 Targets: A Mnemonic for Remembering Motivational Strategies444 Part 3 Classroom Strategies 473 474 475 477 478 479 481 482 483 484 Dealing with Misbehaviors 533 Ignoring Certain Behaviors 534 Cueing Students 535 Discussing Problems Privately with Students 535 Recognizing Microaggressions 537 Teaching Self-Regulation Skills 538 Conferring with Parents 539 Conducting Planned, Systematic Interventions 541 Taking Students’ Cultural Backgrounds into Account544 Addressing Aggression and Violence at School Bullying and Cyberbullying Addressing Gang-Related Problems 14 Classroom Assessment Strategies That Promote Learning Case Study: The Math Test 545 546 550 554 555 The Many Forms and Purposes of Assessment 556 Guiding Instructional Decision Making 559 Determining What Students Have Learned from Instruction559 Evaluating the Quality of Instruction 560 Diagnosing Learning and Performance Problems 560 Promoting Learning 561 Contents xxi Enhancing Learning Through Ongoing Assessments and Regular Feedback Including Students in the Assessment Process Using Digital Technologies in Formative Assessment 563 565 566 Important Qualities of Good Assessments 567 Reliability568 Standardization570 Validity571 Assessing Students’ Progress and Achievement Both Informally and Formally Informally Observing Students’ Behaviors Using Paper–Pencil Assessments Using Performance Assessments Additional Considerations in Formal Assessment 577 577 579 587 592 Taking Student Diversity into Account in Classroom Assessments597 Accommodating Group Differences 598 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 598 15 Summarizing Students’ Achievements and Abilities 603 Case Study: B in History 604 Summarizing the Results of a Single Assessment Raw Scores Criterion-Referenced Scores Norm-Referenced Scores Using Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Scores in the Classroom 605 605 605 606 610 Determining Achievement Using Final Grades and Portfolios Considering—or Not Considering—Other Factors in Grading Including Students in the Grading Process 614 616 Using Portfolios Types and Purposes of Portfolios Benefits and Limitations of Portfolios Helping Students Construct Portfolios 617 618 618 619 Standardized Tests Types of Standardized Tests 621 621 611 Individual versus Group Administration of Standardized Tests Guidelines for Choosing and Using Standardized Tests Interpreting Standardized Test Scores High-Stakes Testing and Teacher Accountability The Every Student Succeeds Act Problems with High-Stakes Testing Productive Steps Forward in High-Stakes Testing 623 624 626 628 629 629 631 Taking Student Diversity into Account 633 Cultural Bias in Test Content 633 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 634 Language Differences and English Language Learners635 Accommodating Students with Special Needs 636 Confidentiality and Communication About Assessment Results Communicating Assessment Results to Students and Parents 637 639 Appendix A Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients643 Appendix B Determining Reliability and Predictive Validity 645 Appendix C Matching Text and MyLab Education Content to the Praxis® Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests648 Glossary665 References676 Name Index 792 Subject Index 814 This page intentionally left blank A01_THOM6233_05_SE_WALK.indd 9 1/13/17 6:50 PM Chapter 1 Blend Images - Hill Street Studios/Getty Images Teaching and Educational Psychology Learning Outcomes 1.1 Reflect on and evaluate some of your existing knowledge and beliefs about human learning and effective instructional practices. 1.2 Use effective strategies when you read and study. 1.3 Develop a long-term plan for gaining expertise as a teacher. 1.4 Draw appropriate conclusions from various kinds of research studies. 1.5 Describe several strategies for collecting information about your own students. 1 2 Chapter 1 CASE STUDY: The “No D” Policy Anne Smith is a ninth-grade English teacher with 10 years of teaching experience, and by all accounts, she’s an excellent teacher. Even so, in past years many of her students haven’t invested much time or energy in their writing assignments and haven’t appeared to be bothered by the low grades they’ve earned in her classes. In an effort to more fully engage this year’s students in their schoolwork, Ms. Smith begins fall semester by initiating two new policies. First, to pass her course, students must earn at least a C; she won’t give anyone a final grade of D. Second, students will have multiple opportunities to revise and resubmit assignments; she’ll provide whatever feedback students need—and, if necessary, also provide one-on-one instruction—to help them improve their work. She solicits students’ questions and concerns about the new policies, gains their agreement to “try something new,” and engages them in a discussion of specific, concrete characteristics of A-quality, B-quality, and C-quality work. Then, as the semester progresses, she regularly administers brief surveys to get students’ feedback about her innovations, asking such questions as “How is the ‘no D’ working for you?” “Do you think your grade is an accurate reflection of your learning?” and “Any suggestions?” Students’ responses on the surveys are overwhelmingly positive. Students mention noticeable improvements in the quality of their writing and increasingly report that they believe