Chapter 6 Basic Classroom Management Strategies
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Identify nonverbal
and verbal interventions for addressing inappropriate student
behavior.
• Distinguish
between positive and negative reinforcement and between extinction and
punishment, and give examples of how each can be used in the classroom to
address student behavior.
• Explain the use of time-out.
• Develop a contingency contract and a token economy.
• Analyze the impact culture can have on basic classroom management strategies.
Teacher Expectations
As noted in Chapter 5, teachers can communicate behavior expectations to students in several
ways. Proactive management strategies can prevent behavior difficulties from occurring in
the classroom (Niesyn, 2009; Stormont & Reinke, 2009). The first opportunity teachers have
for conveying their expectations to students concerning appropriate classroom behavior is
when they establish rules in their classrooms. As part of a universal design for classroom
management, the establishment of classroom rules, discussion and practice of appropriate
behaviors with students, and implementation of instruction that is relevant and engaging are
paramount to providing students a clear understanding of behaviors that are expected of
them. However, many students will continue to need the teacher to assist them as they strive
to meet expectations for appropriate behavior throughout the school day. Active strategies
maintain student behaviors and preserve a positive learning environment. Sometimes even
with teachers’ best efforts to employ proactive and active strategies, teachers will have to
modify inappropriate behavior and help students act in a more appropriate way. Reactive
strategies provide the most intensive interventions for student behaviors.
Nonverbal and Verbal Interventions
Nonverbal and verbal interventions are strategies that teachers can use to support students as
they strive to exhibit appropriate classroom behavior. These strategies include planned
ignoring, proximity control, signal interference, redirection, contingent praise, and tension
reduction.
Planned Ignoring
Planned ignoring is a procedure designed to weaken, decrease, or eliminate an inappropriate
behavior by abruptly withdrawing the reinforcer that is maintaining the behavior (Hester,
Hendrickson, & Gable, 2009; Payne, Mancil, & Landers, 2005). The basic premise of
planned ignoring is that when the reinforcement is withheld, the student will cease displaying
the behavior (Gable, Hester, Rock, & Hughes, 2009). The kinds of behaviors for which
planned ignoring may be an effective strategy are usually minor but are nonetheless annoying
and may disrupt the learning environment, such as talking without permission or making
noises. The reinforcer that is withdrawn is the teacher’s attention.
It is important to note that planned ignoring is usually effective only if the student is seeking
the teacher’s attention. For example, it is unlikely that ignoring the behavior will be effective
if the student is making noises at his desk because he is bored or restless. Determining the
reason, or the function, of the behavior is important in developing an appropriate response.
If the student is seeking the teacher’s attention, the teacher using planned ignoring must make
every effort to ignore the inappropriate behavior completely. The teacher cannot tell the
student that she is “not going to talk to him until he stops making noises” or make
disapproving eye contact. Such reactions let the student know that the teacher is paying
attention, which reinforces the inappropriate behavior (Payne et al., 2005). If planned
ignoring is to be effective, the teacher must not provide any interaction with the student
related to the inappropriate behavior. This may be difficult, especially if withdrawing
attention initially increases the behavior, as the student tries harder to gain the teacher’s
attention. For planned ignoring to be effective in eliminating attention-seeking behavior, the
teacher must consistently ignore the behavior, even when it escalates, or risk reinforcing the
inappropriate behavior at a more intense level (Gable et al., 2009; Obenchain & Taylor,
2005).
Planned ignoring should be paired with a contingency strategy, in which the teacher ignores
the inappropriate behavior but praises the student for an appropriate behavior that replaces
the ignored behavior (Hester et al., 2009). For example, the teacher asks a question during a
discussion of the causes of the American Civil War. Without raising her hand, Kale blurts out
an answer. The teacher completely ignores Kale’s behavior and thus reduces the probability
that Kale will continue to respond to questions without raising her hand. Conversely, in those
instances in which Kale does raise her hand in response to the teacher’s questions, the teacher
should take the opportunity to call on Kale. This “catch ’em being good” strategy increases
the probability that the appropriate behavior will be repeated.
Planned ignoring is unlikely to be effective if the student is seeking attention from peers
(Payne et al., 2005). For example, if Ricardo is making wisecracks during a discussion of the
Civil War and the teacher chooses to ignore his behavior, the wisecracks are most likely to
continue if the function of the behavior is to gain attention from peers. The teacher will need
to consider another strategy to modify Ricardo’s behavior.
Finally, planned ignoring should never be used with aggressive behaviors or behaviors that
interfere with the instructional environment. Teachers have a responsibility to provide safe
and secure environments for students in their classrooms.
Proximity Control
Proximity control is a nonverbal strategy that alters behavioral responses through the
physical presence of an authority figure. For example, an individual is driving 15 miles per
hour over the speed limit on the highway when he sees a state trooper in his rearview mirror.
Immediately, the driver slows down. The state trooper, an authority figure, is affecting the
behavior of the driver by being in a proximate position—that is, in the same vicinity as the
driver. A similar phenomenon is at work in the classroom. Students typically engage in ontask behavior and demonstrate improved compliance when the teacher is nearby, in close
proximity. Proximity control is generally appropriate for dealing with nonthreatening and
minimally disruptive behaviors, such as talking out, note passing, and pencil tapping or other
forms of fidgeting.
Proximity control is useful for helping students become aware of their behaviors. The main
element of this technique is for the teacher to take a position in close proximity to students
who are showing indications of getting off task. The idea is that once the students feel the
presence of the authority figure, the behavior will stop. For example, during group activities,
the teacher should circulate around the room to keep students focused. Also, if the teacher
knows that a particular group of students is likely to interrupt class, he should try standing or
sitting close to them while he leads an activity or provides directions. To hold an individual
student’s attention, the teacher stands near the student before giving directions or engaging in
discussion. When the teacher walks near a student, it is the student’s cue to focus on the task.
The student automatically perks up, copies notes more intently, or stops talking.
In using proximity control, teachers should take the following factors into consideration
(Allday, 2011). First, proximity control is a proactive strategy to increase on-task behavior.
For example, Kale is talking to a friend instead of working on her history assignment. The
teacher moves in her direction, which cues Kale to return to the task. However, if Ricardo is
refusing to sit down at his seat, proximity control is not likely to be effective. Second,
providing too much attention when using proximity control can exacerbate the behavior. If
the teacher stands in front of the student with arms crossed and a raised eyebrow, for
example, the behavior may increase. When using proximity control, the teacher should
simply walk near the student while continuing the lesson. She should not provide any
additional attention through hand gestures or eye contact. Once the behavior is diminished,
she should walk away and continue the lesson (Allday, 2011).
Signal Interference
Signal interference is the use of nonverbal cues to remind students to redirect inappropriate
behavior. These cues might include hand gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. The
following are some examples of signal interference techniques:
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Putting a finger to your lips to indicate quiet
Shaking your head slowly to indicate disapproval
Making eye contact with a student who is talking to a classmate
Pointing to a seat when a student is wandering around
Holding up a hand to stop a student from calling out
Making a thumbs-up gesture for approval or a thumbs-down gesture for disapproval
Holding up the number of fingers that corresponds to the number of a classroom rule
being broken
To be effective, signal interference must be clearly directed at the off-task student without
disturbing other students. There should be no doubt in the student’s mind that the teacher is
aware of what is going on and that the student is responsible for the behavior. Finally,
teachers can use nonverbal signals, such as smiles and nods, to indicate approval of student
behavior. Teachers should exercise caution in using signal interference techniques, however,
because various signals may mean different things in different cultures.
In using signal interference, teachers must remember to consider the impact culture may have
on behavior. For example, they should not insist on eye contact for all students, as making
eye contact with authority figures may violate the cultural norms of some students.
Verbal Redirection
Although inappropriate behavior can often be redirected through signal interference such as a
stern look from the teacher, redirection most often takes a verbal form. The effective
classroom manager redirects minor infractions before they turn into major disruptions. This
type of corrective discipline redirects misbehavior into positive directions and keeps students
on task. For example, when students are off task, a teacher might say, “Be sure your group is
working on the experiment.” A teacher might redirect an individual student’s behavior by
getting the student’s attention (usually by saying the student’s name) and then asking the
student to engage in the appropriate behavior. For example, a teacher might say, “Patricia,
please return to your seat.” A private redirection of this type is preferred because it is less
likely to draw attention to inappropriate behavior or to interrupt a lesson.
Case Study
Miss Fowler and Ricardo
Miss Fowler is a first-year science teacher at Lincoln High School. She is European American, and she grew up
in a small rural community, where she had little interaction with culturally and linguistically diverse individuals.
She attended a university not far from her hometown and completed her student teaching experience in the high
school from which she graduated. Her ambition was to teach at the high school in her hometown or in a nearby
community. However, since many teachers in those schools do not leave their positions until they retire, no
positions were available for Miss Fowler when she graduated from her teacher education program. She was able
to secure a position at Lincoln High School, an urban high school several hours away.
Lincoln High School has a large population of Hispanic students, and while Miss Fowler took a university
course in multiculturalism and diversity, her perceptions of Hispanics are firmly based in the portrayals she has
seen in television shows and movies. When she got the job at Lincoln, she expected that many of her students
would be involved in gangs or drugs.
After enthusiastically providing a lesson in science one day, Miss Fowler had her students complete a worksheet
for the remainder of the class time. While others students were working on their worksheets, Ricardo was
talking to a friend who was sitting at the desk next to his. Miss Fowler asked Ricardo to finish his assignment.
Ricardo smiled, shrugged his shoulders, and said, “My bad.” Believing that Ricardo was being disrespectful,
Miss Fowler sent him to the principal’s office.
After school, Miss Fowler met with the principal and Mr. Garza, Ricardo’s father. After Miss Fowler explained
what had happened in her classroom, Mr. Garza leaned back in his chair and laughed good-naturedly. He told
the principal and Miss Fowler that whenever he had to correct Ricardo for something he had done at home,
Ricardo would smile, shrug his shoulders, and say “My bad” to show he understood and that things were good
between the two of them. In behaving as he did, Ricardo was actually showing respect toward Miss Fowler.
Contingent Praise
One of the easiest and most effective strategies for modifying student behavior is the use
of contingent praise. Contingent praise is an affirmative statement that immediately follows
the completion of appropriate academic or social behaviors (Moore Partin, Robertson,
Maggin, Oliver, & Wehby, 2010; Musti-Rao & Haydon, 2011). Contingent praise is based on
the principles of operant conditioning (see Chapter 1) and applied behavior analysis in that a
consequence that immediately follows a behavior results in increasing the probability that the
student will engage in the behavior again. When used correctly, contingent praise has been
shown to increase positive behavior, improve teacher–student relationships, and reduce
inappropriate behavior (Allday, 2011; Gable et al., 2009).
Contingent praise can be categorized as non-behavior-specific praise or behavior-specific
praise. With non-behavior-specific praise, the teacher praises the student without describing
the behavior. For example, the teacher uses generic terms when praising a student, such as
“nice job” or “I like that.” With behavior-specific praise, the teacher specifies the behavior
when praising the student (Musti-Rao & Haydon, 2011). For example, the teacher may tell
the student that he “did an excellent job in completing his assignment on time.” When using
behavior-specific praise, the teacher identifies the behavior she is trying to reinforce.
Teachers should keep the following criteria in mind when using contingent praise:
1. Contingent praise should be linked to student behaviors that the teacher wants to
reinforce.
2. Contingent praise should provide feedback of the specific behavior and performance.
3. Contingent praise should provide positive interactions between the teacher and
students.
4. Teachers should consider the skill levels of students when using contingent praise.
5. Teachers who use contingent praise should evaluate its effectiveness. (Moore Partin et
al., 2010)
While not used as often as non-behavior-specific praise, behavior-specific praise is more
effective. Behavior-specific praise prevents any confusion as to which student behavior is
targeted. For example, Jane raises her hand while working on a classroom assignment. To
reinforce Jane’s appropriate behavior of raising her hand, Mrs. Garza walks to her desk and
says, “Good job, Jane.” Yet, despite the many times Mrs. Garza praises Jane for raising her
hand, the target behavior does not increase because Jane thinks she is being praised for her
handwriting. Using behavior-specific praise, Mrs. Garza should have said, “Thanks for
raising your hand, Jane.”
Contingent praise should be used immediately and consistently to be effective. Providing
praise immediately emphasizes that the student is completing a task correctly or recognizing
an appropriate behavior. Using praise consistently and systematically is an important
component of positive behavior support for all students and is a key element in teaching new
behaviors (Hester et al., 2009).
Despite evidence that supports contingent praise as an effective strategy for managing student
behavior, many teachers do not use praise frequently in their classrooms (Gable et al., 2009;
Musti-Rao & Haydon, 2011). While teachers may believe that they use praise at an
appropriate rate, they generally use negative feedback or reprimands three times more often
than praise (Hester et al., 2009). Reprimands often provide immediate cessation of minor
inappropriate behaviors, while praise takes longer to modify such behaviors. However, praise
promotes positive teacher–student interactions, improves academic and nonacademic
behaviors, and creates a positive classroom environment. It has been recommended that
teachers use a ratio of praise to negative feedback of 4:1 (Kalis, Vannest, & Parker, 2007;
Trussell, 2008).
Tension Reduction
Sometimes students can become tense, frustrated, or anxious because of behavioral
expectations or learning tasks in the classroom. Physical activity is one strategy for reducing
tension. For example, in today’s high-stakes testing environment, many students may be
anxious about their performance when faced with taking standardized tests. To alleviate some
of this tension, just before administering the test the teacher could have the students stand at
their desks and then run in place for a few minutes.
A teacher might also use humor to help defuse tension in students. Research has shown that
the physiological benefits of humor include a reduction in stress, anxiety, and tension (Berk,
2008). A joke or a lighthearted comment can “act as a pressure release valve to allow the
student to laugh off something without a negative response—to ‘save face’” (Pierangelo &
Giuliani, 2008, p. 18). Humor can also be used to create a healthy learning environment, an
environment where students feel valued, emotionally safe, and free to participate in
classroom activities (Skinner, 2010). A healthy learning environment promotes appropriate
student behaviors. Of course, teachers must avoid using any kind of humor that marginalizes
individuals or groups.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases the probability that a behavior will occur in the future through
attainment or avoidance of a consequence. For example, Alejandra tries a new recipe and
serves it to her family for dinner one evening. Alejandra’s family compliments the dinner,
saying it is delicious. Alejandra relishes the compliments, and she is more likely to sustain or
increase her behavior of preparing new dishes in the future (attainment of attention). In
another example, a toddler, Keisha, is crying. Keisha’s father is annoyed by the crying, so he
gives Keisha a cookie. She stops crying. In the future, Keisha’s dad is more likely to give her
a cookie to stop her crying (avoidance of adverse interactions). In addition, Keisha’s behavior
has been reinforced. She is more likely to cry when she wants a cookie or a treat (attainment
of reward). There are two types of reinforcements that increase behavior: positive
reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated when the
behavior is followed by a preferred stimulus. For example, when a student gets a gold star on
a spelling quiz for receiving a good grade, the gold star (reinforcer) increases the probability
that he will do well on the next spelling quiz (behavior). Of course, the probability of the
behavior occurring again is contingent on whether the student perceives the gold star as a
desired consequence. Teachers need to understand the three basic tenets of positive
reinforcement. First, it is the behavior that is reinforced. Whether it is an appropriate
behavior, such as completing a math assignment, or an inappropriate behavior, such as
talking without permission, positive reinforcement strengthens the behavior. Second, the
behavior is reinforced by a desired stimulus. The stimulus should match the student’s
interests, or the reinforcement will be ineffective. For example, Johnny will receive 5 minutes
of computer time for every five questions he answers on his history worksheet. Many
students are interested in spending time on a computer, and computer time can easily be used
as a reinforcer in the classroom. Finally, the student should receive the reinforcer only if he
exhibits the behavior. For example, Johnny completes only four questions on his history
worksheet, so he does not receive 5 minutes of computer time.
A positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by adding an incentive or a stimulus. The
following are additional examples of the use of positive reinforcement in the classroom:
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For every 20 math problems he completes, Harry receives a gold star on his
worksheet. In the future he is more likely to complete more math problems.
Susan is praised for participating in a group activity. In the future she is more likely to
continue to participate in group activities.
Types of Reinforcers
In order to be effective as a reinforcer, a consequence must be contingent on the appropriate
behavior and should be administered immediately when the student displays the appropriate
behavior. There are two major types of reinforcers: primary and secondary.