themselves to be in control of both their learning and their grades. Furthermore, they begin to see their teacher in a new light—“as one who will help them achieve their best work, not as one who just gives out grades . . . as a coach encouraging them along the long race of learning.” Final course grades also confirm the value of the new policies: A much higher percentage of students earn grades of C or better than has been true in past years. (Action research project described in A. K. Smith, 2009.) • Effective teachers don’t simply transmit new information and skills to students; they also work hard to help students master the information and skills. In the case study just presented, what various strategies does Ms. Smith use to foster her students’ writing development? Teaching other people—especially teaching the generation that will follow you into the adult world—can be one of the most rewarding professions on the planet. It can also be a very challenging profession. Certainly, effective teaching involves presenting a topic or skill in such a way that students can understand and eventually master it. Yet it involves many other things as well. For instance, teachers must motivate students to want to learn the subject matter, must help students recognize what genuine learning actually involves, and—in order to appropriately individualize instruction—must assess each student’s progress in learning and development. And, in general, good teachers create an environment in which students believe that if they work hard and have reasonable support, they can achieve at high levels. In the opening case study, Anne Smith does all of these things. For teachers, mastering the multifaceted nature of teaching takes time and practice, of course. But it also takes considerable knowledge about human learning and motivation, developmental trends, individual and group differences, and effective classroom practices. Such topics are the domain of educational psychology. This book will help you understand children and adolescents—how they learn and develop, how they’re likely to be similar to but also different from one another, and what topics and activities are apt to engage them in the classroom. It will also give you a toolbox of strategies for planning and carrying out instruction, creating an environment that keeps students motivated and on task, and assessing students’ progress and achievement. Teaching and Educational Psychology 3 Reflecting on What You Already Know About Learning and Instruction 1.1 Reflect on and evaluate some of your existing knowledge and beliefs about human learning and effective instructional practices. You yourself have been a student for many years now, and in the process you’ve undoubtedly learned a great deal about how children change over time and about how teachers can foster their learning and development. But exactly how much do you know? To help you find out, we authors offer a short pretest, Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS). Experiencing Firsthand Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS) Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. True False 1. Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are predominantly right-brain thinkers. True False 2. Children’s personalities are largely the results of their home environments. True False 3. Instruction is most effective when it is tailored to students’ individual learning styles. True False 4. The best way to learn and remember a new fact is to repeat it over and over. True False 5. Students often misjudge how much they know about a topic. True False 6. Anxiety sometimes helps students learn and perform more successfully in the classroom. True False 7. Playing video games can enhance children’s cognitive development and school achievement. True False 8. The ways in which teachers assess students’ learning influence what and how students actually learn. Following are the correct answers to each item, along with an explanation regarding why it is true or false. 1. Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are predominantly right-brain thinkers. FALSE. With the development of new medical technologies in recent years, researchers have learned a great deal about how the human brain works and which parts of it specialize in which aspects of human thinking. The two halves, or hemispheres, of the brain do seem to have somewhat different specialties, but they continually communicate and collaborate in tackling even the simplest of daily tasks. For all intents and purposes, there’s no such thing as leftbrain or right-brain thinking (Bressler, 2002; M. I. Posner & Rothbart, 2007; D. J. Siegel, 2012). 2. Children’s personalities are largely the results of their home environments. FALSE. Certainly children’s home environments mold their behaviors to some extent. But so, too, do teachers and other people outside the family have considerable influence on children’s typical ways of behaving (e.g., Morelli & Rothbaum, 2007). Furthermore, inherited characteristics have a significant impact on children’s personalities. From day 1, infants are noticeably different in the extent to which they’re calm or The brain’s structure, functioning, and development are discussed in Chapter 2 and in Applying Brain Research features throughout the book. 4 Chapter 1 Chapter 3 discusses temperament and personality development. Chapter 5 describes individual ­differences in cognitive abilities and dispositions that can significantly affect students’ learning and academic achievement. C ­ hapter 6 describes general mental processes that underlie effective thinking, learning, and memory. fussy, shy or outgoing, fearful or adventurous, and attentive or easily distractible. Such differences in temperament appear to have their roots in biology and genetics, and they persist throughout the childhood years and into adulthood (Kagan & Snidman, 2007; Keogh, 2003; Rothbart, 2011). 