Primary reinforcers are of biological importance to a person. They include food, water,
sleep, and sex. Given their importance to sustaining life, these tend to be highly motivating to
individuals. In the classroom, food and water are common and appropriate reinforcers. Also
referred to as edible reinforcers, food and water are used mainly in teaching new behaviors to
young students and students with severe disabilities. They are less appropriate for older
students, general education students, and students with mild disabilities. For example, it may
not be appropriate to offer a high school student a candy bar for finishing his biology
experiment, but a pizza party might be appropriate for a group of students who have finished
all their homework assignments for a given month.
Secondary reinforcers do not have biological importance to a person; their value is learned
or conditioned. Money is an example of a secondary reinforcer. While money as a distinct
item is not needed for survival, it is used to buy food, a primary reinforcer. Individuals learn
to value secondary reinforcers through their pairing with primary reinforcers.
Secondary reinforcers can be classified as tangible reinforcers, activity reinforcers, or social
reinforcers (Payne et al., 2005). Tangible reinforcers are preferred items presented after a
behavior occurs, resulting in an increase of the behavior. Just about any items desired by the
individual can serve as tangible reinforcers; for students, examples include stickers, books,
and small toys. Activity reinforcers are probably the types of reinforcers most often used by
teachers. These are any preferred activities presented to a student after a behavior occurs,
resulting in an increase of the behavior. Examples include activities such as computer time or
use of the arts and crafts center, and privileges such as being first in line or being hall
monitor. Praise and other forms of recognition (e.g., smiles, attention) are examples of social
reinforcers.
Negative Reinforcement
While positive reinforcement increases behavior followed by a desired stimulus, negative
reinforcement also increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated by removing an
adverse stimulus after the desired behavior has been exhibited (Skinner, 1953, 1994). As with
positive reinforcement, the behavior is being reinforced by a stimulus. However, with
negative reinforcement, there is a removal of some aversiveconsequence. Take the example
of Keisha’s crying. It is bothersome to her father, and he wants to remove this aversive
consequence, so he gives Keisha a cookie. This presentation of the consequence of a cookie
effectively removes the unpleasant stimulus, the crying. This increases the probability that
the father will give Keisha cookies to quiet her in the future. Of course, the cookie might also
serve as a positive reinforcement for Keisha’s crying behavior, and it is likely that Keisha’s
crying will be maintained or increase as the behavior is reinforced with a cookie. The
following are examples of negative reinforcement in the classroom:
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Rodrigo makes sure to complete all his work in class so that he does not have to take
it home as homework.
Xuesong is careful to finish her work because if she does not she will have to sit next
to the teacher’s desk.
Inadvertent Use of Negative Reinforcement
A teacher may use negative reinforcement unintentionally. For example, Jonathan refuses to
do a math assignment. He disrupts the class by throwing a tantrum. The teacher removes the
assignment, hoping that Jonathan will stop his behavior, which he does. The likelihood that
Jonathan will be disruptive the next time he is given a math assignment increases because the
aversive stimulus (the math assignment) was removed.
Students who see particular tasks as difficult, boring, or repetitive might engage in
inappropriate behavior in order to avoid those tasks. Teachers can ensure that this does not
happen by providing students with the necessary instruction, directions, and support during
academic tasks.
Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment. Positive reinforcement appears to
“reward” behavior, and because negative is often considered the opposite of positive,
negative reinforcement would appear to “punish” behavior (Sidman, 2006). However,
teachers must remember that both positive and negative reinforcements increase the
probability that a behavior will be repeated.
Schedule of Reinforcement
When using positive or negative reinforcements, the teacher needs to develop a schedule for
delivering the reinforcer to the student. In continuous reinforcement, each instance of the
desired behavior is reinforced. Continuous reinforcement is very effective for teaching
students new behaviors, but it usually unsustainable as a behavior management technique. It
is also not necessary. In intermittent reinforcement, only some incidents of the behavior are
reinforced (Sarafino, 2012). The reinforcements are delivered according to ratio schedules
and interval schedules.
Ratio schedules are based on numbers of correct responses. Ratio schedules can be fixed or
variable. With a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcements are delivered after certain fixed
numbers of responses. For example, for every five math problems a student completes
correctly, the student receives a gold star. On a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement, an
individual’s behavior is reinforced after an average number of instances of the target
behavior. Instead of receiving a reinforcer after every five math problems correctly solved, a
student receives a gold star after solving seven problems, then four, then eight, then six—the
number varies, but the target behavior is reinforced for an average of five occurrences.
Interval schedules are based on the passage of time since the last reinforcer was delivered.
Like ratio schedules, interval schedules are either fixed or variable. A fixed-interval schedule
delivers reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed. For example, most workers
are paid on fixed-interval schedules; that is, every 2 weeks or every month. A variableinterval schedule involves an unspecified and changing amount of time. For example, to
increase students’ in-seat behavior, a teacher might set a timer for 9 minutes, then 13, 10, and
8 minutes and reinforce in-seat behavior at the end of each of these intervals.
Extinction and Punishment
Extinction and punishment are ways to decrease unwanted or inappropriate
behaviors. Extinction reduces a target behavior by withholding the reinforcer that maintains
the behavior. In the classroom, if teacher attention is serving as the reinforcer for certain
inappropriate behaviors, such as calling out or acting as the class clown, then planned
ignoring should be applied, as discussed above.
Punishment is another facet of operant conditioning. Unlike positive and negative
reinforcements, punishment decreases the probability that a behavior will be repeated.
Similar to reinforcements, punishment can be either positive or negative. Positive
punishment decreases the probability that a behavior will be repeated when followed by an
aversive consequence. Scolds and reprimands serve as positive punishers for many people.
For example, if a student has to write 25 times “I will not talk in class” because she was
consistently talking in class, this task (punishment) should decrease the future probability of
the student talking in class (behavior).
Negative punishment decreases the probability that an inappropriate behavior will be
repeated by withdrawing a desired reinforcement after the behavior is displayed. A negative
punishment that is easy to use in the classroom is response cost, which is simply the removal
of a positive reinforcer contingent on an inappropriate behavior (Little & Akin-Little, 2008).
For example, a student really enjoys recess because he can be with his friends (a desired
reinforcement). If the student receives detention during recess because he was consistently
talking in class, the loss of recess (withdrawal of a desired behavior) decreases the future
probability of the student talking in class (behavior). Response cost is often used to increase
the effectiveness of a token economy.
Another reductive strategy is overcorrection, or the use of repetitive behavior as a
consequence for exhibiting inappropriate behavior. The two types of overcorrection are
restitutional and positive-practice. Restitutional overcorrection is the most adaptable form
of overcorrection. The student must restore and improve the environment, leaving it in a
better state than it was in before the inappropriate behavior. For example, a student caught
writing on his desk would have to clean all the desks in the classroom. With positivepractice overcorrection, the student displaying an inappropriate behavior must repeatedly
perform an appropriate behavior (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). For example, Mickey
consistently leaves his empty lunch tray at the table when he leaves the cafeteria instead of
taking it to the conveyor belt that delivers trays to be washed. As a result of this behavior,
Mickey has to pick up his tray, scrape any remaining food from the tray into the trash can,
and put the tray on the conveyor belt. Then he must take his tray back to the table and repeat
the procedure ten more times.
The effectiveness of punishment has been debated. While reinforcement increases behavior,
punishment focuses on decreasing behavior, which is more difficult to accomplish.
Punishment can also evoke negative responses, such as anger, resentment, anxiety, and fear.
Additionally, teachers may unintentionally use punishment procedures that are too severe for
the behaviors they are seeking to diminish, especially if they determine the punisher at the
time of the student’s inappropriate behavior. Finally, the effects of punishment may be only
transitory—that is, they may not have any lasting effects on behavior (Skinner, 1953).
Time-Out
Time-out is a form of negative punishment because it is the loss of opportunity to receive
positive reinforcement. Time-out is a behavior modification procedure in which the student
displaying inappropriate behaviors is removed from a reinforcing environment to an austere
environment for a specified period of time (Donaldson & Vollmer, 2011). Two conditions are
necessary for time-out to be effective: First, the student must be receiving some type of
reinforcement in the current environment; second, the student must prefer remaining in the
reinforcing environment over removal to an environment without reinforcement (Kostewicz,
2010). For example, for time-out to be effective in correcting LeVar’s behavior, LeVar must
want to remain in the classroom with his peers instead of being isolated in the time-out room.
If LeVar prefers to be in isolation instead of remaining in the classroom with his peers, timeout will have no effect on his behavior.
Teachers can use various forms of time-out, ranging from simply removing reinforcements
from the student within the classroom to removing the student from the classroom. The three
major types of time-out are inclusion time-out, exclusion time-out, and seclusion time-out.
Inclusion Time-Out
Inclusion time-out is the least restrictive form and the easiest to implement in the classroom.
The student remains in her seat and observes classroom instruction but does not have the
opportunity to participate or receive reinforcements (Ryan, Sanders, Katsiyannis, & Yell,
2007). There are three levels of inclusion time-out: removing the reinforcement, ignoring the
student, and contingent observation. Removing the reinforcement might include asking the
student to put his head on the desk or removing materials or objects from the desk. Planned
ignoring can be used as an effective means of inclusion time-out. With contingent
observation, the student moves to another location in the classroom, such as a corner or a
time-out chair. The student observes the appropriate behaviors of peers but cannot participate
or earn reinforcements.
With younger students, the use of a time-out ribbon can be an effective method of inclusion
time-out. A time-out ribbon is a ribbon, wristband, or other item that is paired with a
reinforcement that does not naturally lead to reinforcement (Kostewicz, 2010). For example,
Ana is talking in class without permission. The teacher removes the time-out ribbon for a
predetermined period of time. During this time, Ana cannot receive any type of reinforcement
until the ribbon is returned.
Exclusion Time-Out
Exclusion time-out involves removing the student from a reinforcing activity or setting for a
specified time. The student might be removed to a chair in the back of the room, a study
carrel, the hallway, or another teacher’s classroom, away from the work environment. During
such a time-out, the student is not required to observe what is going on in the classroom.
Seclusion Time-Out
Seclusion time-out, the most restrictive form of time-out, is perhaps the most familiar. The
student is removed from the classroom to a designated place, a secluded area or a time-out
room, for a specified period of time. The student receives no reinforcements while in
seclusion time-out. Seclusion time-out removes the disruptive student from the classroom and
allows learning to continue for other students. Seclusion time-out is often used with students
who are verbally or physically aggressive or who are destroying property. The time-out area
should be well ventilated, well lighted, and quiet.
Duration of Time-Out
A common misapplication of time-out is exceeding the amount of time needed to reduce the
inappropriate behavior by the student. A student should be in time-out for a specified period
of time. The amount of time a student serves in time-out is dependent on whether it is a fixedduration time-out or a release-contingency time-out. For a fixed-duration time-out, the
amount of time should equal 1 minute for each year of the student’s age. For example, 14year-old LeVar’s time-out should not exceed 14 minutes. In most instances, time-out should
not exceed 12 to 15 minutes. Thus, 17-year-old Clayton’s time-out would not be 17 minutes;
rather, it should be restricted to the maximum of 15 minutes.
Release-contingency time-out can take different forms, including time-out in which the
duration may be reset and interval-based time-out. For resetting time-out duration, release
from time-out is contingent on the student’s not exhibiting any inappropriate behaviors for
the duration of the time-out. If the student displays inappropriate behaviors, the time-out
duration is reset; this continues until no inappropriate behaviors are displayed (Donaldson &
Vollmer, 2011). For example, LeVar can be released from time-out if he does not display any
inappropriate behaviors for 5 minutes. If he displays any inappropriate behaviors, the time
starts over, and he must again display no inappropriate behaviors for 5 minutes.
With interval-based time-out, the student must not display any inappropriate behaviors at the
end of the time-out (Donaldson & Vollmer, 2011). For example, if LeVar does not display
any inappropriate behaviors for 1 minute at the end of a 10-minute time-out, he can return to
class. However, if LeVar displays inappropriate behaviors during the last minute of a 10minute time-out, his time-out is extended until he has 1 minute of appropriate behavior.
Contingency Contracts
A contingency contract is a formal, written agreement between the student and teacher that
addresses the behavioral, academic, and social goals of the student and the reinforcers the
student is to receive after achieving these goals. Contingency contracts are based on the
Premack principle of reinforcement, which states that more probable behaviors will reinforce
less probable behaviors. “First you eat your supper” (low-probability behavior) “and then you
can have dessert” (high-probability behavior) is a common example of the Premack principle.
The high-probability behavior is used to reinforce the low-probability behavior (Premack,
1965). For example, Jane will complete her math assignment (low-probability behavior), and
then she can go out to recess (high-probability behavior).
Contingency contracts are fairly easy to develop and implement, and they have been found to
be effective in reducing a variety of inappropriate behaviors (Mruzek, Cohen, & Smith, 2007;
Navarro, Aguilar, Aguilar, Alcalde, & Marchena, 2007). The student should be actively
involved in the development of the contingency contract, as this gives her ownership of her
behavior. In developing a contingency contract, the teacher should take the following steps:
1. Define the target behavior in observable and measurable terms.
2. With the student, determine the reinforcer or reward that the student will earn after
completing the contract.
3. Set the criteria for contract completion (the frequency of the behavior and the degree
to which it is exhibited).
4. Write the contingency contract in age-appropriate language, and have all participants
sign it.
5. Reinforce the behavior immediately upon completion of the contract.
6. Review the contingency contract on a regular basis.
For example, Jane talks in class without raising her hand seven times in a 45-minute math
class. Jane and her teacher, Mrs. Cox, negotiate a contingency contract designed to reduce the
number of times Jane talks in class without raising her hand. They determine that Jane’s goal
should be to raise her hand and wait to be called on five times in a 45-minute math class. If
Jane achieves this goal, she will receive 5 minutes of computer time at the end of the class.
Mrs. Cox and Jane will review the contract every Friday to determine Jane’s progress toward
her goal (see Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1 Contingency Contract for Jane
The use of contingency contracts has several advantages. One is that the student’s active
participation in the development of the contract facilitates communication between the
student and the teacher. In some instances, this results in improved relations between student
and teacher (Mruzek et al., 2007). Students who have positive relationships with teachers
have fewer behavior problems and better academic achievement (Holt, Hargrove, & Harris,
2011; Murray & Greenberg, 2006). Contingency contracts also take a minimal amount of
time to develop and implement in the classroom setting—definitely an advantage for teachers
who already have many responsibilities. Finally, contingency contracts have been found to be
effective in reducing inappropriate behaviors and increasing appropriate behaviors (Garrick
Duhaney, 2003; Walker, Ramsey, & Gresham, 2004).
Token Economy
A token economy is a contingency management system that allows students to earn tokens
that can be exchanged for predetermined reinforcers (Kazdin, 1977). The tokens, which are
also secondary reinforcers, can be any inexpensive items, such as play money, stickers,
points, or checkmarks. They acquire symbolic value similar to money, and students can use
them to purchase items or activities within the classroom. Because token economy programs
are flexible and easy to implement, they have been widely used in classrooms to improve
academic and social skills, attention, and appropriate behaviors (Maggin, Chafouleas,
Goddard, & Johnson, 2011).
To implement a token economy program in the classroom, the teacher needs to take six steps:
1. Identify the target behavior or rules to be reinforced.
2. Identify the tokens that will be used for reinforcement.
3. With student input, develop a menu of reinforcers to reward appropriate behaviors
(e.g., candy bars, pencils, computer time).
4. Create an explicit protocol for the exchange of tokens for reinforcers (the prices or
numbers of tokens needed to purchase reinforcers, how and when purchases are to be
made).
5. Design a system for monitoring tokens earned and spent.
6. Develop procedures for fading the use of the token economy program.
For example, every time Kristen finishes her math assignment in class, she earns $100 in play
money. She also earns $50 for every time she raises her hand to ask a question. During math
class, Kristen has earned $200. At the end of the day, Kristen exchanges $150 for a candy
bar. The remaining $50 will carry over to the next day.
It should be noted that providing reinforcers for token economy programs can be problematic
for teachers. School districts seldom provide funding for reinforcers, so many teachers
purchase reinforcers from their own personal funds. Fortunately, some popular reinforcers are
very inexpensive or even free (e.g., preferred activities and privileges).
Teachers also need to consider the impact of culture when developing token economy
programs as part of behavior and classroom management. For example, some Hispanic
parents find withdrawal strategies (e.g., response cost, time-out) to be more acceptable than
reward techniques such as token economy programs (Borrego, Ibanez, Spendlove, &
Pemberton, 2007). Teachers need to inform the parents of their culturally and linguistically
diverse students of the purposes of behavior and classroom management strategies and work
with them in developing plans that will be effective in modifying student behaviors.