3. Instruction is most effective when it is tailored to students’ individual learning styles. FALSE. Contrary to a popular belief, most measures of supposed “learning styles” merely reflect students’ self-reported preferences, and tailoring instruction to such preferences doesn’t noticeably enhance students’ learning or academic achievement (Kirschner & van Merriënboer, 2013; Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008; Rogowsky, Calhoun, & Tallal, 2015). It is far more important that teachers base their instructional practices on knowledge of the cognitive processes that underlie how virtually all students think and learn. Chapter 6 discusses elaboration and its implications for instructional practice. 4. The best way to learn and remember a new fact is to repeat it over and over. FALSE. Although repeating information several times is better than doing nothing at all, repetition of specific facts is a relatively ineffective way to learn. Students learn information more easily and remember it longer when they connect it with things they already know. One especially effective strategy is elaboration: using prior knowledge to expand or embellish on a new idea in some way, perhaps by drawing inferences from certain historical facts, identifying new examples of a scientific concept, or thinking of situations in which a mathematical procedure might be helpful (J. R. Anderson, 2005; McNamara & Magliano, 2009; Graesser & Bower, 1990). Chapter 7 describes this illusion of knowing in more detail. 5. Students often misjudge how much they know about a topic. TRUE. Most adults and children are not the best judges of what they do and don’t know. For example, many students think that if they’ve spent a long time studying a textbook chapter, they must know its contents very well. Yet if they’ve spent most of their time studying ineffectively—perhaps by “reading” while thinking about something else altogether or by mindlessly copying definitions—they may know far less than they think they do (N. J. Stone, 2000; Thiede, Griffin, Wiley, & Redford, 2009). Chapter 11 explores anxiety’s effects in different situations. 6. Anxiety sometimes helps students learn and perform more successfully in the classroom. TRUE. Many people think that anxiety is always a bad thing. In fact, a little bit of anxiety can actually improve learning and performance, especially when students perceive a task to be something they can accomplish with reasonable effort. For instance, a small, manageable amount of anxiety can spur students to complete their work carefully and to study for tests (Cassady, 2010b; N. E. Perry, Turner, & Meyer, 2006; D. J. Siegel, 2012). Chapter 7 explores potential benefits of appropriately designed video games. 7. Playing video games can enhance children’s cognitive development. TRUE—or more accurately, SOMETIMES TRUE. A great deal of time spent playing video games instead of reading, doing homework, and engaging in other school-related activities can definitely interfere with children’s long-term academic success. But some video games can be powerful tools for promoting important cognitive abilities. For example, especially within the past two decades, some educational technologists have designed highly motivating video games that simulate real-world problems and foster complex problem-solving skills (D. B. Clark, Tanner-Smith, & Killingsworth, 2016; Granic, Lobel, & Engels, 2014; Plass, Homer, & Kinzer, 2015). 8. The ways in which teachers assess students’ learning influence what and how students actually learn. TRUE. We see this principle in action in the opening case study: When Anne Smith’s “No D” and multiple-submission policies convey the message that students can’t get by with only marginal work, students are more likely to seek feedback about their work, benefit from their mistakes, and enhance their writing skills. Good assessments encourage cognitive processes essential for high-quality learning. For example, students are more likely to pull class material into an integrated, meaningful whole Teaching and Educational Psychology if they expect assessment activities to require such synthesis, and they’re more likely to focus on applying what they learn to new situations if they think that assessments will involve application tasks (Carpenter, 2012; Lundeberg & Fox, 1991; Pan, Gopal, & Rickard, 2016; Schraw & Robinson, 2011). 