While many educational professionals believe that token economy systems have been
successful in reducing inappropriate behavior and improving academic performance, some
studies indicate that there is insufficient empirical support for token economy systems as an
evidence-based practice. To create successful token economy programs, teachers must be
careful to develop explicit procedures (Maggin et al., 2011).
Cultural Impact on Behavior Strategies
Culture can influence the effectiveness of basic behavior management strategies, and teachers
need to be culturally responsive in their choices of strategies. For example, many teachers use
eye contact to reduce behavior difficulties (Kodak, Northup, & Kelley, 2007), but, as noted
previously, some cultures perceive eye contact between student and teacher as disrespectful.
In other cases, a teacher’s staring at a student could be considered threatening. Teachers
should remember that it is important to keep eye contact with students brief (Allday, 2011).
When asking students questions, many teachers generally wait 3 to 5 seconds for a response,
which is a typical response time for most European American students. However, the typical
response time of many Native Americans is 6 to 10 seconds. Native Americans value
reflection, which is consistent with their global perspective for processing information. When
asked questions, Native Americans think about responses that are compatible with their
culture. Native Americans also may not respond to questions. They are comfortable with
silence, since it serves many purposes. For example, in most American classrooms, students
are expected to display their knowledge and skills openly to the teacher and their peers. They
are also expected to be proud of their accomplishments. However, Native Americans value
humility and the accomplishment of the group. The typical expectations of the classroom are
in conflict with Native Americans’ culture and may create an environment of shame for
Native American students. A teacher might assume that a Native American student does not
know the answer to a question, is noncompliant, or just does not care because the student
takes too long to answer the question or does not answer the question at all (Hammond,
Dupoux, & Ingalls, 2004). The teacher may then use a verbal or nonverbal behavior strategy
to correct a behavior that does not need correcting.
Some African American students may prefer a more active engagement in classrooms, and so
may call out comments during classroom discussion (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, &
Curran, 2004). Many teachers would consider this behavior disrespectful and rude, and they
may try using planned ignoring, proximity control, redirection, or other behavior strategies.
Diversity requires that teachers take different approaches to behavior and classroom
management. Teachers should not interpret the behavior of culturally and linguistically
diverse students based on their own experiences and values. They should nurture behaviors
that encourage and promote academic learning. Classrooms should be dynamic environments
in which ideas and opinions are encouraged in a respectful manner. Classrooms do not
necessarily have to be silent for learning to take place, and a noisy classroom does not
necessarily mean that the teacher does not have an effective classroom management plan in
place.
What Would You Do? Antonio
Antonio is an African American student in your U.S. history class. His grades in class are usually above
average, but he consistently talks without permission. While you are teaching a lesson on George Washington’s
role in the American Revolution, Antonio keeps interjecting comments on the subject without raising his hand.
The comments are generally appropriate, and there appears to be no malicious intent on Antonio’s part, but he is
continuing to violate the posted classroom rule of raising your hand for permission to speak. What would you do
about Antonio’s behavior?
Summary
The most basic classroom management strategy is to ensure that students know what
behaviors are expected of them. The teacher can accomplish this through the establishment of
rules. The planning and delivery of engaging and relevant instruction is also paramount to the
basic classroom management plan. Teachers can implement several different nonverbal and
verbal strategies to support students, including planned ignoring, proximity control, signal
interference, redirection, and tension reduction.
The field of applied behavior analysis provides teachers with additional strategies for
supporting and correcting student behavior. These include contingency contracting and token
economy programs, which utilize several behavioral principles, most notably reinforcement.
Teachers also need to understand the impact of culture on basic behavior management
strategies. Some strategies may be ineffective with linguistically diverse students because of
their values and experiences. Teachers need to understand their students’ cultures and
develop or modify the behavior strategies used so that they are effective for all students in
their classrooms.
Review Activities
1. Briefly describe the different verbal and nonverbal intervention strategies. Explain
which you are more likely to use in your classroom and why.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of inclusion time-out, exclusion timeout, and seclusion time-out.
3. Timothy is a third grader in your class who has a difficult time remaining in his
seat. It is possible that he has undiagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,
but his parents refuse to have him evaluated. However, you have noticed that he
enjoys reading the Stink book series. Develop a contingency contract for Timothy.
Visit the Student Study Site at www.sagepub.com/shepherd to access additional study tools including mobilefriendly eFlashcards and web quizzes as well as links to SAGE journal articles and web resources.
Chapter 10 Behavior Intervention Plan Trinity of
Behavior Management
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Identify the eight components of a behavior intervention plan.
• Understand the importance of having culturally proficient members
on the behavior
intervention team.
• Explain the difference between behavior goals and behavior objectives.
• Write behavior goals and behavior objectives.
• Understand the barriers that prevent teachers from developing and implementing
effective behavior intervention plans.
Components of a Behavior Intervention Plan
The final step in modifying student behavior is the development and implementation of a
behavior intervention plan, a written plan that describes the interventions, strategies, and
supports that will be implemented to address the social, emotional, and behavioral needs of a
student. The purpose of a BIP is to implement strategies that will reduce or eliminate the
target behavior. As part of a universal design for classroom management, a behavior
intervention plan should (a) be developed for any student whose behavior is interfering with
the student’s learning or the learning of other students in the classroom; (b) be based on the
data obtained from the functional behavioral assessment; (c) include a behavioral hypothesis
developed from the functional behavior analysis; (d) be individualized and based on the
student’s social, emotional, and behavioral needs; (e) include positive behavioral strategies;
and (f) be implemented and monitored.
Behavior intervention plans contain many of the same steps as functional behavioral
assessments and functional behavior analysis, and are a logical extension of the two
assessment procedures (Shippen, Simpson, & Crites, 2003; see Table 10.1). While there are
no federal guidelines or standardized procedures for developing and implementing BIPs, nine
components of such plans have been identified that correspond to the trinity of behavior
management:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Definition of target behavior
Attempted interventions
Summary of functional behavioral assessment
Behavioral hypothesis
Alternative behavior 1
Intervention strategies (alternative behavior 1)
Alternative behavior 2
Intervention strategies (alternative behavior 2)
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the plan (Curtiss, Mathur, & Rutherford, 2002)
The best practice for developing and implementing a behavior intervention plan is a teambased approach. Such an approach has many advantages. For instance, the members of a
behavior intervention team can share the work, consider multiple perspectives, and generate a
variety of suggestions. The involvement of a number of individuals increases the likelihood
that an appropriate and effective BIP will be developed.
The composition of the behavior intervention team is important. The team should include
general education teachers and other professionals who are familiar with the student, special
education teachers who are familiar with developing and implementing behavior intervention
plans, administrators, school counselors, and parents. Additionally, the team plays a critical
role in determining the impact that culture may have on a student’s behavior. The team needs
to be culturally proficient, which means that the members must understand the differences
between their own values and the cultural values of students, parents, and the community
(Nuri-Robins, Lindsey, Terrell, & Lindsey, 2007). The inclusion of culturally sensitive
professionals enables the team to understand the cultural, experiential, and linguistic
background of the student. If a behavior intervention team is composed primarily of
European Americans who are not culturally proficient and they are developing a BIP for an
African American student, it is unlikely that the plan will be effective in modifying the target
behavior, especially if the student’s culture affects the behavior. In such a case, the behavior
intervention team should be expanded to include community professionals who are sensitive
to the student’s culture.
The members of the behavior intervention team have a number of responsibilities. They need
to evaluate the target behavior, collect and analyze data on the behavior, develop a behavioral
hypothesis and alternative behaviors, design intervention strategies, and implement and
evaluate the effectiveness of the behavior intervention plan (Maag & Katsiyannis, 2006). The
team should use the information obtained from the functional behavioral assessment and
functional behavior analysis to develop intervention strategies that will modify the target
behavior. The behavior intervention plan should be developed to meet the individual behavior
needs of the student and should include positive behavior strategies (Etscheidt, 2006).
Unfortunately, many schools use BIPs as a reactive strategy to deal with problem behaviors
or as a perfunctory requirement of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act (Killu, Weber, Derby, & Barretto, 2006). Additionally, BIPs are often implemented for
students receiving special education services, but seldom for students in general education
programs, despite the fact that well-developed intervention plans have been found to improve
learner outcomes and ameliorate the behavior problems of all kinds of students. Behavior
intervention plans constitute an essential aspect of a universal design for classroom
management, and they should be an integral part of a school-wide positive behavior support
system.
Behavior intervention plans are a logical extension of functional behavioral assessments and
functional behavior analysis (see Table 10.2). As a result, many of the components of a BIP
are completed prior to the development and implementation of the plan. Unfortunately, many
of the BIPs currently being used do not incorporate data collected during functional
behavioral assessments and functional behavior analyses, and a large majority use adverse
consequences for inappropriate behaviors, a strategy that is unlikely to be effective in
modifying the behaviors (Van Acker, Boreson, Gable, & Potterton, 2005). A well-developed
BIP incorporates the information obtained from the functional behavioral assessment and the
functional behavior analysis.
Implementation of a Behavior Intervention Plan
The development and implementation of a behavior intervention plan involves a number of
steps (see Figure 10.1). The fidelity of the plan’s implementation is essential to the plan’s
integrity (Killu, 2008). The steps are all woven together to create a tapestry of information
that creates an effective BIP. If one step is not done well, the strength of the plan is
diminished. The individuals involved in the development and implementation of a behavior
intervention plan must ensure that each step leads to an effective plan.
Target Behavior
The first task in developing a behavior intervention plan is that of defining the target
behavior. It cannot be overemphasized that defining the target behavior is the most important
step. Without a clearly defined target behavior, it is difficult to collect the data necessary to
develop and implement appropriate interventions to address the behavior (Van Acker et al.,
2005). The operational definition should describe the target behavior as observable,
measurable, and repeatable. For example, Jane’s target behavior is “During class discussions,
Jane will receive permission from the teacher by raising her hand when she needs to talk 9
out of 10 times in five consecutive sessions on a daily basis.” The behavior is observable,
measurable, and repeatable.
Figure 10.1 Behavior Intervention Plan
The target behavior is initially defined during the functional behavioral assessment; however,
many functional behavioral assessments do not adequately define target behaviors. To ensure
that the target behavior is well defined, the operational definition of the target behavior
should be reviewed and refined during the functional behavior analysis and the actual
development of the behavior intervention plan.
It is also important to remember that students’ cultures may affect their behaviors, and
culturally and linguistically diverse students may not respond to situations or events in
anticipated ways. Teachers’ perceptions of students whose cultural and linguistic
backgrounds are different from their own are often based on misperceptions and stereotypes
(Cartledge, Gardner, & Ford, 2009). While a student’s behavior may seem atypical to the
teacher, the behavior may be the norm for someone with the student’s cultural expectations.
When defining a student’s target behavior, the teacher needs to consider whether the behavior
may be influenced by the student’s culture. By taking the time to learn about the students in
their classrooms and establish positive relationships with students’ families, teachers improve
their ability to determine the nature of their students’ behavior difficulties.
Attempted Interventions
It is important that any previously attempted interventions be noted on the BIP, along with
information on the effectiveness of those interventions. This provides all behavior
intervention team members with information regarding any ineffective interventions
attempted and helps them develop different interventions that may be more effective. For
example, on Jane’s BIP, it was noted that a previous intervention, writing sentences every
time she talked without raising her hand, was not effective.
This step is also aligned with a positive behavior support program, which establishes three
tiers of support with increasing levels of intensity. The summary of attempted interventions
could list strategies that were attempted at the secondary and third tiers of a positive behavior
support program. This step could also indicate that previous interventions were not attempted
or that a student was immediately placed at the third tier, which provides the student with
intensive interventions that might not have been necessary. For example, instead of
attempting intervention strategies at Tier 2 for Jane’s target behavior of talking without
permission, the teacher referred Jane for assistance at Tier 3, which includes the development
and implementation of a behavior intervention plan. It is possible that Tier 2 interventions
could have been successful at ameliorating Jane’s behavior, and the development and
implementation of a behavior intervention plan was not necessary.
Summary of the Functional Behavioral Assessment
The summary of the functional behavioral assessment further describes the target behavior.
The description of the behavior should include its frequency, intensity, duration, and/or
latency. The information regarding the setting, antecedents, and consequences associated
with the target behavior obtained from anecdotal observations, or the ABC analysis, should
also be reported on the behavior intervention plan. Baseline data and any intervention data
should be included in the summary. These descriptions of the target behavior could also help
explain the reasons for the behavior. For example, on Jane’s BIP, it was noted that, according
to data collected using an event-based recording method, Jane had an average rate of
behavior per minute of 0.29. An interval-based recording method indicated that the total rate
of behavior was 35%.
The behavior intervention plan should also report any possible cultural impact on the
student’s behavior. The BIP should include culturally appropriate behavior management
strategies and should note any strategies that may be in conflict with the cultural background
of the student. Culturally diverse students may challenge behavior and classroom
management strategies that dismiss their cultures, values, and beliefs. Culturally responsive
behavior strategies provide a learning environment in which culturally diverse students can
be successful in school.
Behavioral Hypothesis
A functional behavior analysis completes the process started by the functional behavioral
assessment through the development of a behavioral hypothesis. Using data collected on the
student’s target behavior, the behavior intervention team determines if the function of the
behavior is attainment or avoidance/escape of a situation (see Chapter 9). For example, Jane’s
behavior intervention team has identified attainment as the function for Jane talking without
permission. The functional motivation for Jane’s behavior was seeking the teacher’s
attention. Identifying the function of the behavior is an important step in developing
alternative behaviors. Unfortunately, many of the behavior intervention plans currently in use
do not indicate behavioral hypotheses, and if they do, the alternative behaviors the plans
suggest are not based on the behavioral hypotheses. In many instances, alternative behaviors
are developed without any understanding of the causes of the target behaviors, which creates
an arbitrary approach toward modifying student behavior.
Alternative Behaviors
Once the behavior intervention team has arrived at a behavioral hypothesis based on the
functional behavior analysis, the team develops alternative behaviors. Alternative behaviors
should serve the same function as the target behavior and should be defined in a specific
manner “that focus[es] on what to do, when to do it, when it will not be appropriate, and
why” (Scott, Anderson, & Spaulding, 2008, p. 45). For example, Jane’s target behavior
was talking without permission. The team has identified the function of Jane’s behavior as
attainment; thus, the function of the alternative behavior should also be attainment. The team
has identified raising her hand for permission to talk as Jane’s alternative behavior. Once the
function of the target behavior has been identified, the team can develop alternative behaviors
using environmental modifications, instructional strategies, consequence interventions, and
future alternative/replacement behavior strategies (see Chapter 8). For example, Jane’s
behavior intervention team used consequence interventions to develop an alternative
behavior. When Jane raises her hand for permission to talk, she will eat lunch with the
teacher. The function of the alternative behavior is the same as the function of the target
behavior.
The Intervention Plan
The intervention plan for alternative behaviors should include specific information on the
intervention strategy to be used, the person designated to implement the strategy, and the
method that will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy. The choice of an
intervention strategy often depends on the function of the target behavior. As described
previously, possible functions of a behavior are attainment and avoidance/escape of a
situation. Intervention strategies for avoidance of an activity might include some type of
reinforcement or manipulation of the antecedent variables. Strategies for attention seeking
might include some type of reinforcement or development of new behavior through imitation.
Reinforcement of the target behavior might include some type of reinforcement, modification
of antecedent variables, or development of new behaviors through shaping or chaining.
Finally, since behaviors sometimes do not fit neatly into prescribed parameters, some target
behaviors have other functions that can be difficult to identify. In such cases, teachers need to
be creative in developing and implementing intervention strategies.
When developing intervention strategies, the behavior intervention team must clearly outline
the interventions to be implemented. For example, the behavior intervention plan should state
if the teacher should modify lessons and how they should be modified, or it should state
exactly what the teacher should do, such as provide more verbal praise (Killu, 2008). As with
defining the target behavior, intervention strategies that are vague are most likely to be
ineffective.
The behavior intervention team should also take note of any previously attempted
interventions and the effectiveness of those interventions. This information, particularly
regarding ineffective interventions attempted, should help the team develop new
interventions that may be effective. Unfortunately, teams often implement strategies that have
already been found to be ineffective, and they often develop intervention plans that are not
based on the functions of students’ target behaviors. Many BIPs also include adverse
consequences for target behaviors, a strategy that has been found to be unlikely to be
effective in modifying the behaviors (Van Acker et al., 2005). Behavior intervention
strategies should be chosen based on their likelihood of effectively modifying the target
behavior.