5 Chapter 14 and Chapter 15 describe various ways in which assessment practices affect students’ learning. How many of the OOPS items did you answer correctly? Did some of the false items seem convincing enough that you marked them true? Did one or more of the true items contradict certain beliefs you had? If either of these was the case, you’re hardly alone. College students often agree with statements that seem to be obviously “true,” but are, in fact, partially or completely incorrect (Gage, 1991; L. S. Goldstein & Lake, 2000; Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, & Pape, 2006). It’s easy to be persuaded by “common sense” and to assume that what seems logical must be true. Yet common sense and logic don’t always give us the real scoop about how people actually learn and develop, nor do they always give us appropriate guidance about how best to help students succeed in classrooms. Thus, much of our knowledge about learning and instruction must come from credible and consistently replicated research findings and from the general principles and theories that those findings support. MyLab Education Self-Check 1.1 Studying and Learning Effectively 1.2 Use effective strategies when you read and study. As you learn more about educational psychology—and especially as you learn about the nature of human thinking and learning—you’ll gain many insights into how you can help students more effectively master classroom subject matter. We authors hope that you’ll also gain insights into how you yourself can better learn and remember course material. For now, we suggest six general strategies. Set one or more goals for yourself as you read and study. Whenever you begin a study session, decide what you want to accomplish during that session, and be specific. For example, decide how much new material you want to read on that occasion, how much and in what ways you might review and practice content you’ve previously learned, or both. The Learning Outcomes you’ll see at the beginning of each chapter and at relevant points later on in the chapter can give you some guidance about appropriate goals. Relate what you read to your existing knowledge and prior experiences. For example, connect new concepts and principles with memorable childhood events, previous course work, or your general knowledge about human beings and their behavior. In general, people learn and remember things more easily and effectively when they engage in meaningful learning—that is, when they connect new information and ideas to things they’ve previously learned. Elaborate on what you read, going beyond it and adding to it. Earlier in the chapter we mentioned that the process of elaboration—embellishing on new information in some way—enhances learning and memory of the information. So try to think beyond the information you read. Draw inferences from the ideas presented. Generate new examples of concepts. Identify your own educational applications of various principles of learning, development, and motivation. Actively consider how some new information might contradict your existing beliefs. As the preceding OOPS test may have shown you, some of what you c­ urrently “know” You’ll learn much more about effective learning and study strategies in upcoming chapters, especially in Chapter 6, Chapter 7, and Chapter 10. 6 Chapter 1 and believe about learning and instruction may be sort-of-but-not-quite accurate or even entirely inaccurate. People’s existing beliefs can occasionally wreak havoc with new learning. For example, many students in teacher education classes reject research findings that appear to be inconsistent with their personal beliefs and experiences (Fives & Gill, 2015; Gregoire, 2003; Richardson, 2003). As you read about and study educational psychology, then, think about how some ideas and research findings might actually contradict and discredit your prior “knowledge.” When you encounter puzzling or seemingly “wrong” ideas and findings, we hope you’ll keep an open mind and, in particular, consider how and why they might have some validity and worth. Ideally, effective learners undergo ­conceptual change: They revise their existing notions to accommodate new and discrepant information. Chapter 6 explores meaningful learning and conceptual change in greater depth. Tie abstract concepts and principles to concrete examples. Children become increasingly able to think about abstract ideas as they get older, but people of all ages can more readily understand and remember abstract information when they tie it to concrete objects and events. Short examples and lengthier case studies that involve real children and teachers, videos that depict classrooms in action, Experiencing Firsthand exercises such as the OOPS test—all of these can enhance your understanding and memory of new concepts and help you recognize them when you see them in your own work with children and adolescents. Chapter 2 discusses the development of abstract thinking and other significant cognitive advancements during the school years. Periodically check yourself to make sure you remember and understand what you have read. There are times when even the most diligent students don’t concentrate on what they’re reading—when they’re actually thinking about something else as their eyes go down the page. So stop once in a while (perhaps once every two or three pages) to make sure you’ve really learned and understood the things you’ve been reading. Try to summarize the material. Ask yourself questions about it, and make sure everything makes sense to you. Check your mastery of various concepts by doing activities and taking self-check quizzes sprinkled throughout a chapter. And tackle the Practice for Your Licensure Exam exercise that appears after each chapter summary. MyLab Education Content Extension 1.1 For additional strategies, read “Study Tips.” When all is said and done, your overall goal in studying educational psychology shouldn’t be to memorize enough facts that you can get good grades on tests and quizzes. Instead, your goal should be to become the best teacher—and also the best learner— you can possibly be. As you look forward to your entry into the teaching profession, we urge you to be confident that with time, practice, a solid understanding of how children and adolescents learn and develop, a large toolkit of instructional strategies, and every student’s best interests at heart, you can truly make a difference in young people’s lives. MyLab Education Self-Check 1.2 Developing as a Teacher 1.3 Develop a long-term plan for gaining expertise as a teacher. In your first year as a novice teacher, you may initially find your role a bit overwhelming. Virtually any classroom will be one of nonstop action requiring you to be continually attentive and on your toes, and there will always be a great deal to think about. If you are currently enrolled in a teacher education program, you should think of your program as a very good start on the road to becoming a skillful teacher (Bransford, Teaching and Educational Psychology Darling-Hammond, & LePage, 2005; Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005). However, it’s only a start. Developing true expertise in any profession, including teaching, takes many years of experience, although even a single year of teaching experience can make a significant difference (Berliner, 2001; Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2007; Henry, Bastian, & Fortner, 2011). Please be patient with yourself, and recognize that occasionally feeling a bit unsure and making mistakes is par for the course. As you gain experience, you’ll gradually become able to make decisions about routine situations and problems quickly and efficiently, giving you the time and energy to think creatively and flexibly about how best to teach classroom subject matter (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Bransford, Derry, Berliner, & Hammerness, 2005; Feldon, 2007). We can offer you several good strategies for enhancing your teaching expertise— all of them based on research on teacher effectiveness. It’s important to note here that most public and private schools require teachers to document their ongoing professional growth through such strategies. Keep up to date on research findings and innovations in education. Additional university coursework and in-service training sessions at your school are two good ways to increase your teaching effectiveness (Desimone, 2009; Hattie, 2009; McDonald, Robles-Piña, & Polnick, 2011). In addition, effective teachers typically subscribe to one or more professional journals, and as time allows, they occasionally attend professional conferences in their area. Learn as much as you can about the subject matter you teach. When we look at effective teachers—for example, those who are flexible in their approaches to instruction, help students acquire a thorough understanding of classroom topics, and convey obvious enthusiasm for whatever they’re teaching—we typically find teachers who know their subject matter extremely well (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Cochran & Jones, 1998; H. C. Hill et al., 2008). Learn as much as you can about specific strategies for teaching your particular subject matter. In addition to knowing general teaching strategies, it’s helpful to acquire strategies specific to the topic you’re teaching—strategies that are collectively known as pedagogical content knowledge. Effective teachers typically have a large number of strategies for teaching particular topics and skills. Furthermore, they can usually anticipate—and so can also address—the difficulties students will have and the kinds of errors students will make in the process of mastering a skill or body of knowledge (Baumert et al., 2010; Krauss et al., 2008; P. M. Sadler, Sonnert, Coyle, Cook-Smith, & Miller, 2013; L. S. Shulman, 1986). Learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the community in which you are working. Students are more likely to do well in school when the school curriculum and classroom environment take their cultural backgrounds into account (Brayboy & Searle, 2007; Moje & Hinchman, 2004; Tyler, Uqdah, et al., 2008). Reading about various cultures can certainly be helpful. But ideally, you can best inform yourself about students’ cultural beliefs and practices if you participate in local community activities and converse regularly with community members (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; McIntyre, 2010). At the same time, we urge you not to form rigid stereotypes about members of any particular cultural group—or about any group of students, for that matter. Yes, it’s occasionally helpful to consider between-group differences—ways in which members of various cultural groups, economic groups, or genders are apt to be a bit different on average with respect to certain characteristics or behaviors. However, you should typically be more aware of within-group differences—the many ways in which the individual members of any particular group exhibit characteristics and behaviors unique to themselves. You can find discussions of between-group differences in many chapters of this book, and especially in Chapter 4. You will find an in-depth discussion of within-group differences—also known as individual differences—in Chapter 5. 7 8 Chapter 1 Continually reflect on and critically examine your assumptions, inferences, and teaching practices. In the opening case study, Anne Smith reflects on her students’ performance in previous years and then institutes new assessment policies that she thinks might be more motivating and productive. Like Ms. Smith, effective teachers engage in reflective teaching: They continually examine and critique their assumptions, inferences, and instructional practices, and they regularly adjust their beliefs and strategies in the face of new evidence (Hammerness, DarlingHammond, & Bransford, 2005; T. Hogan, Rabinowitz, & Craven, 2003; Larrivee, 2006). Communicate and collaborate with colleagues. Effective teachers rarely work in isolation. Instead, they frequently communicate with colleagues in their own school district, across the nation, and, often, in other countries. Furthermore, they regularly coordinate their efforts to enhance students’ learning and personal well-being at a schoolwide level (Bransford, Darling-Hammond, et al., 2005; Raudenbush, 2009; Ronfeldt, Farmer, McQueen, & Grissom, 2015). Teacher lounges, email, group text messages, Internet websites, and blogs—all of these provide vehicles for cross-communication and can potentially offer ideas for lesson plans and instructional activities on a wide range of topics. For example, you might look at Smithsonian Education (smithsonianeducation.org), Khan Academy (khanacademy.org), or Open Educational Resources (oercommons.org). You should also look at the websites of professional organizations related to your field; the websites for the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (nctm. org) and the National Council for the Social Studies (socialstudies.org) are just two of the many possibilities.   Keep in mind, too, that even the most masterful of teachers had to begin their teaching careers as novices, and they probably entered their first classroom with the same concerns and uncertainties you may initially have. Most experienced teachers are happy to offer you advice and support during challenging times; in fact, they’re apt to be flattered that you’re asking them! Ideally, teachers and administrators at a single school create a professional learning community, in which they share a common vision for students’ learning and achievement, work collaboratively to achieve desired outcomes for all students, and regularly communicate with one another about their strategies and progress (DuFour, DuFour, & Eaker, 2008; P. Graham & Ferriter, 2009; Raudenbush, 2009). You can learn more about the nature and effects of self-efficacy in Chapter 10. Believe that you can make a difference in students’ lives. In general, human beings achieve at higher levels in their endeavors when they have high self-­efficacy—that is, when they believe that they’re capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals. Students are more likely to try to learn something if they believe they can learn it—in other words, if they have high self-efficacy. But as a teacher, you, too, must have high self-efficacy. Believing that you can be a good teacher will give you confidence to try new strategies and help you persist in the face of occasional setbacks. Students who achieve at high levels are apt to be those whose teachers have confidence that, as teachers, they can make a significant difference as they work both individually in their classrooms and collectively with their colleagues (Holzberger, Philipp, & Kunter, 2013; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2008; Zee & Koomen, 2016). Ultimately, what teachers do in the classroom matters for students, not only in the short term but for years to come (Hattie, 2009; Konstantopoulos & Chung, 2011). MyLab Education Self-Check 1.3 Teaching and Educational Psychology Understanding and Interpreting Research Findings 1.4 Draw appropriate conclusions from various kinds of research studies. As professionals, teachers are decision makers who must choose among many, many possible strategies for helping students learn and develop. Certainly teaching is an art to some degree: Good teachers are creative and innovative, and they add many imaginative touches to enhance classroom lessons and activities. But that art must be based on a firm foundation of research findings both about how human beings learn and about how teachers can help them learn effectively; in other words, it must be based on the science of learning and the science of instruction. Good teaching involves evidence-based practices—the use of instructional methods and other classroom strategies that research has consistently shown to bring about significant gains in students’ development and academic achievement. Many research studies involve quantitative research: They yield numbers that reflect percentages, frequencies, or averages related to certain characteristics or phenomena. For example, a quantitative study might provide information about students’ scores on achievement tests, students’ responses to rating-scale questionnaires, or school district records of students’ attendance and dropout rates. Other studies involve qualitative research: They yield nonnumeric data—perhaps in the form of verbal reports,...
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