The BIP should designate the person responsible for implementing the strategy. The
designated person is usually the general education teacher or the special education teacher,
but, depending on the strategy implemented, this individual could also be the school
counselor or even an administrator. Additionally, two or more persons could share the
responsibility of implementing the intervention strategy.
Finally, the intervention plan should specify the method that will be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the strategy. The behavior intervention team could decide to use anecdotal
observation (ABC analysis), various recording methods, or single-subject designs. For
example, Jane’s team determined that a reversal design, or ABAB design, would be the most
appropriate method for evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention strategy developed for
Jane.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of BIPs
Once implemented, the BIP needs to be evaluated for effectiveness on a continuous basis
(Etscheidt, 2006; Maag & Katsiyannis, 2006). The behavior intervention team is responsible
for monitoring the student’s behavior, determining whether the plan is modifying the target
behavior, and deciding whether the plan needs to be revised. Unfortunately, many teams fail
to monitor the effectiveness of behavior intervention plans and the maintenance of the
students’ behavior over time (Van Acker et al., 2005).
The effectiveness of a behavior intervention plan can be monitored through the use of direct
observations (anecdotal observations), behavioral assessments, recording methods, and
single-subject designs. For example, Jane’s behavior intervention team decided to use an
event-based recording method and an AB single-subject design to evaluate the effectiveness
of the intervention. The information obtained from the evaluation of the BIP provides
members of the behavior intervention team the tools they need to work through any problems
involved with the implementation of the plan (Codding, Feinberg, Dunn, & Pace, 2005;
Hagermoser Sanetti, Luiselli, & Handler, 2007). If the team determines that the target
behavior has not been reduced or eliminated—or, as happens in some instances, has been
exacerbated—new alternative behaviors and intervention strategies need to be developed and
implemented. The use of controlled procedures is essential for effective behavior intervention
plans (Killu et al., 2006).
In addition to evaluating the effectiveness of the behavior intervention plan, the members of
the behavior intervention team need to evaluate their own performance in the implementation
of the plan. Evaluating the effectiveness of the BIP ensures treatment integrity, or the degree
to which the BIP is implemented (Killu, 2008). One way to maintain treatment integrity is for
the behavior intervention team to meet on a regular basis to evaluate the effectiveness of the
plan. Arranging a regularly scheduled time for the team to meet is essential given teachers’
numerous responsibilities and the unpredictable schedules of other team members. Members
of the team need to give and receive verbal and graphic feedback about their level of
treatment integrity, which may include the numbers of observations team members make
during the intervention period and whether all components of the plan are implemented in a
consistent manner. Evaluation of treatment integrity is critical for the effectiveness of
behavior intervention plans (Hagermoser Sanetti et al., 2007). Treatment integrity is
consistent with reflective practices that teachers should use to evaluate behavior and
classroom management plans and a universal design for classroom management.
Developing Behavior Goals
Without well-written behavior goals and objectives, behavior intervention plans will not be
effective. However, writing clear and useful behavior goals and objectives remains an elusive
skill for many teachers, despite the training they receive at universities and colleges. As with
all skills, learning to write effective behavior goals and objectives takes practice. A behavior
goal is a broad statement about a student outcome within a specific period of time, generally
from 3 months to a year, depending on the behavior needs of the student. For example, Jane’s
behavior goal is “Jane will participate appropriately in class discussions.” Behavior
objectives are created from behavior goals and are based on behaviors that can be completed
in 1 to 3 months.
Behavior objectives are specific statements about student performance that include the
condition, the target behavior, and the criterion of the performance (Lignugaris/Kraft,
Marchand-Martella, & Martella, 2001). The condition is the circumstance in which the target
behavior is observed or will be observed. For Jane’s target behavior, talking without
permission, the condition might be “During class discussions . . .”
The target behavior for the behavior objective is usually the alternative behavior. The
behavior must be clearly defined, observable, and measurable. The behavior should also
indicate what the student is expected to do. For example, Jane’s behavior is “Jane will receive
permission from the teacher by raising her hand when she needs to talk.”
Finally, the behavior objective should include the criterion, or the standard level of
acceptable performance. The criterion should include the performance level, the number of
times the student demonstrates the behavior, and the evaluation schedule (Lignugaris/Kraft et
al., 2001). The criterion level is the level the student must achieve to demonstrate mastery.
For example, Jane will raise her hand when she needs to talk “90% of the time” or “9 out of
10 times.” The number of times Jane demonstrates the behavior is how often she
demonstrates the criterion level before she has met the behavior objective. For example, Jane
will raise her hand when she needs to talk 9 out of 10 times in “five consecutive sessions.”
Finally, the evaluation schedule is how often the teacher is going to evaluate the behavior
objective. In this case, the teacher will evaluate Jane’s behavior objective on a daily basis.
Thus, Jane’s behavior goal is stated as follows:
Jane will participate appropriately in class discussions.
And the behavior objective based on this goal is stated this way:
During class discussions, Jane will receive permission from the teacher by raising her hand
when she needs to talk 9 out of 10 times in five consecutive sessions on a daily basis.
Jane’s behavior objective contains the condition, a clearly defined target behavior, and the
criterion.
Figure 10.2 Anatomy of a Behavior Objective
In another example, Timothy has been fighting with peers after school. This is Timothy’s
behavior goal:
Timothy will demonstrate appropriate behavior on the school grounds after school.
The behavior goal is used to develop Timothy’s behavior objective, which is stated as
follows:
When interacting with peers after school, Timothy will refrain from fighting with peers 9 out
of 10 times in 1 month.
Timothy’s behavior objective contains the condition, the target behavior, and the criterion. It
is important to remember that in conjunction with behavior goals and objectives, intervention
strategies and consequences are also included in the behavior intervention plan. In the event
that Timothy does fight with peers after school, he will be subject to some type of
reinforcement or consequence because of his behavior. As discussed previously,
reinforcements or consequences should be natural outcomes of the behavior and implemented
as soon as possible after the behavior has been displayed.
It is important to remember that a well-written—that is, clear and concise—behavior
objective is based on the behavior goal and includes the condition, the target behavior, and
the criterion. Problems usually occur when a behavior objective is missing one or more of the
components necessary to enable all members of the behavior intervention team to understand
the student and the student’s target behavior. For example, “Morgan will respect the rights of
others” is a poorly written behavior objective. It does not contain the condition or a criterion.
Additionally, the target behavior is not clearly defined, observable, and measurable. The
objective does not state what Morgan will do. A better objective would be as follows:
Figure 10.3 Jane’s Behavior Intervention Plan
When moving from one workstation to another, Morgan will refrain from taking items from
other students’ desks four out of five times per week on a daily basis.
The revised behavior objective includes the condition, the target behavior, and the criterion.
Notice that the behavior objective does not require the student to admit guilt; rather, it
focuses on the behavior.
The intervention should be directly related to the target behavior. A number of interventions
are available for Morgan. The teacher could reinforce Morgan when he demonstrates
appropriate behavior by giving him tangible rewards (e.g., free time, first in line for lunch) or
intangible rewards (e.g., praise, pat on the back), remove him from workstations, create a
behavior contract with him, provide him with social skills training, and so on.
The writing of behavior goals and behavior objectives and the development and
implementation of behavior intervention plans together constitute one piece of the puzzle that
creates a universal design for classroom management. Teachers who put all the pieces
together will have highly effective behavior and classroom management programs that
consider the needs of all students in their classrooms.
Case Study
Timothy and Mrs. Miller (Part 3)
In Mrs. Miller’s fourth-grade class, Timothy had been taking pencils, erasers, glue, and other objects from other
students. An earlier intervention strategy had been ineffective, and Timothy’s relationships with his peers had
deteriorated. Based on behavioral observations, Mrs. Miller had concluded that Timothy was trying to get
attention from his peers.
The behavioral hypothesis for Timothy’s behavior was as follows:
When the teacher is not looking / Timothy takes items from peers / to gain peers’ attention.
(the antecedent)
(the behavior)
(the consequence)
Based on the behavioral hypothesis, the following target behavior was developed for Timothy:
When the teacher is not looking, Timothy will refrain from taking items from peers 95% of the time on a daily
basis.
This target behavior was observable, measurable, and repeatable.
With the help of a behavior intervention team that included Timothy’s mother, a behavior intervention plan was
developed. Since attention from peers was the functional motivation, it was determined that Timothy would
have time with peers at the end of the day at one of the activity tables. Activities would include putting together
puzzles, playing board games, and playing card games. Taking part in these activities would also help Timothy
develop social skills.
Behavior Intervention Plan
A couple of weeks after Timothy’s behavior intervention plan was implemented, Ms. Keller, the
paraprofessional in Mrs. Miller’s classroom, did a behavioral observation of Timothy using an event-based
recording method, as shown in the following table:
Based on the information obtained from the observation of Timothy’s behavior, it appeared that the behavior
intervention plan was effective.
Implications of Behavior Intervention Plans
The implementation of functional behavioral assessments and behavior intervention plans is
mandated for any student receiving special education services when the school is considering
a change of placement due to the student’s behavior. However, this is a reactive strategy that
applies only to students with disabilities and almost exclusively involves students with
emotional and behavior disorders. As part of a universal design for classroom management
and positive behavior supports, schools should use behavior intervention plans as an active
strategy for all students displaying behavior difficulties. Developing and implementing a
behavior intervention plan when a student begins displaying challenging behaviors is often
effective in reducing and eliminating the behaviors. Additionally, early interventions that
include alternative behaviors are more effective if implemented when the challenging
behaviors are first presented (Moreno, 2010).
However, a number of barriers have hindered the development and implementation of
behavior intervention plans in schools. One of these barriers stems from the perceptions that
many education professionals have of behavior and classroom management. Many teachers
and administrators still follow the traditional hierarchy of rules and consequences as the main
emphasis of their behavior and classroom management plans. These types of plans do not
meet the behavior needs of all students in the classroom. Additionally, many behavior and
classroom management plans tend to be punishment based, including punitive measures such
as suspension, expulsion, and zero-tolerance policies (Couvillon, Bullock, & Gable, 2009).
Schools need to adopt a universal design for classroom management that incorporates a
number of strategies designed to meet the behavior needs of all students. Teachers,
administrators, and other education professionals need to embrace proactive, active, and
reactive strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom.
Another barrier is the lack of training most teachers receive in developing and implementing
behavior intervention plans in the general education setting. Few general education teachers
have had any training in the development of BIPs, and, as a result, many do not have
sufficient knowledge about the collection and interpretation of behavioral data, nor do they
understand teachers’ responsibilities regarding the development and implementation of BIPs.
Many general education teachers do not know how to write an operational definition of a
target behavior, which is an essential element of an effective behavior intervention plan (Van
Acker et al., 2005). Without an understanding of the function of a student’s inappropriate
behavior, it is difficult to maintain the integrity of a behavior intervention plan for the
student.
When the members of a behavior intervention team do not have training in the development
and implementation of behavior intervention plans, they often ignore the results of the
student’s functional behavioral assessment and functional behavior analysis when developing
intervention strategies. Often, they will use intervention strategies that have already proved
unsuccessful, and frequently BIPs developed by untrained teams include strategies that are
ineffective in modifying inappropriate behaviors or may even exacerbate them.
In addition to a lack of training, many teachers do not have the time to conduct functional
behavioral assessments and functional behavior analysis, followed by the development of
behavior intervention plans. The increasing demands placed on teachers by administrators,
parents, and state and federal legislation prevent teachers from having the time necessary to
implement assessment procedures and develop BIPs (Killu et al., 2006). Increased emphasis
on academic accountability and preparing students for state-mandated examinations means
that planning for behavior and classroom management is often a low priority. However,
unless teachers can implement effective behavior and classroom management plans that
include behavior intervention plans for students with challenging behaviors, many students
will not make academic progress. Teachers need to be given the time, training, practice, and
support they need to develop and implement effective behavior intervention plans.
Impact of Culture on BIPs
When teachers are developing behavior intervention plans for students with problematic
behaviors, it is important that they understand how culture affects behavior. If a teacher fails
to consider the cultural and linguistic background of a student, the behavior intervention plan
is likely to be ineffective in modifying the student’s behavior. For example, when talking to a
student who is a Native American, the teacher might consider the child rude and disrespectful
because the student will not look at her. This becomes a target behavior, and a functional
behavioral assessment and functional behavior analysis are conducted. The function of the
behavior is identified, and alternative behaviors are determined. Finally, a behavior
intervention plan is developed and implemented to modify the inappropriate behavior.
However, if the teacher had used culturally responsive practices in behavior and classroom
management and had taken the time to understand the cultural backgrounds of the students in
her classroom, she would have understood that in some Native American cultures it is
considered disrespectful for a child to make eye contact with an adult. The student’s behavior
was not inappropriate, and the process leading to the behavior intervention plan did not need
to be initiated. Teachers need to be aware that their reactions to some behaviors of culturally
and linguistically diverse students are often based on misperceptions (Cartledge et al., 2009).
Unfortunately, while researchers and educators agree that understanding how culture may
affect behavior is crucial in today’s diverse schools, few culturally sensitive strategies are
available for collecting data leading to the development of a behavior intervention plan. First,
teachers should not make assumptions about cultures they do not understand. Teachers
should also remember that there are considerable variations within cultural typologies. For
example, the culture and traditions of Hispanics in south Texas are different from the culture
and traditions of Hispanics in Florida. Second, the behavior intervention team should make
an effort to obtain information from the families of culturally and linguistically diverse
students by using culturally sensitive data collection strategies such as the following:
1. Learn about the families’ cultural perspectives and language backgrounds prior to
collecting data.
2. Involve family members in planning the data collection.
3. Adapt the procedures for collecting data based on the families’ interaction styles.
4. Examine the appropriateness of the items on the assessment.
When involving students’ families in the data collection process leading to the development
and implementation of behavior intervention plans, teachers need to demonstrate respect
toward the families and use culturally responsive strategies, such as listening to family
members’ responses and considering alternatives based on those responses.
What Would You Do? Jake
Jake is a seventh grader at Washington Middle School. He comes from a single-parent setting. Jake’s mother
and father are divorced. Before they separated, the father was extremely abusive toward Jake, his sister, and his
mother. Jake has reported to Child Protective Services that his father slammed him against a wall several times.
One incident was so severe that Jake was taken to the hospital with a concussion. The father also perpetrated
incidents of severe emotional abuse. As a result of the abuse, the father is not allowed any contact with the
family. Jake’s mother works two jobs, barely making enough money to meet the family’s financial needs, and is
seldom home when Jake and his sister are home.
Jake has no history of truancy; however, he has been suspended from school many times for aggressive
behavior. These incidents have all taken place within the first hour of the school day. For example, he has
threatened to “beat up” peers, he has taken a full trash can and dumped it on the teacher’s desk, and last week,
he activated the fire alarm. As a result, he is seldom in school for more than a single day each week.
Jake has not been identified as having a disability, and he is not receiving special education services.
Additionally, the traditional hierarchy of rules and consequences has been ineffective in modifying Jake’s
behavior.
If you were Jake’s teacher, what would you do about his behavior?
Summary
The purpose of the behavior intervention plan is to use the information obtained through
functional behavioral assessment and functional behavior analysis in the development and
implementation of strategies that will reduce or eliminate a student’s inappropriate behavior.
A BIP should be an individualized plan that includes positive behavioral strategies (Etscheidt,
2006). Once a behavior intervention plan has been implemented, the members of the
student’s behavior intervention team need to monitor and evaluate the student’s behavior to
determine whether the strategies of the BIP are effective in reducing or eliminating the
inappropriate behavior (Etscheidt, 2006; Maag & Katsiyannis, 2006).
Unfortunately, a number of barriers prevent the implementation and development of effective
BIPs for all students. Teachers need to change their perceptions of behavior and classroom
management plans; rather than one-size-fits-all, traditional hierarchies of rules and
consequences, these plans need to incorporate proactive, active, and reactive strategies of a
universal design for classroom management that meets the needs of all students.
Review Activities
1. Benjamin is having difficulty following directions in the classroom. When would
be the best time to develop a behavior intervention plan for him?
2. Mario, who is Hispanic and an English language learner, refuses to complete his
assignments. Who should be on his behavior intervention team, and why?
3. What components are missing from the following behavior objectives? Rewrite
each objective so that it includes the appropriate components.
• Kale demonstrates inappropriate behaviors in a small-group setting.
• Timothy will not fight during five out of seven conflict situations.
• When given instructions for worksheets by the teacher, LeVar will follow
instructions.
• Kim will not cheat.
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